Article

Bridging 1990 and 2000 Census Race Data: Fractional Assignment of Multiracial Populations

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

In contrast to previous censuses, Census 2000 permitted individuals to mark more than one race. Because the new race tables include both single-race and mixed-race categories, measuring change during the 1990s requires some method of bridging between the two data sets. To accomplish this bridging, we first identified biracial populations as of 1990 through the race and ancestry responses of individuals in the PUMS file. With race responses assumed to represent a person's primary race identity, we then determined the percentage of each biracial group that preferred each race as the primary identity. The same percentages can be used to assign biracial persons from Census 2000 into single-race categories. We also provide fractional assignment percentages for selected states and for the larger specific nationality groups of mixed-race Asians. Comparison of our 1990 estimates of the numbers in leading biracial groups with those reported in Census 2000 suggests that our fractional assignment values are reasonable for biracial groups other than those involving American Indians and Alaska Natives. For the latter biracial groups and for all groups representing three or more races, we recommend equal fractional assignment into the appropriate single-race categories.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... Fractional assignment promises to better meet this goal, although the identities of mixed race college students are not necessarily well represented by simple division (see Harris & Sim, 2002;Renn, 2000Renn, , 2003Renn, , 2004Rockquemore & Brunsma, 2002;Wallace, 2001). Allen and Turner (2001) offered strategies for fractional assignment based on 1990 census responses regarding ancestry. Allen and Turner's strategies hold promise for those institutions that want to engage in probabilistic fractional assignment when reporting aggregate data while representing, to the best extent possible, the identities of mixed-race respondents. ...
... As Allen and Turner (2001) indicated, there are a number of ways to assign the responses of mixed-race individuals to single categories that are acceptable under the OMB's Provisional Guidance (Tabulation Working Group, 2000). We are least comfortable with "whole assignment" models that call for unilateral assignment of all individuals with White and other racial heritage into the category of that other race. ...
... We support Allen and Turner's (2001) recommendations for "fractional assignment," although in responding to the individual's right to selfdetermination they interfere somewhat with the institution's need to have data that are readily analyzed by whole numbers. If institutions adopted an overlapping data collection process (e.g., collecting data with "old" and "new" questions for a few years), an institution-specific scheme for fractional assignment could be determined that would account for regional racial and ethnic history and trends in self-determination. ...
Article
Full-text available
In 1997, the Office of Management and Budget revised guidelines for treatment of racial and ethnic data, adding a requirement to allow respondents to indicate more than one race and mandating a change in all federal data collection and reporting by January 1, 2003. Nearly 2 years after the deadline for implementation, however, higher education institutions had not yet been required by the National Center for Education Statistics to make the change. This article discusses the policy context for collecting and reporting data on student race and ethnicity in higher education and challenges created by the addition of the multiple race option. This article describes the current status of postsecondary racial/ethnic data collection, predicts challenges in aggregating and bridging data, and makes recommendations for policy and practice.
... Fractional assignment promises to better meet this goal, although the identities of mixed race college students are not necessarily well represented by simple division (see Harris & Sim, 2002;Renn, 2000Renn, , 2003Renn, , 2004Rockquemore & Brunsma, 2002;Wallace, 2001). Allen and Turner (2001) offered strategies for fractional assignment based on 1990 census responses regarding ancestry. Allen and Turner's strategies hold promise for those institutions that want to engage in probabilistic fractional assignment when reporting aggregate data while representing, to the best extent possible, the identities of mixed-race respondents. ...
... As Allen and Turner (2001) indicated, there are a number of ways to assign the responses of mixed-race individuals to single categories that are acceptable under the OMB's Provisional Guidance (Tabulation Working Group, 2000). We are least comfortable with "whole assignment" models that call for unilateral assignment of all individuals with White and other racial heritage into the category of that other race. ...
... We support Allen and Turner's (2001) recommendations for "fractional assignment," although in responding to the individual's right to selfdetermination they interfere somewhat with the institution's need to have data that are readily analyzed by whole numbers. If institutions adopted an overlapping data collection process (e.g., collecting data with "old" and "new" questions for a few years), an institution-specific scheme for fractional assignment could be determined that would account for regional racial and ethnic history and trends in self-determination. ...
