No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Assessing the Importance of Natural Behavior for Animal Welfare
Abstract
The concept of natural behavior is a key element in current Dutch policy-making on animal welfare. It emphasizes that animals
need positive experiences, in addition to minimized suffering. This paper interprets the concept of natural behavior in the
context of the scientific framework for welfare assessment. Natural behavior may be defined as behavior that animals have
a tendency to exhibit under natural conditions, because these behaviors are pleasurable and promote biological functioning.
Animal welfare is the quality of life as perceived by the animal. Animals have evolved cognitive-emotional systems (“welfare
needs”) to deal with a variable environment. Animals do not only have so-called physiological needs such as the need for food,
water, and thermal comfort. They also need to exercise certain natural behaviors such as rooting or nest-building in pigs,
and scratching or dust-bathing in poultry. All needs must be taken into account in order to assess overall welfare. The degree
of need satisfaction and frustration can be assessed from scientific information about the intensity, duration, and incidence
of (welfare) performance criteria such as measurements of behavior and/or (patho)physiology. Positive welfare value relates
to how animals are inclined to behave under natural conditions, in preference tests, and in consumer-demand studies. Negative
welfare value relates to stress, frustration, abnormal behavior, aggression, and reduced fitness. Examples are given to illustrate
how the need to perform natural behaviors can be assessed following the general principles for welfare assessment, providing
a first approximation of how different natural behaviors affect animal welfare.
... Behavioural indicators were subcategorised into natural and abnormal behaviours. There is a collection of several natural behaviours that may be used to infer a positive affective state [158]. Natural exploratory behaviours such as foraging, sniffing, burrowing, play, object manipulation/approach, resting, laying down, and social interactions such as mutual grooming. ...
... The use of a few incorrectly chosen indicators can be misleading, and welfare compromise can exist in the absence of behavioural, physiological, or physical changes [146]. Additionally, some behaviours, such as mating, may be life-stage or time-sensitive specific and should (or can) only be assessed at specific times [158]. ...
... Indicators can be scored and recorded via a binary or numerical system. In the case of the binary system, a simple "yes" or "no" is recorded to denote the presence or absence of an indicator [158]. This type of scoring system is simple yet effective when more detailed information or scaled data is not required. ...
The monitoring and assessment of animals is important for their health and welfare. The appropriate selection of multiple, validated, and feasible welfare assessment indicators is required to effectively identify compromises or improvements to animal welfare. Animal welfare indicators can be animal or resource based. Indicators can be collated to form assessment tools (e.g., grimace scales) or animal welfare assessment models (e.g., 5 Domains) and frameworks (e.g., 5 Freedoms). The literature contains a wide variety of indicators, with both types needed for effective animal welfare assessment; however, there is yet to be an ideal constellation of indicators for animal-based welfare assessment in small mammals such as guinea pigs (Cavia Porcellus), mice (Mus musculus), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), and rats (Rattus norvegicus). A systematic review of grey and peer-reviewed literature was performed to determine the types of animal-based welfare indicators available to identify and assess animal health and welfare in these small mammals maintained across a wide variety of conditions. The available indicators were categorised and scored against a selection of criteria, including potential ease of use and costs. This review and analysis aim to provide the basis for further research into animal welfare indicators for these species. Future applications of this work may include improvements to animal welfare assessments or schemes, guiding better management, and implementing future strategies to enable better animal welfare.
... An animal's "agenda" is motivated by survival (needs): survival in the habitat they are genetically predisposed to exist in, with specific behaviors relating to finding sustenance and seeking mates for reproduction to pass on their genes. An animal's agenda is also motivated by positive outcomes (rewards) or experiences that result in pleasure (wants) and promote biological functioning [36,37]. ...
... When animals under human care inhabit environments with a decreased level of complexity or range of opportunities for natural behavioral diversity, they often experience chronic stress. As discussed in Bracke and Hopster's [36] paper regarding the importance of natural behavior, it is important to provide opportunities that are "expected" by the animal, as their welfare is reflected by the state of their cognitive-emotional motivation systems. In the Istwerte-Sollwerte model that Bracke and Hopster [36] present (modified after Wiepkema's model [43]), a mismatch between what an animal perceives to be (Istwerte) and what an animal "wants" (Sollwerte) leads to stress and frustration. ...
... As discussed in Bracke and Hopster's [36] paper regarding the importance of natural behavior, it is important to provide opportunities that are "expected" by the animal, as their welfare is reflected by the state of their cognitive-emotional motivation systems. In the Istwerte-Sollwerte model that Bracke and Hopster [36] present (modified after Wiepkema's model [43]), a mismatch between what an animal perceives to be (Istwerte) and what an animal "wants" (Sollwerte) leads to stress and frustration. Conversely, a match between what is and what is wanted results in satisfaction and positive emotion. ...
This communication discusses the Bear Care Group’s “behavior-based” enrichment philosophy, focusing on the importance of enrichment programs built on the knowledge of species’ natural histories, living strategies, and observed daily and seasonal routines. Methods for program development are discussed, detailing the benefits to animal wellbeing, including the reduction of chronic stress and frustration that lead to abnormal or stereotypical behaviors. The concepts are illustrated through a discussion of bear natural history and living strategies, but these methods are applicable to a wide range of taxa. The Bear Care Group encourages facilities to consider behavior-based enrichment programs to promote positive welfare for their animals.
... This is the widespread reliance on 'natural behaviour', as a way of assessing animal welfare. 'Natural behaviour' is commonly defined as behaviour shown by animals living where their ancestors evolved or at least in man-made environments that allow them similar freedom of movement [5,6]. The welfare of more confined members of the same species -such as those living in zoos, farms or in peoples' homes -is then judged by the extent to which they, too, are able to show this natural behaviour. ...
... Despite the many scientific criticisms that have been levelled at the idea of linking natural behaviour to animal welfare e.g., [5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15], natural behaviour is now widely used as a welfare metric outside science, particularly by people in the food industry responsible for company animal welfare policies. The ability to perform natural behaviour is made explicit in the sustainability and ethical goals of many food producers, food retailers and outlets across the world. ...
... Natural behaviour, taken on its own, is thus a very unreliable indicator of the welfare state of the animal. Without additional evidence of what happens if a particular behaviour does not occur, it is impossible to establish a convincing link to welfare because natural behaviour on its own lacks the most essential indication of welfare-whether performance or non-performance of a behaviour actually matters to the animal [5,48]. ...
Despite the many scientific objections that have been raise to it, ‘natural behaviour’ is widely used as an indication of good welfare by the food industry. The supposed link between welfare and natural behaviour derives, however, from a now outdated view of animals becoming frustrated if they cannot perform their natural instinctive behaviour. On the 60th anniversary of its publication, Niko Tinbergens’ Four Questions framework is used to show why there is no necessary link between natural behaviour and welfare and why, therefore, reliance on natural behaviour in commercial farming may not result in the claimed improvements in welfare. Used on its own without supporting evidence, ‘natural behaviour’ lacks the most essential criterion for good welfare—whether it matters to the animals themselves. There are now a number of well-established methods for demonstrating what animals value, including choice tests and, particularly, what animals will work and pay a cost to obtain. Some of the evidence on what animals value is already available in published papers but some will require collaborative research between scientists and commercial farming to find practical and commercially viable ways of providing animals with what they value.
... The consumer has awareness and sensitivity towards the issue of animal welfare. The greater awareness of consumers regarding animal welfare on farms, in pig farms, in fact represents a great potential to attract demand in the livestock market [55][56][57][58]. ...
... Although some studies on this topic have shown that the perception of consumers regarding animal welfare does vary significantly according to socio-demographic variables [53][54][55][56][57][58][59][60][61][62], our results contradict this trend. ...