Article
This paper discusses the policy environment in which data on race and ethnicity of college applicants are collected through a history of the federal collection of racial data, the current status of racial data collection, and the processes that led to current and proposed data collection requirements. The impact of recent changes in reporting categories on institutional data collection is described as illustrated by data from a preliminary study of current and planned data collection at a national sample of institutions. In fall 2002, data were collected from 127 institutions. Institutions were categorized into 2 categories: those that used the 1997 Office of Management and Budget Directive (OMB) 15 racial categories, and those that have implemented the 1997 revisions (among other changes, allowing the option of choosing more than one racial category) or have further expanded broad categories. Ninety-eight percent of the institutions collected racial and ethnic data on their applications for admission, and only two schools, both Historically Black Colleges and Universities, did not collect racial/ethnic data. Sixty-two percent of institutions currently use the "old" categories, and only 17.3% of institutions offered students the option of marking more than one category for race/ethnicity. The paper discusses the implications for practice and future research. An appendix provides a timeline of events related to development and implementation of OMB Directive 15. (Contains 4 tables and 30 references.) (SLD)
... Literature analyzing this approach was not found except for one study that looked at fractional assignment to analyze trends in race across the United States from 1990 to 2000 (Allen & Turner, 2001). Prior to 2000 it is impossible to know the number of people who identified as Multiracial when using data from the USCB. ...
Article
A literature review focused on quantitative measures and methods regarding multiracial individuals and educational testing revealed that multiracial individuals are uniquely different than monoracial individuals in terms of their racial identity and these unique identities interact with test scores. Until recently, this uniqueness has been ignored by institutions and within the field of educational testing. The uniqueness of multiracial identity should be taken into consideration when using test measures to make decisions for selection and when comparing group outcomes. The review provides a brief picture regarding the history of categorization of multiracial individuals and current research which connects the multiracial experience to test score performance, followed by information on data collection, data coding, data analysis, implications, and recommendations. Suggested methods to address the methodological and analytical challenges of how to categorize multiracial individuals for purposes of group comparisons are challenging and frankly, unsatisfying. Yet, there are some clear recommendations such as allowing individuals to check as many racial/ethnic categories that apply to their identity versus forcing a choice of one race or using “Other” as an option. The limited research regarding multiracial individuals and educational tests supports the need for further research in this field.
... Fractional assignment using equal fractions has been previously shown to be a reasonable bridging method to link singleand multi-race responses across national US census waves. 17 An indicator reflecting reporting two or more racial/ethnic groups was also included in all models to account for the experiences of multiracial individuals as being distinct from those reporting a single race/ ethnicity. ...
Article
Introduction: Educational attainment is associated with late-life cognitive performance and dementia; few studies have examined diverse racial/ethnic groups to assess whether the association differs by race/ethnicity. Methods: We investigated whether the association between educational attainment and cognition differed between White, Black, Asian, and Latino participants in the Kaiser Healthy Aging and Diverse Life Experiences study (n=1348). Covariate-adjusted multivariable linear regression models examined domains of verbal episodic memory, semantic memory, and executive functioning. Results: We observed significant effect heterogeneity by race/ethnicity only for verbal episodic memory (P=0.0198), for which any schooling between high school and college was beneficial for White, Asian, and Black participants, but not Latino participants. We found no evidence of heterogeneity for semantic memory or executive function. Discussion: With the exception of Latino performance on verbal episodic memory, more education consistently predicted better cognitive scores to a similar extent across racial/ethnic groups, despite likely heterogenous educational and social experiences.
... More advanced methods use techniques such as fractional assignment (Allen and Turner 2001;Grieco 2002;Parker and Makuc 2002) and regression analysis (Ingram et al. 2003;Liebler and Halpern-Manners 2008) to predict to which single-race category each multiple-race respondent is most similar. Such predictive models include variables such as age, sex, and Hispanic origin as individual-level covariates and control for contextual factors such as region, urbanicity, and racial composition. ...
Article
There is a discord between the categorization of mixed‐race data in spatial studies, which has become more complex as the mixed‐race population increases. We offer an efficient, spatially based method for assigning mixed‐race respondents into single‐race categories. The present study examined diversity within 25 Metropolitan Statistical Areas in the United States to develop this racial bridging method. We identify prescriptions for each two‐race category based on average diversity experiences and similarity scores derived from census tract data. The results show the following category assignments: (1) Black–Asians to Black, (2) White–others to White, (3) Asian–others to Asian, (4) White–Blacks to other, (5) White–Asians to White (if Asian >3.0 percent), (6) White–Asians to Asian (if Asian <3.0 percent), (7) Black–Asians to other (if Black >8.5 percent), and (8) Black–Asians to Black (if Black <8.5 percent). We argue that the proposed method is appropriate for all race‐based studies using spatially relevant theoretical constructs such as segregation and gentrification.