In Italy, the consumption of pork meat is increasing, despite consumers’ attitudes being addressed toward a greater sensitivity about animal welfare and its link with safe food. Considering the relatively high animal welfare standards and the divergence in public interest in farm animal welfare and ethical issues, the objective of this study—in continuation of our previous paper relating to consumer behavior and preferences in welfare-friendly pork breeding—was to investigate habits of pork consumers regarding pig welfare, principally evaluating their willingness to pay (WTP) a higher price for pork obtained using raising techniques with an approach based on animal welfare. An ad hoc questionnaire-based survey was submitted to consumers (n = 404) in Messina province, Italy. Results suggest that 47% of consumers were willing to pay an additional price for pork from farms that apply specific animal welfare standards. Positive correlations were between WTP and farming techniques (p = 0.001), organic farming methods (p = 0.001), and farms in which animal welfare is taken care of and guaranteed (p < 0.001). These findings suggest that consumers intend to pay a higher price for pork, like other animal products obtained using animal-friendly raising techniques. The sensitivity to the animal welfare of a single human being may influence consumers’ attitudes toward pork consumption.
... The ethogram was designed to include most of the behavioral repertoire of giant pandas, covering behaviors that indicate positive, neutral, and negative affective states (Table A1). The valences were based on principles that convey the importance of displaying natural behaviors at levels that are conducive to positive welfare [7,48]. Therefore, negative behaviors would be abnormal behaviors, behaviors displayed out of frustration, or high levels of aggression. ...
... Therefore, negative behaviors would be abnormal behaviors, behaviors displayed out of frustration, or high levels of aggression. Positive behaviors are those known to be associated with positive affective states like play, investigation, sexual-related behaviors [49], or natural behaviors that would be performed under natural conditions because they are pleasurable and promote biological functioning [48]. We defined neutral behaviors as those related to maintenance, which are highly dependent on the context and levels at which they are displayed to be considered positive or negative like urinating/defecating, rest/sleep, and locomotion. ...
Circadian and circannual cycles of behavior regulate many aspects of welfare including metabolism, breeding, and behavioral interactions. In this study, we aim to demonstrate how systematically determining circadian and circannual cycles can provide insight into animals’ needs and be part of an evidence-based approach to welfare assessment. We measured and analyzed the observational behavioral data of 13 zoo-housed giant pandas (Ailuropoda melanoleuca), across life stages and between sexes, each month for one year using live camera footage from six zoos across the world. Our results indicate that life stage was associated with changes in overall activity, feeding, locomotion, and pacing, and that sex influenced scent anointing and anogenital rubbing. Overall, the circadian rhythms showed three peaks of activity, including a nocturnal peak, as seen in wild giant pandas. We also found associations between sexual-related, stereotypical/abnormal, and feeding behavior, which are possibly linked to the timing of migration of wild pandas, and elucidated the relationship between a mother and cub, finding that they concentrate maternal behaviors to mainly after closing hours. Understanding these cycle patterns can aid animal care staff in predicting changing needs throughout the day, year, and life cycle and preemptively provide for those needs to best avoid welfare concerns.
... Associations between environmental factors and stress are well established in broiler chickens, for whom barren housing conditions [3][4][5][6][7][8], high stocking densities [9-17] and excessive heat [18] may cause acute and chronic physical or emotional distress. For example, barren housing conditions can lead to negative affective states, reduced frequencies of natural behaviors such as perching or dustbathing, and frustration and boredom [19][20][21][22]. High stocking density can lead to decreased foot and leg health [9,11,13,16,23,24], frustration and boredom [19,20], and increased acute distress, which is reflected in increased concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids and heat shock protein 70 [25,26]. ...
... For example, barren housing conditions can lead to negative affective states, reduced frequencies of natural behaviors such as perching or dustbathing, and frustration and boredom [19][20][21][22]. High stocking density can lead to decreased foot and leg health [9,11,13,16,23,24], frustration and boredom [19,20], and increased acute distress, which is reflected in increased concentrations of circulating glucocorticoids and heat shock protein 70 [25,26]. ...
Commercial housing conditions may contribute to chronic negative stress in broiler chickens, reducing their animal welfare. The objective of this study was to determine how secretory (fecal) and plasma immunoglobulin-A (IgA) levels in fast-growing broilers respond to positive and negative housing conditions. In three replicated experiments, male Ross 708 broilers (n = 1650/experiment) were housed in a 2 × 2 factorial study of high or low environmental complexity and high or low stocking density. In experiments 1 and 3 but not in experiment 2, high complexity tended to positively impact day 48 plasma IgA concentrations. When three experiments were combined, high complexity positively impacted day 48 plasma IgA concentrations. Stocking density and the complexity × density interaction did not impact day 48 plasma IgA concentrations. Environmental complexity and the complexity × density interaction did not impact day 48 secretory IgA concentrations. A high stocking density negatively impacted day 48 secretory IgA concentrations overall but not in individual experiments. These results suggest that environmental complexity decreased chronic stress, while a high stocking density increased chronic stress. Thus, plasma IgA levels increased under high-complexity housing conditions (at day 48), and secretory IgA levels (at day 48) decreased under high-density conditions, suggesting that chronic stress differed among treatments. Therefore, these measures may be useful for quantifying chronic stress but only if the statistical power is high. Future research should replicate these findings under similar and different housing conditions to confirm the suitability of IgA as a measure of chronic stress in broiler chickens.
... Previous knowledge of broiler behavior is a way to identify stressful situations that might affect the productive performance and well-being of broiler chickens (Bracke and Hopster, 2006). The change in behavior is one of the first responses in the occurrence of stress and can be identified using video cameras. ...
... The importance of evaluating the behavior of broiler chickens shows that the higher the repertoire of behaviors performed by the birds, the greater the indicative of the birds being in a better condition of well-being . The higher the intensity, duration and incidence of a known behavior, the better indication we might have of the bird welfare status (Bracke and Hopster, 2006). Although broilers can adapt the behavior to the variations of the thermal rearing environment, the exposure a large fluctuation in the temperature of the internal environment is not recommended (Quinteiro-Filho et al., 2010). ...
This Proceedings of International Symposium on Animal Environment and Welfare (ISAEW2019) publishes 51 research and review papers. These papers cover various interesting subject matters with cutting-edge research findings and improved understanding of the issues associated with animal production environment and animal welfare in Asia, Europe, and North and South Americas. The papers were prepared by the authors (and co-authors) from research institutions in various areas, state academies and key laboratories, animal production companies, animal research and monitoring centers, and universities in 13 countries (i.e., Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, China, Denmark, Germany, Italy, Poland, Republic of Korea, The Netherlands, Turkey, and USA).
... 27 Therefore, an increase in grooming may be a sign of decreased stress, as an increase in display of natural behavior is interpreted this way when assessing animal welfare. 43 Another interpretation is that grooming is a response to a moderately stressful event, such as transport or a novel environment, and an increase in grooming behavior may be a stress response. 27,42 Grooming can also develop into an abnormal repetitive behavior, indicating stress or boredom in many animals, including rabbits. ...
OBJECTIVE
To evaluate rabbit behavioral responses and activity after gabapentin administration.
METHODS
In this study, 5 intact female and 3 intact male New Zealand white rabbits aged 8 to 12 months were administered a single oral 25-mg/kg dose of gabapentin. This study was conducted from December 2020 to February 2021. Effects on individual behavior, posture, and motor activity were evaluated with ANY-maze software (video tracking system) and ethograms. Rabbits were assessed 2 hours after gabapentin administration. Rabbits were acclimated to the assessment pen for 3 days prior to testing, and baseline measurements (control) were assessed 1 day prior to the first gabapentin administration. Treatment was performed 3 times daily, with each rabbit given gabapentin once a day for morning, midday, and late afternoon doses. Treatments were repeated with a 1-week interval period in between until all rabbits had received dosing at all 3 time periods. Data were analyzed as continuous with a linear mixed model.