... Since multiracial data are not available prior to 2000, presumably the only option is to aggregate multirace counts in some fashion to approximate pre-2000 racial and ethnic categories. For this study, Allen and Turner's (2001) technique of fractional assignment of biracial populations is used. Using data from the U.S. Census Public Use Microdata Samples (PUMS), Allen and Turner derived weights corresponding to primary race identification probabilities for persons identified as biracial. ...
Article
Full-text available
Dynamic racial and ethnic transitions are a critically important aspect of urban neighborhood social geography and demography, which receive little attention from urban analysts compared to static racial and ethnic patterns. To determine whether cluster analysis could bring analytic power to the study of neighborhood racial and ethnic change in multigroup context, we performed a case study of Los Angeles County during the period 1990 to 2000, using the prediction strength technique to determine empirically, rather than arbitrarily, how many clusters fit the data. Clustering identifies which combinations of the direction and magnitude of groups' local changes drive local trends across the region and, equally important, those that do not. The case study supports the conclusion that cluster analysis serves as a powerful data- mining technique for local racial and ethnic trends, and will yield satisfactory results for any
... The issue of 'mixed race' is only beginning to be addressed in official data and the wider sociological literature (Aspinall, 2003b;Ifekwunigwe, 2004), although methods of tabulating the population that were for the first time allowed to select more than one race in the US 2000 Census, including 'fractional assignment', have been the focus of much analytical attention (Allen and Turner, 2001). However, as US government representatives admit: 'important questions remain. ...
Article
Investigators from the fields of comparative social and epidemiological research have identified the need for an improved cross-national understanding of the concepts and terms relating to ethnicity and race. Suggestions have included the harmonization in surveys of variables like ethnicity and religion in a comparative European context and an internationally applicable and agreed glossary of terms relating to ethnicity and race. Pleas have been entered for work towards such goals, involving statistical offices and institutions in the European Union and bodies like the World Health Organization and International Epidemiological Association. This article examines how the conceptual bases of this terminology, issues of geographical specificity and the problem of which terms merit recognition impact on these goals. Different approaches to improving our understanding of this terminology in a cross-national context are explored. Given that the meanings of concepts and terms in the field of ethnicity and race invariably can only be understood in their national context of use–which is frequently layered, manifold, subtle and complex–an approach that explores the connotative reach of the different concepts and terms within this context is needed. Functional equivalence is more likely to be achieved by harmonization than the systematization of such knowledge through the economical form of a glossary of synthetic analytical terminology. However, given the socially and psychologically driven nature of ethnicity as a ‘global’ concept, harmonization may only be successful when limited to its multiple dimensions.
... A number of different approaches are currently being developed by researchers. Here we feature a creative method by James Allen and Eugene Turner (2001) that uses responses to ancestry questions in the 1990 census to infer what is the multiple racial background of each respondent. These multiple responses are then related to the one selection on the race question permitted in 1990, inferring what is the probability a person of a given racial ancestry would select a given racial identity. ...
... We are not alone in developing these connections. In recent research, Allen and Turner (1996) found that mixed-race couples in Los Angeles were more likely to live in neighborhoods outside of either group's geographical concentration than in them. Similarly, White and Sassler (2000) measured neighborhood attainment with a particular emphasis on mixed-race partnering using 1990 data. ...
Article
Full-text available
This review highlights geographical perspectives on mixed-race partnering and multiraciality in the United States, explicitly calling for increased analysis at the scale of the mixed-race household. We begin with a discussion of mixed-race rhetoric and then sketch contemporary trends in mixed-race partnering and multiraciality in the US. We also weave in considerations of the public and the private and the genealogical and social constructions of race. Our challenges to current thought add to the landscape of scholarship concerned with race and space. By presenting mixed race in fresh ways, we offer new sites for intervention in this evolving literature.
... To a great extent, the utility of the data for trend analyses will depend on how old and new data are linked. There have been multiple proposals for bridging old and new data (e.g., Allen & Turner, 2001; Grieco, 2002; Renn & Lunceford, 2004), including recommendations from the Office of Management and Budget (2000). NCES will permit states and educational institutions to create their own bridging plans to, for example, collapse the new race/ethnicity data collected under the two-question, five race, choose-all-that-apply format into the five old categories (Department of Education, 2006 ). ...
Article
This article describes local, state, and federal policies related to collecting, aggregating, and reporting data on student race and ethnicity in U.S. K-12 and postsecondary education. It traces data policy from the 1997 decision by the Office of Management and Budget to change from single-race reporting to a format that permits respondents to choose more than one race, to the October 2007 issuance of final guidance from the Department of Education. Taking a K-20 perspective, I consider how policies for data collection and reporting may affect educational and developmental outcomes for students, as well as local, state, and national education policy environments.
... Since multiracial data are not available prior to 2000, presumably the only option is to aggregate multirace counts in some fashion to approximate pre-2000 racial and ethnic categories. For this study, Allen and Turner's (2001) technique of fractional assignment of biracial populations is used. Using data from the 1990 U.S. Census Public Use Microdata Samples (PUMS), Allen and Turner derived weights corresponding to primary race identification probabilities for persons identified as biracial. ...
Article
The author notes the shortcomings of quantitative tools available for the analysis of local area transitions between subpopulation groups, particularly when compared to the power of methodologies available for the study of static segregation geographies. The author derives simple statistics for examining single-group, two-group, and multigroup subpopulation change and provides empirical examples of the properties and uses of these statistics. These measures of group change and transition are suitable for the continuous measurement and modeling of ecological outcomes in multi-group context. Statistics are also derived to measure aggregate regional unevenness in local subpopulation group change.
... The "equal fractional assignment" method, for instance, requires that each "Chinese and white" response be recoded into two categories, "Chinese" and "white," each with a weight of 0.5. Virtually all fractional assignment methods provide improved approximation to past racial distributions (Allen and Turner 2001;Grieco 2002;Heck et al. 2003;Lee 2001; Includes persons who only reported one race. ***Diff erence between multiracial and monoracial subgroups is statistically signifi cant at p < .001. ...
Article
Full-text available
Revised federal policies require that multiple-race responses be allowed in all federal data collection efforts, but many researchers find the multitude of race categories and variables very difficult to use. Important comparability issues also interfere with using multiple-race data in analyses of multiple data sets and/or several points in time. These difficulties have, in effect, discouraged the use of the new data on race. We present a practical method for incorporating multiple-race respondents into analyses that use public-use microdata. Our method is a modification of the regression method developed by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS), which uses multiple-race respondents' specific combination of races, as well as other individual-level and contextual characteristics, to predict the respondents 'preferred single race. In this paper we (1) apply the NCHS-generated regression coefficients to public-use microdata with limited geographic information; and (2) provide a downloadable computer program with which researchers can apply this practical and preferable method for including multiple-race respondents in a wide variety of analyses.
... Studies that describe the multiracial population and characterize the racial distribution of Hispanics include Farley (2002), Goldstein and Morning (2000), and Waldrop and Long (2002). In addition, an extensive literature has emerged on bridging methods that reassign multiple-race respondents to a single race category (Allen and Turner 2001;Grieco 2002;Lee 2001;OMB 2000;Tucker et al. 2002). These methods simplify the race taxonomy by eliminating multiple-race categories, and allow researchers to maintain a uniform race distribution across data collection regimes. ...