RESULTS
There was a significant increase in frolicking behavior and significant decrease in observing behavior between baseline and after gabapentin administration. There was no significant change in other rabbit behaviors, postures, or motor patterns.
CONCLUSIONS
Results indicated that oral gabapentin at 25 mg/kg increased play (frolicking) and decreased vigilance (observing) behaviors without significantly affecting motor patterns, suggesting that this dose reduced stress-associated behaviors without causing excessive sedation.
CLINICAL RELEVANCE
Oral gabapentin appears to reduce fear and anxiety in rabbits in a controlled environment. This shows promise for its ability to reduce stress with veterinary visits, transport, and other stressful events.
... Preclinical trials and animal bioethics using animal models for human disease as animal biomodels can be discussed together in the science of animal biomodels, which is a new university subject for the future development of the animal life industry. The contents of animal bioethics may include the definition of life, origin of life, crisis of life, morals and ethics, animal stress, animal health and diseases, scientific research (paper creation), livestock and pet ethics, production of animal biomodels and ethical dilemmas that occur in animal testing (Marie et al., 2005;Bracke and Hopster, 2006;Broom, 2007;Fraser, 2008;Wolfe, 2010;Mellor, 2016;Gygax, 2017;Simmonds, 2018;Jankoski and Fischer, 2019). The emergence of animal bioethics in bioethics solves continuous and rigid moral issues related to the lives of animals, not humans, and their effects (Marie et al., 2005;Gordan 2012;Park, 2022). ...
As human lifespan increase, interest in human health and the digital livestock system is also increasing. Therefore, it is necessary to converge the digital livestock system and animal biomodels. In the fourth industrial revolution, animal biomodels and the digital livestock system as algorithms in agriculture are emerging rapid evolution by converging enovation technologies in fields of bio-healthcare, biomedical research, and life science. Animal biomodels have been used as important foundational tools to transit screening processes and clinical trials for useful substances and potential drugs in human and animal life science. Animal biomodels for studying human and animal diseases have enabled medical innovation and derived numerous outcomes such as vaccines. It is very important to choose appropriate animal biomodels in clinical studies. When selecting experimental animals for human and animal diseases, some parameters should be kept in mind. Convergence of the digital livestock system with animal biomodel can help us greatly solve human and animal health diseases and welfare issues. It enables prevention of human diseases and vaccine development for emerging infectious diseases by applying appropriate animal biomodels, thus contributing to the development of bio-healthcare industry. Animal biomodels are in vivo models for determining mechanisms of life phenomena and diseases progression. They can also be used to evaluate the safety, effectiveness, new cosmetic materials, and action mechanisms of functional materials and foods. Animal experiments using animal biomodels must be based on ethical considerations. Animal biomodels can be produced through drugs, diet, surgical procedures, spontaneous mutation, crossbreeding, biotechnology such as transformation and genetic manipulation, and so on. In this paper, preemptive response strategies for the development of livestock and biomedical industry of the future are reviewed through understanding the importance of animal biomodels and the digital livestock system as agriculture algorithms. Animal models for studying mechanisms of diseases in human, livestock, and birds, in ovo technology for poultry, preparation theories, animal bioethics, and practical cases are also explained. Keywords: Digital livestock system, biomodels, clinical trial, animal bioehtics, agriculture algorithms
... Deprivation of the possibility to perform natural behaviour has been recognised by several welfare concepts as a factor leading to poor welfare (Dawkins 1988;Bracke & Hopster 2006). However, the often-stated view that natural behaviour is an important aspect of welfare has also been criticised (e.g. ...
A wide range of animal taxa, including vertebrates and invertebrates, are controlled or kept by humans. They may be used as pets, for recreation, sport and hobbies, as working animals, as producers of animal-derived (food) products or as biomedical models in research. There is a need for clear guidance on the treatment of animals, regardless of their phylogenetic distance from humans. Current animal welfare concepts, which emphasise animal sentience and the ability of animals to experience negative or positive mental states, are limited in scope to a small proportion of the animal kingdom, as the vast majority of species are (currently) thought to lack sentience. We discuss four options for addressing the question of which basic concept(s) could be used to derive guidelines for the treatment of animal species, sentient or non-sentient: (1) alternative concepts tailored to specific groups of species; (2) ‘welfare’ concepts not presupposing sentience; (3) the precautionary principle; or (4) the concept of animal integrity. Since questions regarding the appropriate treatment of animals, including species with a large phylogenetic distance from humans, have an ethical/moral dimension, we also address who counts morally and how much, and how animals should be treated given their moral status. We suggest that the concept of animal integrity, possibly complemented and extended by the concept of habitat/ecosystem integrity, is suitable for application to all species. However, a current concept of animal welfare should serve as the primary basis for guidance on how to treat species that are sentient and capable of experiencing emotions.
... From an animal-centred perspective (i.e. being "mentally and physically capable and possessing the ability and opportunity to react" with its natural behaviour; Voogt et al., 2023, p. 3), it induces poor welfare by compromising natural behaviours (Bracke & Hopster, 2006;Fraser et al., 2019), and causing distress (e.g. related to castration; Dalla Costa et al., 2014). ...
In recent decades, the integration of horses (Equus ferus) in European rewilding initiatives has gained widespread popularity due to their potential for regulating vegetation and restoring natural ecosystems. However, employing horses in conservation efforts presents important challenges, which we here explore and discuss. These challenges encompass the lack of consensus on key terms inherent to conservation and rewilding, the entrenched culture and strong emotions associated with horses, low genetic diversity and high susceptibility to hereditary diseases in animals under human selection, as well as insufficient consideration for the social behaviour of horses in wild-living populations. In addition, management of wild-living horses involves intricate welfare, ethics and legislative dimensions. Anthropocentric population-control initiatives may be detrimental to horse group structures since they tend to prioritise individual welfare over the health of populations and ecosystems. To overcome these challenges, we provide comprehensive recommendations. These involve a systematic acquisition of genetic information, a focus on genetic diversity rather than breed purity and minimal veterinary intervention in wild-living populations. Further, we advise allowing for natural top-down and bottom-up control-or, if impossible, simulating this by culling or non-lethal removal of horses-instead of using fertility control for population management. We advocate for intensified collaboration between conservation biologists and practitioners and enhanced communication with the general public. Decision-making should be informed by a thorough understanding of the genetic makeup, common health issues and dynamics, and social behaviour in wild-living horse populations. Such a holistic approach is essential to reconcile human emotions associated with horses with the implementation of conservation practices that are not only effective but also sustainable for the long-term viability of functional, biodiverse ecosystems, while rehabilitating the horse as a widespread wild-living species in Europe.
... The expression of natural behaviors such as feeding, drinking, lying, and standing are key indicators of cow welfare because the expression of natural behaviors is considered to be a preference test for whether animals are in rich natural environments, which meets the basic needs for animal survival [23]. In this study, the total lying time of cows in the exercise group (733 min/d) was lower than that in Group IN (859 min/d); however both groups performed lying behavior in amounts sufficient to support good welfare (12-14 h/d) [31]. Lying time in the EX cows was largely replaced by activity in the exercise paddock, suggesting that the cows were more motivated to exercise and explore due to their increased space allowance. ...
Providing an exercise paddock may improve the behavior and health of cows in their dry period. We compared a control group of cows in a shed with no exercise paddock and an experimental group in the same shed but with access to an exercise paddock. Both groups had ad libitum total mixed ration (TMR) indoors combined with access to a paddock (Group EX). The other group was just offered TMR indoors (Group IN). Total lying time was longer for cows without the exercise paddock (859 min/d) than for those with the paddock (733 min/d) (p = 0.012). Lying bouts were shorter, there were more allogrooming bouts, and drinking time was longer if an exercise paddock was provided. Cows with the paddock spent on average 76 min/d in paddock activity. Non-esterified fatty acids in the blood were increased by providing the exercise paddock. No significant differences in postpartum milk yield and calf weight of dry cows with or without access to exercise paddock were observed. However, crude protein and neutral detergent fiber digestibility were increased by providing the exercise paddock. The results suggest that providing an exercise paddock for cows in their dry period increased activity, including allogrooming, reduced lying, and improved digestibility of some major nutrients in the feed.