Article
Full-text available
The 1979 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth is among the few surveys to provide multiple reports on respondents’ race and ethnicity. Respondents were initially classified as Hispanic, black, or “other” on the basis of data collected during 1978 screener interviews. Respondents subsequently self-reported their “origin or descent” in 1979, and their race and Hispanic origin in 2002; the latter questions conform to the federal standards adopted in 1997 and used in the 2000 census. We use these data to (a) assess the size and nature of the multiracial population, (b) measure the degree of consistency among these alternative race-related variables, and (c) devise a number of alternative race/ethnicity taxonomies and determine which does the best job of explaining variation in log-wages. A key finding is that the explanatory power of race and ethnicity variables improves considerably when we cross-classify respondents by race and Hispanic origin. Little information is lost when multiracial respondents are assigned to one of their reported race categories because they make up only 1.3% of the sample. Copyright Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2007
Chapter
As activists and scholars look toward nationally representative surveys for quality data regarding gender and sexual minorities, it is important to understand how top-utilized social surveys may be reinforcing dominant gender and sexuality-based stereotypes through their language or survey structure. Using the Inter-university Consortium for Political and Social Research’s data on survey downloads and a focused survey of 300 social and health sciences faculty, we identified 18 top-utilized U.S. social surveys for our content analyses. For each wave of every survey, we identified and hand-coded language and practices that directly or indirectly referenced sex, gender, and/or sexual orientation within questionnaires. While the trend among surveys was toward the inclusion of sexual identity and/or two-step sex and gender measures, many surveys continue to exclude expansive gender and sexuality measures and essentialize sex and gender as interchangeable. We also identified three widespread practices that reinforce binary gender ideology, heteronormativity, and mononormativity: (1) assumptive language, (2) question or item omission, and (3) overtly biased priming and phrasing. Documenting how top-utilized social surveys rely on, and potentially reinforce, marginalizing gender and heteronormative assumptions is essential to begin establishing more inclusive survey practices that yield high-quality, accurate data regarding gender and sexual minority populations.KeywordsSexual orientation measurementGender measurementIntersex measurementSOGI
Article
This purpose of this study was to explore the differences between mixed and single race students in the factors that contribute to an interpersonal self-concept. The data in this study are drawn from a national longitudinal survey, Your First College Year (YFCY), from 2004-2005 and include mixed race Black and Asian students and their single race Black and Asian peers to explore interpersonal self-concept. The results suggest that mixed and single race Asian and Black students have different pre-college and first year experiences, but only mixed race Black students were found to develop a significantly higher interpersonal self-concept after their first-year than their single race peers. Most importantly for mixed and single race students are their interactions with diverse peers. For all groups, both negative and positive interactions based on race within the college environment directly impact interpersonal self-concept. First-year college experiences (Positive Ethnic/Racial Relations, Racial Interactions of a Negative Quality, Leadership Orientation, Sense of Belonging, Campus Racial Climate, Self-Assessed Cognitive Development) were the most significant contributors to the development of an interpersonal self-concept in comparison to pre-college experiences. The findings in this study expand the literature on multiracial college students and provide empirical evidence to support institutional practices that aim to promote a positive interpersonal self-concept in the first college year.
Article
Creating dot maps to show changes in racial and Hispanic population distributions between two census periods can be an effective way to examine one of the most important dimensions of change within any metropolitan area. Using dots of one color to show population increase and dots of a second color to show population decrease vividly reveals where changes have occurred within a larger total population. We prepared such maps for the book Changing Faces, Changing Places: Mapping Southern Californians, the text of which analyzes and interprets the population shifts evident on the maps. The maps show the expansion and contraction of racial and Hispanic populations in specific neighborhoods so that community leaders and residents alike can easily relate general trends to their localities. In this article we describe the preparation of these dot maps and explain major problems encountered in linking the 1990 and 2000 census population counts at the tract level. We explain our solutions, which we believe made possible more accurate mapping of neighborhood change.
Article
The error of closure in the 2000 census, or the difference between estimated and enumerated populations, poses special problems for public agencies that rely on census data. Nationally and at the state level, populations were only slightly underestimated, but underestimations were high in rapidly growing counties in the South and intermontaine West, as well as in New York City. Race-specific estimates proved far less reliable, with severe overestimates and underestimates of all racial groups in various counties nationwide. We offer explanations for the estimation error and discuss its impact on cancer rates and trends and its implications for cancer surveillance research.
Article
Full-text available
In this paper we highlight issues related to measuring ethnicity and ethnic identity. We base our discussion on an extensive review of the literature and an intensive consultation process undertaken as part of the development of the ethnicity focused strand of a major new UK panel study, Understanding Society. We conclude that ethnic identity is a multi-dimensional concept and its ideal measure would have to be consistent, reliable as well as capture people's perception of their own ethnic identity. One way forward is to design a multiple response question with different dimensions of ethnicity as response options.
Article
This article examines the relationship between a categorical, box-checking race classification system and the diversity-based, higher education affirmative action regime approved by the Supreme Court. It concludes that the two systems are inconsistent: the mere act of checking a box does not indicate anything about the diversity that an applicant might or might not bring to a school.Moreover, the article concludes that box-checking classifications systems are inconsistent with multiracial identity itself. Sociological research collected in the article suggests that multiracial identity is fluid and nuanced; it cannot be captured by the mere act of checking a box on a form. Forcing multiracial applicants to describe their racial identity in this way is both tyrannical, and, ultimately, inaccurate.
Article
Full-text available
In this paper we highlight issues related to measuring ethnicity and ethnic identity. We base our discussion on an extensive review of the literature and an intensive consultation process undertaken as part of the development of the ethnicity focused strand of a major new UK panel study, Understanding Society. We conclude that ethnic identity is a multi-dimensional concept and its ideal measure would have to be consistent, reliable as well as capture peopleÂ’s perception of their own ethnic identity. One way forward is to design a multiple response question with different dimensions of ethnicity as response options.
Article
Public health agencies have identified the elimination of health disparities as a major policy objective. The primary objective of this study is to assess changes in the association between education and premature adult mortality in Wisconsin, 1990-2000. Wisconsin death records (numerators) and US Census data (denominators) were compiled to estimate mortality rates among adults (25-64 years) in 1990 and 2000. Information on the educational status, sex, racial identification, and age of subjects was gathered from these sources. The effect of education on mortality rate ratios in 1990 and 2000 was assessed while adjusting for age, sex, and racial identification. Education exhibited a graded effect on mortality rates, which declined most among college graduates from 1990 to 2000. The relative rate of mortality among persons with less than a high school education compared to persons with a college degree increased from 2.4 to 3.1 from 1990-2000-an increase of 29%. Mortality disparities also increased, although to a lesser extent, among other educational groups. Despite renewed calls for the elimination of health disparities, evidence suggests that educational disparities in mortality increased from 1990 to 2000.
Article
Public health agencies have identified the elimination of health disparities as a major policy objective. The main goals of this study were to assess the magnitude of racial/ethnic disparities in rates of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS) incidence in the metropolitan statistical area of Milwaukee, Wis, and determine how those disparities have changed over the period 1990-2000. Incidence rates were calculated using data from the AIDS Public Information Data Set (numerators) and US Census Bureau (denominators). Rates of AIDS incidence were produced for broad demographic groups (eg, Hispanics) in Milwaukee. In addition, age-standardized incidence rates were produced for groups defined by age, sex, and race/ethnicity, permitting careful examination of trends in racial/ethnic disparities. In Milwaukee's general population, AIDS incidence dropped from 7.6 per 100,000 in 1990 to 6.4 per 100,000 in 2000--a decline of over 15%. AIDS incidence rates also dropped for Hispanics (-41.0%) and non-Hispanic whites (-52.1%), but climbed among non-Hispanic blacks (51.1%). Disparities in AIDS incidence between non-Hispanic blacks and non-Hispanic whites increased between 136% (young adult males) and 428% (young adult females) over the period. Despite progress in reducing rates of AIDS incidence in Milwaukee's general population, racial/ethnic disparities widened substantially between 1990 and 2000.
Article
Full-text available
On the U.S. census form American citizens told they may list any ethnic ancestries with which they identify, but are instructed to "mark one only" in the question on race. Joel Perlmann asserts that it is in the public interest to allow people to declare themselves as having origins in more than one race. To do otherwise is to deny that interracial marriages exist. This denial distorts our understanding of race data whether we are discussing projections of the composition of the American population or the definition of racial and minority status involved in discrimination legislation, affirmative action, and hiring and firing practices. If racial barriers are to be broken down, racial intermarriage should be treated in the same way any other form of ethnic intermarriage is treated, while ensuring that civil rights legislation, which rests on racial classification and counts, is not hobbled by ambiguities.