... The opportunity to fulfill motivations for certain natural behaviors is key to promoting great welfare for animals living in captivity (Veasy 1996;Bracke & Hopster, 2006;Fraser, 2008;Mason & Burn, 2018). Therefore, the exhibits or spaces these animals live in must be designed in a way that provides these opportunities. ...
Zoos are often limited by exhibit design in the opportunities they can provide animals to express natural behaviors; however, the opportunity to perform certain natural behaviors is key to supporting good animal welfare. Traditionally, in zoos, naked mole rats ( Heterocephalus glaber ) are housed in gunite‐lined acrylic chambers that replicate the look of their tunnel systems in the wild but don't offer the opportunity for natural digging and tunnel construction behaviors. In this study, naked mole rat behavior was evaluated when providing two different presentations of movable substrate added on to the original exhibit—a tank with loose substrate and a dig pit with hard‐packed clay. We recorded 299 5‐min focal observations with 30‐s intervals and 30 group scans to understand behavioral changes across treatments (10 days of observation per treatment). Results were analyzed using Bayesian mixed models. Digging behavior emerged in both presentations of moveable substrate. A potential indicator of negative welfare, barrier‐directed behavior, decreased when the mole rats had access to the tank of loose substrate. A potential indicator of positive welfare, exploratory behavior, increased with access to the dig pit when the mole rats had the opportunity to build tunnels. Additionally, affiliative social interactions increased, and aggressive interactions decreased with access to either presentation of movable substrate. The observed changes in colony behavior demonstrate that captive naked mole rats readily exhibited the natural behaviors of digging and tunnel building when the opportunity was presented, and the habitat modification likely improved naked mole rat welfare.
... Çünkü, hayvanlarda meydana gelebilecek stres ve korku durumları verimlerinde düşmeye, refah durumlarında ise azalmaya yol açacaktır (Waiblinger ve ark., 2006). Hayvanlarda görülen ölüm oranlarının fazla olması, anormal davranışların ortaya çıkması, üremede görülen problemler, yaralayıcı davranışlar gibi olumsuz nedenler negatif refah göstergeleri arasındayken; doğal olan davranış şekillerini gösterebilmesi pozitif refah düzeyi anlamını ifade etmektedir (Bracke & Hopster, 2006). Söz konusu olumsuzlukları ortadan kaldırabilmek için hayvansal üretim işletmelerinde özelliklede büyükbaş işletmelerinde refah koşullarının sağlanabilmesinin başında, belki hayvanların hayatları boyunca yaşamlarını sürdürecekleri barınak kapasitesi, barınağın düzeni, hareket alanları, kullanışlılığı, iş etkenliği gibi özelliklerine öncelikle yer verilmelidir (Ceco, 2022). ...
Bu çalışma, Kahramanmaraş ili Onikişubat ilçelerinde 10 baş ve üzeri büyükbaş hayvana sahip işletmelerde hayvan refahı ve yetiştirici uygulamalarının incelenmesi için yürütülmüştür. Çalışmada yetiştiricilerin ortalama olarak; yaş ve mesleki tecrübeleri sırasıyla 42.0 yaş ve 18.1 yıl, sığır varlığı 53.2 baş, barınak kapasitesi (sağmal inek) ve ömrü sırasıyla 37.5 baş ve 12.7 yıl olduğu belirlenmiştir. Yetiştiricilerin yüksek oranda (%80.0) hayvan refahı konusunda farkındalıklarının olduğu tespit edilmiştir. İşletmelerde %74.0 oranında hayvanları soğuk stresinden korumak için yem artırma yöntemi uygulanmıştır. Hayvanları sıcak stresinden korumak için ise işletmelerde fan çalıştırma, serinletme ve pencere açma uygulaması oranları sırasıyla %17.0, %45.0 ve %38.0 olarak tespit edilmiştir. İneklere ve buzağılara septisemi aşısı/serumu yapılma oranı sırasıyla %15.0 ve %71.0 oranında olmuştur. İnekleri doğuma iki ay kala kuruya ayıran işletme oranı %80.0 olarak belirlenmiştir. İşletmelerde hayvan refahı açısından olumsuz olarak değerlendirilen faktörlerden; ahırların kaygan zemine sahip olması %35.0, ahıra girildiğinde gözlerin yanması %22.0, havalandırma yetersizliği %38.0, yetersiz pencere %21.0, hasta ve doğum bölmesi yokluğu eşit olarak %80.0, ahır konumunun ev altı olması %36.0 oranında olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Sonuç olarak yetiştiricilerin hayvan refahı konusunda farkındalıklarının oluştuğu, fakat bu farkındalığın pratiğe de yansıması gerektiği sonucuna varılmıştır. Konu ile ilgili daha çok gözleme dayalı çalışmaların yapılmasına ihtiyaç vardır.
... Notably, investment in broiler production is appealing due to its comparatively low production costs per unit in comparison to other livestock sectors. The concept of animal welfare encompasses the harmonious relationship between an animal and its environment, entailing physical and mental equilibrium and freedom from pain, injury, disease, fear, distress, hunger, thirst, and discomfort, while also enabling the expression of natural behaviours (Brambell, 1965;Bracke and Hopster, 2006). Assessment of animal welfare can be predicated on physiological indicators (such as body weight and nasal discharge) as well as natural behavioural indices (including feeding and drinking patterns, body posture, flock distribution, and gaits) (IFC, 2014). ...
The impact of breed on various behavioural traits has been documented across numerous avian species; however, there exists a scarcity of studies focusing on commonly raised broiler chickens. Fear, characterised as a detrimental affective state, serves as an indicator of distress and is correlated with adverse implications for the welfare and productivity of livestock. This investigation sought to evaluate fear-related behaviours in commonly raised broiler chickens of four distinct genotypes (Arbor Acres, Hubbard, Ross, and Cobb) at weeks 3, 5, 7, and 9 of age. A total of 140 birds (35 individuals per breed) were utilized, all derived from a common genetic lineage. Tonic immobility and emergence tests were conducted at weeks 3, 5, 7, and 9, respectively. Statistical analyses were performed employing Kruskal-Wallis tests and Mann-Whitney U tests. At the 3rd week of observation, the duration of tonic immobility exhibited a significant association with the breed (χ2=10.686, DF=3, p=0.014); however, this association was not significant by the 7th week (χ2=6.349, DF=3, p=0.096). Moreover, the latency to emerge from a dark enclosure was significantly influenced by plumage colour (χ2 =8.9229, DF=2, p = 0.01), with the shortest emergence latency recorded in black NIT. Breed significantly affected the latency to emerge from the box at both observation weeks (χ2=20.224, DF=3, p= 0.00 and χ2=19.419, DF=3, p=0.00). Conversely, no significant effects of sex were observed on the duration of tonic immobility at either observation week (Ų =2344.500, ž=-0.366, p=0.714 and Ų=2135.500, ž=-1.094, p=0.274). While the latency to emerge from the box was not significantly associated with sex at the 7th week of observation, a significant association was noted with the breed at the 9th week (Ų =2285.000, ž=-0.673, p=.501 and Ų=1883.500, ž=-2.230, p=.026). Remarkably, at the 9th week, females displayed a shorter latency to emerge from the box compared to males, indicating varying fear responses. In conclusion, breed exerted a discernible influence on fear levels in commonly raised broiler chickens, with Hubbard birds demonstrating the highest level of fear across two statistically significant fear indicators (prolonged emergence duration and tonic immobility).
... In cognitive science, offspring's early life experiences such as social interactions have been linked with providing enrichment for positive development of the brain, behavioural responses, and endocrine processes (Camerlink et al. 2018;Salazar et al. 2018;Lucas et al. 2023). Various studies have supported the fact that natural piglet suckling is beneficial as it is linked to favourable emotional experiences of piglets (Spinka 2006;Skok and Gerken 2016) witnessed through sow to piglet interactions (Hotzel et al. 2004;van Nieuwamerongen et al. 2014;Portele et al. 2019) that result in improved welfare (Bracke and Hopster 2006;Clouard et al. 2022) and it is linked to the favourable lifetime performance of piglets (Vanheukelom et al. 2012). ...
... With a modified Delphi consultation survey, the authors reported that hunched posture, coat condition and body condition score were the top 3 methods for evaluating mouse welfare in a laboratory mouse facility. The term welfare, also lacking consensus in an accepted general definition (Reimert et al., 2023), encompasses physical and mental WB, but also the concept of "natural living", in which animals can perform species-specific behaviors (Bracke and Hopster, 2006). Broom defined the welfare of an individual as "its state as regards its attempts to cope with its environment" (Broom, 1986). ...
... Moreover, the behavioral observations revealed a significantly higher number of displacements in the VF groups, especially in P1 when the VF system was activated for the first time. Aggressive behaviors may be triggered by frustration, which occurs when the animal is unable to effectively cope with a stressor and consequently does not achieve the expected level of environmental control (Bracke and Hopster, 2006;Špinka and Wemelsfelder, 2011;Polsky and von Keyserlingk, 2017). However, the number of displacements observed in the present study was also higher in the VF groups in P0 with the same treatment as the EF groups, but without a significant effect. ...
Virtual fencing (VF) enables livestock grazing without physical fences by conditioning animals to a virtual boundary delimited with an audio tone (AT) and an electric pulse (EP). The present study followed the adaptation process of lactating dairy cows to a VF system with changing virtual boundaries and investigated its impact on animal welfare. Twenty cows were divided into stratified groups (2× VF; 2× electric fencing, EF) of five individuals. Each group grazed half-days in a separate EF paddock of comparable size during 3 d of acclimation (P0), followed by 21, 14, 14, and 7 d of experimental treatment (P1 to P4). At the start of the trial, all cows were equipped with an IceQube pedometer (Peacock Technology Ltd, Stirling, UK) and a VF collar (Nofence AS, Batnfjordsøra, Norway). During P0, cows were accustomed to their first paddock with a deactivated virtual boundary and wearing the sensors. In P1 to P4, an active virtual boundary for the VF groups, and a second EF for the EF groups was set up parallel to an outer EF within their paddock. Throughout the trial, the sensors continuously tracked cow positions and activity behavior at 15-min intervals. From P1 onwards, the VF collars additionally recorded each AT and EP per cow with a georeferenced time stamp. During P0 to P4, daily feed intake, body weight, and milk yield were recorded in the barn. A total of 26 milk samples were collected per cow to determine milk cortisol levels. Behavioral observations were conducted for 2 h on day 23 to record agonistic behaviors, vocalizations, and excretions. The total number of stimuli per cow ranged from 37 to 225 ATs (mean ± SD: 1.9 ± 3.3 per day) and 3 to 11 EPs (mean ± SD: 0.1 ± 0.7 per day) throughout the trial. The maximum number of EPs per day was 8 for an individual cow and occurred once on D1. Mean EP/AT decreased by 55% during the first three half-days of grazing and with each paddock change from 0.2 EP/AT in week 1 to 0.03, 0.02, and 0 EP/AT in weeks 4, 6, and 8, respectively. Linear and generalized mixed effects models revealed that milk yield and cortisol, feed intake, body weight, and activity and lying behavior did not significantly differ between VF and EF groups. A higher number of agonistic behaviors were observed in the VF groups when the VF system was activated. However, due to the short observation periods only few contacts were observed in total. Overall, all cows adapted to the VF system without evidence of lasting adverse effects on animal welfare.
... The welfare issue has been central to the shift away from conventional and, now, enriched cages. Historically, animal welfare was primarily defined in terms of five freedoms [9,18,19]: ...
This paper’s main objective is to assess the impacts of the ban on cages for housing laying hens, planned by the European Commission to raise animal welfare standards beyond the level set in the current legislation. The farm-level economic assessments of the ban were carried out in three stages: farm surveys and expert consultations, farm-level analyses, and aggregation to the EU-27 egg production sector. Four scenarios were constructed. All financial estimates were conducted with fixed prices from the year 2021 for which the reference scenario was built. Alternative hen-housing systems were barn (Voliera), free range, and organic. Until now, more than 50% of laying hens in the EU have already been transferred to alternative systems. The remaining part is subject to the transition. The basic assumptions included a reduction in yields due to the required lower densities and specifics of the production systems. A factor strongly differentiating the scenarios is likelihood of exists form the sector, as declared in the survey by many farmers, mainly those reaching retirement age without successors and keeping relatively small flocks of hens. The introduction of the ban will cause a decrease in egg production, varying between the scenarios. Substantial investments will be required within the range of 2–3.2 billion EUR, depending on the scenario.
... Furthermore, communicating information from one individual to another via chemosignals is also the most widely used form of communication across species: even plants (Heil and Karban, 2010) and bacteria (Taga and Bassler, 2003) rely on communication via chemosignals. For domestic dogs (Canis familiaris), sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare (Bracke and Hopster, 2006;Fraser, 2008). ...
Domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) have excellent olfactory processing capabilities that are utilized widely in human society e.g., working with customs, police, and army; their scent detection is also used in guarding, hunting, mold-sniffing, searching for missing people or animals, and facilitating the life of the disabled. Sniffing and searching for odors is a natural, species-typical behavior and essential for the dog's welfare. While taking advantage of this canine ability widely, we understand its foundations and implications quite poorly. We can improve animal welfare by better understanding their olfactory world. In this review, we outline the olfactory processing of dogs in the nervous system, summarize the current knowledge of scent detection and differentiation; the effect of odors on the dogs’ cognitive and emotional processes and the dog-human bond; and consider the methodological advancements that could be developed further to aid in our understanding of the canine world of odors.
... In this study, sheep managed outdoors had fewer but longer lying bouts compared to housed ewes suggesting the housed ewes may experience some disturbance of normal lying behaviour. This is an important consideration for animal welfare assessments (Bracke and Hopster 2006). Further research is required to explore how changes in nutrition and feeding management influence milk yield and animal welfare in NZ pastoral-based sheep-farming systems. ...
... However, as visitor presence correlates with weather, visitor effects can be difficult to distinguish and, therefore, should be evaluated alongside of changes in environmental data (Hosey et al., 2023). Observation of natural, species-typical behaviors can indicate the welfare state of an animal and may be defined as those that are exhibited in natural conditions, are considered pleasurable, and promote biological functions (Bracke & Hopster, 2006). Observing these behaviors may indicate positive welfare states (Browning, 2019), because it means the individual animal can experience satiation. ...