Article
Maps showing the geographical distribution of 44 ethnic and racial groups in the United States are presented. Maps are also included showing internal migration by ethnic group and refugee settlement the distribution of ethnic groups in 1920 and the distribution of the North American Indian population. Data are primarily from the 1980 census. Statistical data are also presented in tabular form concerning the population of each U.S. county by ethnic group for 1980. (ANNOTATION)
Article
Foreword Michael Omi Acknowledgments Introduction: Reconfiguring Race, Rearticulating Ethnicity Teresa Williams-Leon and Cynthia L. Nakashima Part I: Multiraciality and Asian America: Bridging the Hybrid Past to the Multiracial Present 1. Who Is an Asian? Who Is a Pacific Islander? Monoracialism, Multiracial People, and Asian American Communities Paul Spickard 2. Possibilities of a Multiracial Asian America Yen Le Espiritu 3. Servants of Culture: The Symbolic Role of Mixed-Race Asians in American Discourse Cynthia L. Nakashima 4. "The Coming of the Neo-Hawaiian American Race": Nationalism and Metaphors of the Melting Pot in Popular Accounts of Mixed-Race Individuals John Chock Rosa Part II: Navigating Sociocultural Terrains of Family and Identity 5. Factors Influencing the Variation in Racial and Ethnic Identity of Mixed-Heritage Persons of Asian Ancestry Maria P. P. Root 6. Alaska's Multiracial Asian American Families: Not Just at the Margins Curtiss Takada Rooks 7. The Diversity of Biracial Individuals: Asian-White and Asian-Minority Biracial Identity Christine C. Iikima Hall and Trude I. Cooke Turner 8. Black, Japanese, and American: An Asian American Identity Yesterday and Today Michael C. Thornton and Harold Gates Part III: Remapping Political Landscapes and Communities 9. A Rose by Any Other Name: Names, Multiracial/Multiethnic People, and the Politics of Identity Daniel A. Nakashima 10. Multiracial Comedy as a Commodity in Hawaii Darby Li Po Price 11. Doing the Mixed-Race Dance: Negotiating Social Spaces Within the Multiracial Vietnamese American Class Typology Kieu Linh Caroline Valverde 12. The Convergence of Passing Zones: Multiracial Gays, Lesbians, and Bisexuals of Asian Descent Teresa Williams-Leon 13. Mirror, Mirror, on the Wall: Mapping Discussions of Feminism, Race, and Beauty in Japanese American Beauty Pageants Rebecca Chiyoko King 14. Mixed but Not Matched: Multiracial People and the Organization of Health Knowledge Cathy J. Tashiro Part IV: Asian-Descent Multiraciality in Global Perspective 15. "We Paved the Way": Exemplary Spaces and Mixed Race in Britain David Parker 16. A Dutch Eurasian Revival? Mark Taylor Brinsfield 17. Multiethnic Lives and Monoethnic Myths: American-Japanese Amerasians in Japan Stephen Murphy-Shigematsu 18. The Racial Politics of Being Dogla and of "Asian" Descent in Suriname Loraine Y. Van Tuyl 19. The Tiger and His Stripes: Thai and American Reactions to Tiger Woods's (Multi-) "Racial Self" Jan R. Weisman Bibliography About the Contributors
Article
This article examines the socioeconomic and demographic correlates that are associated with whether biracial children with an Asian parent are racially identified with their Asian parent or with their non-Asian parent. With data extracted from the 5-percent Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS) of the 1990 census, we take into account explanatory variables at three levels: the child's characteristics, the parents' characteristics, and the locale's racial composition. Our results indicate that the racial identification of biracial children with an Asian parent is to a large extent an arbitrary option within today's prevailing racial classification scheme. We find empirical evidence in support of the theoretical proposition that both assimilation and awareness of Asian heritage affect the racial identification of biracial children with an Asian parent.
Article
Although black/white intermarriage was a prominent indicator of race relations in the 1960s and early 1970s, the topic seems to have been low on the academic agenda during the 1980s. Many studies are currently being on done on black/white differences in income, employment, education, and residence, but there is insufficient recent information on intermarriage. To fill in this gap, I examine annual marriage license data for 33 states from 1968 to 1986 to assess how the role of the black/white color line in marriage choice has changed. The analyses generally show that black/white intermarriage has increased rapidly since the U.S. Supreme Court lifted the legal ban on intermarriage. I further show that this trend is especially pronounced among black males and that the status characteristics of these marriages have remained traditional in the sense that intermarriage still occurs primarily when the white woman marries up in socioeconomic status. In my conclusion, I offer several interpretations of why the link between status and interracial marriage persists, and discuss what this implies for the nature of racial differentiation in contemporary American society.
Article
America has been the breeding ground of a "biracial baby boom" for the past 25 years. Unfortunately, there has been a dearth of information regarding how racially mixed people identify and view themselves and how they relate to one another. "Racially Mixed People in America" steadily bridges this gap, and offers a comprehensive look at the social and psychological adjustment of multiracial people, models for identity development, contemporary immigration and marriage patterns, and methodological issues involved in conducting research with mixed-race people, all in the context of America's multiracial past and present. Including contributions by ethnohistorians, psychologists, and sociologists, this powerful volume will provide the reader a tool for examining ideologies surrounding race, race relations, and the role of social science in the deconstruction of race. "Racially Mixed People in America" is essential reading for researchers and practitioners in cross-cultural studies, psychology, family studies, sociology, and social work. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
Using PUMS data from the 1980 and the 1990 U.S. Census, I apply log-linear models to examine interracial marriage among whites, African Americans, Hispanics, and Asian Americans. Rarely, but increasingly between 1980 and 1990, interracial marriage of whites occurs most frequently with Asian Americans, followed by Hispanics, and then by African Americans. Interracial marriage tends to be educationally homogamous and the odds of interracial marriage increase with couples' educational attainment. Among interracially married couples with different educational attainments, both men and women from lower status racial groups but with high education levels tend to marry spouses from a higher status racial group with low education levels.