The implementation of environmental enrichment (EE) can be effective in promoting zoo animal welfare by enhancing the performance of natural or species-typical behaviors. Research on the effects of EE is biased towards larger mammalian species, with less charismatic species being overlooked. Armadillos are one such overlooked example. A captive environment that results in inactivity, obesity, and associated poor health can negatively affect armadillo well-being. The aim of this study was to evaluate how the implementation of four physical object-based EEs could positively affect the behaviors of three armadillo species, housed in four similar exhibits. Behavioral data were collected both before (baseline) and during (treatment) EE periods, alongside of visitor number and environmental temperatures. The EE comprised of a plastic ball or a cardboard tube or a cardboard box, or a scatter-feed, and these were rotated each week of study until each exhibit had received them in turn. Despite the presence of different EE types, activity remained low throughout the study. However, results suggest that the plastic ball and cardboard box increased exploratory behaviors in the armadillos, but no overall increase in activity was noted during the scatter feed. Visitor presence had no effect on armadillo activity, and armadillos showed reduced activity with increasing environmental temperature. Overall, the use of physical object-based EE promoted beneficial natural behaviors in zoo-housed armadillos, but environmental conditions (i.e., temperature) also impacted armadillo activity, suggesting a complicated relationship between an enclosure's environmental variable and any behavioral husbandry measures. K E Y W O R D S animal welfare, armadillo, environmental enrichment, evidence-based husbandry, zoo behavior
... Moreover, the behavioral observations revealed a significantly higher number of displacements in the VF groups, especially in P1 when the VF system was activated for the first time. Aggressive behaviors may be triggered by frustration, which occurs when the animal is unable to effectively cope with a stressor and consequently does not achieve the expected level of environmental control (Bracke and Hopster, 2006;Špinka and Wemelsfelder, 2011;Polsky and von Keyserlingk, 2017). However, the number of displacements observed in the present study was also higher in the VF groups in P0 with the same treatment as the EF groups, but without a significant effect. ...
Virtual fencing (VF) enables livestock grazing without physical fences by conditioning animals to an audio tone (AT) followed by an electric pulse (EP) that is up to 25 times weaker than conventional electric fencing (EF). However, the operating principle of a virtual fencing system raises concerns about animal welfare. Therefore, the present study investigated the learning process of dairy cows in a virtual fencing environment and its effects on animal behavior and welfare. Twenty lactating cows were divided into four groups of five individuals each (2x VF; 2x EF), balanced by lactation stage (203 ± 62 days) and age (3.7 ± 1.5 lactations). All cows were accustomed to daily grazing with EF but were naïve to VF. Each group grazed in a separate paddock for 3 days of acclimation (P0) and 21, 14, 14, and 7 days of experimental treatment (P1-4). All paddocks were electrically fenced, and of similar vegetation structure and botanical composition. During P1-P4, a virtual boundary was activated within each paddock of the VF groups, and a second electric fence was set up within each paddock of the EF groups to maintain comparable paddock sizes. All cows were fitted with a VF collar (Nofence AS, Batnfjordsøra, Norway) and an IceQube pedometer (Peacock Technology Ltd, Stirling, UK). The sensors continuously tracked cow positions, the daily numbers of AT and EP, and activity behavior, respectively. Throughout P0-P4, daily milk yield, feed intake, and body weight were recorded. A total of 26 milk samples were collected per cow to determine milk cortisol concentrations. Behavioral observations were conducted for 2 h on 23 days to record agonistic behaviors, vocalizations, and excretions. During P1-P4, each cow received an average of 1.9 ± 3.3 AT and 0.1 ± 0.7 EP per day. The total number of stimuli ranged from 37 to 225 AT and 3 to 11 EP per cow throughout the experimental period, indicating individual variations in learning (P < 0.003). Within the first three days after virtual fence activation, most cows learned the concept of the VF system. The conditioning of the cows was successful at herd level after three repetitions at a new virtual boundary, reflected by a decreasing ratio of mean EP/AT from 20 to 3, 2, and 0 % with each paddock change. Milk yield and cortisol, feed intake, body weight, and cow activity did not differ between VF and EF groups. Overall, there were a mean of 11.2 vocalizations and 5.9 displacements more per cow in the VF groups (P < 0.05), but similar across P0-P4. Our results suggest that learning the virtual fencing system did not lead to lasting adverse effects on cow welfare.
... The work of Mullan et al. (2011) and Rowe and Mullan (2022) reflects our experience that the majority of global commercial pig production units fall short in terms of promoting positive pig welfare. For example, if we assume that species-typical behaviours such as exploration, foraging, play, nesting, and maternal-offspring interactions are largely synonymous with positive welfare (Bracke and Hopster, 2006;Š pinka, 2006), then most pig production facilities around the world fail to provide adequate opportunities for their expression. Similarly, it is our contention that most intensive pig production systems globally do not provide sufficient levels of enrichment materials to facilitate substantial expression of behaviours such as exploration (Pedersen et al., 2014; see also Chapter 13 on enrichment). ...
Since the beginning of the farm animal welfare debate half a century ago, the focus has been on the negative side of animal welfare, with most research studying the harms induced by modern husbandry to animals and how to prevent them. Here we review the trend to investigate what has become referred to as positive animal welfare. We review the main published papers on positive welfare and distil the commonalities and distinctions made in the different approaches to positive welfare. Next, we describe several animal-based approaches for assessing positive welfare in pigs and the limited data available on the current status of positive welfare in modern pig production. Finally, areas are identified where a focus on positive welfare could set future trends in animal welfare research and implementation of better pig welfare on farms.
... Some actions like being able to play and run can be beneficial for different animal species from a welfare perspective. However, other positive behaviors can be highly species-specific, like rooting in pigs, dustbathing in poultry, and grazing in horses and cattle [2]. ...
... Animal welfare is a multidimensional concept related to the repertoire of behaviors performed by an animal in its natural state that promote 'normal' biological functions [20,24]. Therefore, the success of the PLF/R application to address animal welfare will depend on the accuracy of sensors to detect changes associated with a deteriorating animal state [5,18,25]. ...
Animal welfare monitoring relies on sensor accuracy for detecting changes in animal well-being. We compared the distance calculations based on global positioning system (GPS) data alone or combined with motion data from triaxial accelerometers. The assessment involved static trackers placed outdoors or indoors vs. trackers mounted on cows grazing on pasture. Trackers communicated motion data at 1 min intervals and GPS positions at 15 min intervals for seven days. Daily distance walked was determined using the following: (1) raw GPS data (RawDist), (2) data with erroneous GPS locations removed (CorrectedDist), or (3) data with erroneous GPS locations removed, combined with the exclusion of GPS data associated with no motion reading (Correct-edDist_Act). Distances were analyzed via one-way ANOVA to compare the effects of tracker placement (Indoor, Outdoor, or Animal). No difference was detected between the tracker placement for RawDist. The computation of CorrectedDist differed between the tracker placements. However, due to the random error of GPS measurements, CorrectedDist for Indoor static trackers differed from zero. The walking distance calculated by CorrectedDist_Act differed between the tracker placements, with distances for static trackers not differing from zero. The fusion of GPS and accelerometer data better detected animal welfare implications related to immobility in grazing cattle.
... The hypothetical paradigm shift for PLF/R is transitioning traditional livestock production to 47 aspirational management systems that optimize production efficiency with increasing animal welfare 48 and sustainability (Bailey et al., 2021;Tedeschi et al., 2021). Welfare is a multidimensional concept 49 related to the repertoire of behaviors performed by an animal in its natural state that promote 'normal' 50 biological functions (Bracke & Hopster, 2006;Berckmans, 2014 In this study, we investigated the performance of real-time sensors using LoRa-WAN communication 58 for monitoring animal welfare using daily distance travel metrics. We tested the reliability of the daily 59 distance travel metric calculation using global positioning system (GPS) data alone or in combination 60 with motion data derived from triaxial accelerometers in three algorithms for detecting the differences 61 between stationary control trackers (Control) or when mounted on animals (Animal). ...