Article
We use data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health to examine patterns of racial classification among multiracial populations. The dataset's large sample size and numerous indicators of race allow us to make generalizable claims about the extent to which race is socially constructed, and the processes by which this construction occurs. We find that about 12 percent of youth provide inconsistent responses to nearly identical race questions, that context and age affect one's choice of a single-race identity, that self-reports of race sometimes differ substantially from observers' perceptions, and that nearly all patterns and processes of racial classification depend on which combination of racial groups is involved. We close by suggesting how insights into the social construction of race might be used to improve racial classification systems. The 2000 Census marked a fundamental change in how we measure race in the United States. Rather than insist that every person ...
We the people: An atlas of America's ethnic diversity Racial classification issues con-cerning children in mixed-race households. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America
  • J P Allen
  • E J Turner
  • Macmillan
  • C E Bennett
  • N R Mckenney
  • R J K Harrison
  • K Supple
  • C M Snipp
Allen, J. P. & Turner, E. J. (1988), We the people: An atlas of America's ethnic diversity. New York: Macmillan. Bennett, C. E., McKenney, N. R. & Harrison, R. J. (1995), Racial classification issues con-cerning children in mixed-race households. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America, San Francisco, April. Eschbach, K., Supple, K. & Snipp, C. M. (1998), Changes in racial identification and the educational attainment of American Indians, 1970–1990, Demography 35: 35–43.
Back in the box: The dilemma of using multiple-race data for single-race laws. Revision of paper presented at conference on Multiraciality, Bard College An empirical look at the social construction of race: The case of multiracial adolescents
  • J R Goldstein
  • A J Morning
  • D R Harris
  • J Sim
Goldstein, J. R. & Morning, A. J. (2001), Back in the box: The dilemma of using multiple-race data for single-race laws. Revision of paper presented at conference on Multiraciality, Bard College, September 2000. Available at http://opr.princeton.edu/∼josh/ Harris, D. R. & Sim, J. (2000), An empirical look at the social construction of race: The case of multiracial adolescents. Research Report No. 00-452, Population Studies Center, University of Michigan. Available at http://www.psc.isr.umich.edu/pubs Kalmijn, M. (1993), Trends in black/white intermarriage, Social Forces 72: 119–146.
Interracial married couples: 1960 to present, Internet web site Overview of race and Hispanic origin: Census
  • U S Bureau
U.S. Census Bureau. 1993. 1990 census of population, social and economic characteristics, United States (CP-2-1), Washington: U.S. Government Printing Office. U.S. Census Bureau. (1999), Interracial married couples: 1960 to present, Internet web site, MS-3 (January 1999), U.S. Census Bureau. (2001), Overview of race and Hispanic origin: Census 2000 brief. CENBR/01-1. March. Available at the web site http://www.census.gov/prod/2001pubs/cenbr01-01.pdf U.S. Office of Management and Budget. (1997), Revisions to the standards for the classifica-tion of federal data on race and ethnicity, Announcement, October 30. U.S. Office of Management and Budget. (2000a), Guidance on aggregation and allocation of data on race for use in civil rights monitoring and enforcement. Bulletin No.00-02. March
Half and half: Writers on growing up biracial and bicultural
  • O ' Hearn
The growing American Indian population, 1960-1990: Beyond demography Changing numbers, changing needs: American Indian demography and public health
  • J S Passel
Racial classification issues concerning children in mixed-race households. Paper presented at the Annual Meeting of the Population Association of America
  • C E Bennett
  • N R Mckenney
  • R J Harrison
Back in the box: The dilemma of using multiplerace data for single-race laws. Revision of paper presented at conference onMultiraciality, Bard College
  • J R Goldstein
  • A J Morning
Beyond pluralism: The conception of groups and group identities in America
  • M C Waters