LoRa-WAN sensors were used to compare methods for determining walking distances by grazing cattle in near real-time. The accuracy of relying on a global positioning system (GPS) alone or in combination with motion data derived from triaxial accelerometers was compared using stationary control trackers (Control) placed in fixed field locations (n=6) or vs. trackers (Animal) mounted on cows (n=6) grazing on pasture at the New Mexico State University’s Clayton Livestock Research Center. Trackers communicated motion data at 1-minute intervals and GPS positions at 15-minute intervals for seven days. Daily distance walked was determined using: 1) raw GPS data (RawDist), 2) data with erroneous GPS locations removed (CorrectedDist), or 3) data with erroneous GPS locations removed and with GPS data associated with the static state excluded (CorrectedDist_Act). Distances were analyzed via one-way ANOVA to compare Control vs. Animal deployment effects. No difference (P=0.43) in walking distance was detected between Control vs. Animal for RawDist. However, distances calculated for CorrectedDist differed (P<0.01) between the two tracker deployments. Due to the random error of GPS measurements, CorrectedDist for stationary devices differed (P=0.01) from zero. The walking distance calculated by CorrectedDist_Act differed (P<0.01) between Control vs. Animal trackers, with distances for Control trackers not differing (P=0.44) from zero. The fusion of GPS and accelerometer data was a more suitable method for calculating walking distance by grazing cattle. This result may highlight the value of combining more than one source of independent sensor data in Precision Livestock Farming applications.
... Controllability (choice) is long recognized as an important aspect of good animal welfare, or "physiology and behavior" as described by [14], and barren, monotonous conditions limit birds' ability to choose and express a range of behaviors. Akin to their jungle fowl ancestors, broilers are motivated to perch or rest on elevated surfaces [15], dust bathe [16,17], and show food seeking behavior (foraging) [16,18,19]. Providing environmental enrichment stimulates more frequent and a greater variety of natural behaviors in broiler chickens and can result in improved animal health and affective states [20][21][22][23][24][25][26]. ...
The objective was to evaluate the impacts of a complex environment and stocking density on Ross 708 broiler chicken behaviors. Eight pens contained either high complexity (HC) or low complexity (LC) environments, and high (HD) or low (LD) density. Through focal-animal sampling, the frequency and duration of behaviors were recorded continuously for 5 min at two timepoints for one day in weeks 2, 4, and 7. Birds were active for 30% of the observed time, with birds showing more activity in HC compared with LC. Birds in HC pens spent more time preening and foraging than birds in LC pens, which was interpreted as a positive outcome. Dustbathing and play were not impacted by complexity, possibly due to the observation method. Birds were more frequently active at HD compared with LD, but did not spend more time being active, suggesting disturbances. Birds foraged, drank, and ate less frequently in HD compared with LD, presumably because birds had more difficulty accessing resources. Activity and active behaviors reduced as birds aged, while preening frequency increased, possibly due to frustration, but this was not confirmed. Perching was unaffected by age, showing a persistent motivation to perform the behavior. Our results indicate that a complex environment provides positive stimulation for foraging, locomotion, preening, and overall activity. Despite reduced activity, many benefits of the tested environmental complexity and low density persisted as birds aged.
... McCann (2015) menyatakan bahwa kandang penangkaran harus dapat mengakomodir berbagai kebutuhan satwa, baik kebutuhan fisik, kebutuhan psikologis, dan kebutuhan lainnya agar satwa liar yang dipelihara di kandang penangkaran dapat hidup dengan baik dan layak. Oleh karena itu, pengetahuan mengenai perilaku spesifik satwa tersebut di habitat alaminya, penting untuk diketahui dan diadopsi pada desain kandang yang dibangun (Bracke & Hopster, 2006;Powell, 2010;McCann, 2015), agar satwa yang dipelihara merasa nyaman dan tidak stress. ...
... 'Importance of Combination of Ecology and Literature' (2022) is a recent article that stresses the significance of interlacing machine learning apps and Eco literature to understand how well literature reflects the physical world to foresee the consequences of the present human actions in the real world. Bracke and Hopster (2006) in their article titled, 'Assessing the Importance of Natural Behavior for Animal Welfare' discusses how important it is for animals to stay in their natural habitat to exhibit natural behavior that promotes biological functioning. Animal welfare assessment is done based on positive welfare values and negative welfare values. ...
Ecocriticism is a theory that studies the relationship between humans and non-humans critically. The perception becomes the need of the hour as it stresses the interconnectedness between humans and Nature in the era of environmental sabotage. As Barbara Ward says, ‘We have forgotten how to be good guests, how to walk lightly on the earth as its other creatures do’ rather, humans pollute and erode the Natural elements. The interdependency between the environment and humans should be understood to lead to a better quality of life. Ecocriticism amidst the global crisis strives to reattach humans to their natural world. This article, stressing the significance of entwined movements like ecofeminism, eco-theology, ecosophy, and so on, shows realistic evidence to bring out the emergency to discuss, understand and practice the idea of Ecocriticism out in the practical world.
... Anticipatory behavior has been discussed as a form of positive welfare for captive animals, often associated with an enriched environment (Watters, 2014). Thus, increasing opportunities for animals to forage can indicate a potential improved welfare experience (Bracke & Hopster, 2006;Johnson et al., 2004). ...
Response-independent schedules involve the delivery of an item independent of a response requirement. Often described in the applied behavior analytic literature as "noncontingent reinforcement" (NCR), they have also frequently been used to reduce undesired or problematic behaviors. The current study examined the use of an automated response-independent food schedule on the behaviors and sound levels of shelter dogs. Several dogs were included in a 6-week reversal design, where a fixed-time 1 min schedule was compared with a baseline condition. Eleven behaviors were measured, as were two areas of each kennel and the overall and session sound intensity (dB) that occurred during the study. The results demonstrated that the fixed-time schedule increased overall activity while decreasing inactivity and led to a reduction in the overall sound intensity measured. Session and hour-to-hour sound-intensity data were less clear, suggesting a potential contextual conditioning effect as well as a need for adjusted methods to study shelter sound. The above are discussed in terms of their potential welfare benefits for shelter dogs as well as the translational approach that this and similar research could contribute to the application and functional understanding of response-independent schedules.
... This reference to natural species-specific behavior in legislation can be regarded as a development in the positive welfare debate (De Cock Buning, 2009). Bracke and Hopster (2006) also recognized positive experiences as part of normal patterns of natural behavior: "We defined natural behavior as behavior that animals have a tendency to perform under natural conditions because these behaviors are pleasurable and because they promote biological functioning. It includes behaviors such as foraging, grooming, exploration, and play." ...
One of the aims of the Dutch Animals Act is to protect animal welfare. The assumption that animal welfare risks are managed and mitigated by the Act, however, has not been studied before. The aim of this paper is to evaluate whether or not animal welfare risks can be managed adequately under the current Dutch Animals Act and what modifications to the legislation could improve animal welfare in the Netherlands. For that purpose, welfare consequences identified in various supply chain risk assessments from the Office of Risk Assessment & Research (BuRO) were assessed in conjunction with the Dutch Animals Act and related legislation. A distinction was made between means- and goal-oriented legislation. The current Dutch Animals Act uses the “Five Freedoms” to define animal welfare. However, this seems outdated, given that current scientific insight also indicates that positive experiences should be included as an integral part of animal welfare. Currently, most welfare consequences in supply chains are linked to factors that are regulated by Dutch legislation as qualitative, goal-oriented, open standards. Furthermore, there is no species-specific legislation for some of the most common farm animals in the Netherlands, e.g., dairy cattle. By applying the latest scientific insights, both the current Dutch Animals Act and associated legislation can be improved to more appropriately manage animal welfare risks. As suggestions for improvement, we propose that the definition of animal welfare in the Dutch Animals Act is updated, that species-specific legislation for farm animals is developed where not already applicable, and that animal-based measures (ABMs) are integrated into legislation. As amendments to animal welfare legislation at the European level are currently being developed, our proposals to include the most recent scientific insights in animal welfare legislation also hold for European legislators.
... Historically, animal welfare has been defined by the absence of negative experiences such as disease, hunger, thirst, stress, or reduced fitness [19]. Most animal welfare research over the past 40 years has focused on avoiding negative states. ...
The study aimed to examine laying hens in the cage and cage-free breeding systems, the quality of table eggs and energy consumption in the hall after the peak of laying. In the research, the following were investigated and statistically evaluated welfare of laying hens Bovans Brown was monitored in three different rearing systems based on resources and animals. The research was designed into the post-peak laying period, at the age of laying hens from 34 to 47 weeks and a rearing system of enriched cages on deep litter and in aviaries. Statistical analyses of the measured data of the established indicators were performed with the SAS program package, version 8.2, for statistical characteristics, significance, and correlation relations. The proportion of laying hens dying was lower in aviaries compared to cages and on deep litter (p ≤0.05); in cages and on deep litter was comparable (p ˃0.05). The weight of laying hens was comparable (p ˃0.05). Feed consumption per hen, day, and egg was highest on deep litter (p ≤0.05). The proportion of eggs with a cracked shell and contaminated with dropping was highest on litter (p ≤0.05). Energy consumption in the hall expressed per layer and day was comparable in all three breeding systems (p ≤0.05). Among some selected indicators of laying hen welfare, egg quality and energy consumption in the hall during breeding and correlation relations (p ≤0.05) were statistically significant within individual breeding systems. The question of laying hen welfare and improving cage-free systems because of the adopted legislation banning breeding in a cage system requires further research to adopt best practices regarding resource-based, management- and animal-based parameters. Based on the results about welfare conditions, including energy consumption in halls and egg quality, it is an open question for comprehensive, interdisciplinary research.
... Although naturalistic (e.g. Bracke and Hopster 2006) and biological functioning approaches (e.g. Broom and Johnson 1993) to welfare assessment still play critical roles, the focus has moved to the individual animal's affective state (e.g. ...
O
Macacos-prego possuem um alto grau de flexibilidade comportamental e
sobrevivem em ambientes antropizados modificando seus padrões comportamentais. O Parque Nacional de Brasília (PNB) abriga dois grupos de Sapajus
libidinosus que habitam a região de mata de galeria próxima à área de visitação
do PNB. O objetivo do presente estudo foi reavaliar a população de macacos-
-prego do PNB, e a influência antrópica sobre seu orçamento de tempo e dieta,
ao longo do tempo. Um dos grupos foi acompanhado de novembro/2012 a
agosto/2013. Dados comportamentais foram coletados a cada 15 minutos por
amostras de “varredura instantânea” com duração de 5 minutos. O orçamento
de atividades do grupo de estudo foi similar ao de outros grupos de Sapajus libidinosus, e os animais gastaram apenas 1,2% do tempo interagindo com humanos. O grupo consumiu mais recursos naturais e complementou sua dieta com
alimentos antrópicos. Foi registrado o consumo de recursos vegetais de 34 espé-
cies, sendo 85% de frutos zoocóricos. Assim como outros grupos selvagens de
Sapajus libidinosus, o grupo estudado possui uma dieta flexível, com uma maior
proporção de consumo de frutos e insetos, porém diferentemente de grupos selvagens parecem substituir o consumo de insetos por alimentos antropogênicos
... It is also important to optimize both productivity and animal welfare. Behavior is an important criterion in the evaluation of animal welfare and is an indicator of the quality of life perceived by the animal (Bracke and Hopster, 2006). Achieving the desired welfare levels of animals may increase with its reflection on the yields to be obtained from animals (Akbaş, 2013). ...
In this study, the distribution of birth data of 651 lambs born from Bafra sheep reared in a private breeding sheep farm in Kızıllı village of Antalya province during the day (24 hours) was investigated. The 24-hour period such as 06:01-12:00 = 1, 12:01-18:00 = 2, 18:01-00:00 = 3 and 00:01- 06:00 = 4 was divided into four equal periods to evaluate the distribution within the day. In the study, the effects on the distribution of births during the day and the characteristics of lambs such as birth type, sex, difficult and normal births, and dam’s lactation number were investigated. χ2 (Chi-square) test analysis was used to determine whether the characteristics such as, birth type, sex, difficult and normal births, and dam’s lactation number had an effect on the distribution of births during the day. As a result of the analysis, the distribution of a total of 651 lamb births during the day were observed as 260 heads (39.9%) at 06:01-12:00, 199 heads (30.6%) at 12:01-18:00, 109 heads (16%) at 18:01- 00:00, and 83 heads (12.7%) at 00:01-06:00, respectively. In the first and second time periods between 06:01 and 18:00, 70.5% (459 heads) of lamb births occurred. The ratio and number of lambs in sex distribution were determined as 45.8% male (298 head) and 54.2% female (353 head), respectively. The number and rate of lamb births of ewes in the first lactation comprised 366 heads and 56.2%, respectively. According to the χ2test of the time periods of the births, the effect of the lamb's birth type (P
... Animal welfare advocates and animal welfare scientist have always raised concerns on how different environments kept animals affect their ability to express normal behaviour and productivity in general (Tucker et al., 2021). Dairy animals like all domesticated animals have retained adaptations of their ancestors; therefore, they prefer an environment which allows them to express their normal behaviour (Bracke & Hopster, 2006). Any compromise in animal's natural environment will result in behavioural deprivation (Aubé et al., 2022). ...
While animal welfare concerns are rising globally, this has not been the case with lower- and middle-income economies in Africa and Asia such as Zimbabwe. These developing countries have their own problems which are not reported in developed countries, such as the harsh economic environment, limited technologies and different political and food security priorities. These factors limit focusing on animal welfare. Meanwhile, studies on animal welfare in these countries have been limited. The task of determining animal welfare is a very complex and can sometimes be very subjective since there is no gold standard protocol to be used in many developing countries. This paper reviews the main factors that are used to assess dairy animal welfare at a farm situation. The factors were categorised and generally discussed as drivers and indicators of dairy animal welfare. Key indicators reviewed in this study include but are not limited to production performance indicators, body condition scores, cleanliness scores, presence of clinical disease signs and physiological and behavioural indicators. Dairy animal welfare drivers discussed in this paper include but not limited to the general design of dairy cattle housing, presence of foot bath and shading facilities, presence and use of maternity paddocks, state of feeder and water troughs.
An increasing number of students are becoming interested in learning about the Internet of Things (IoT) space. However, today, we lack scalable and efficient ways to bring hands-on IoT learning to many due to hardware accessibility, system complexity, and deployment environment constraints. This paper presents ThingVisor, an IoT learning platform that enables hands-on IoT development in an immersive virtual space. Specifically, it allows users to design, test, and deploy IoT devices virtually in a simulated IoT world with static and dynamic software verification as a complementary tool to IoT education. ThingVisor consists of (1) a Device Design Stack to configure virtual IoT devices, (2) an Immersive Runtime Stack to interact with devices and environment, and (3) a Device Emulator, which is a runtime environment used to execute virtual devices to get their behaviors. Our experiments confirm the learning effectiveness and user satisfaction of our platform. Additionally, we have demonstrated the scalability and usability of the system through load testing and application of the System Usability Scale. Our results indicate that students can achieve up to a 32% improvement in their scores after engaging with ThingVisor for two weeks, irrespective of their prior experience.
Animals used behaviour as one of the important tools of adapting to their physical and social environment. This study was conducted to examine the effect of enzyme on the behavioural response of broiler chickens fed with diets containing different enzymes.. The experiment was carried out for six weeks using one hundred and twenty-day old cobb 500 broiler chicks (n = 120). The birds were randomly distributed into four dietary treatment, such that there were 30 birds per each treatment and replicated thrice with ten birds each.. Treatment 1 (T1) (control diet without enzyme), T2 (diet with enzyme Nutrizymes NZ), T3 (diet with enzyme Nutrizymes NZ + Avizymes VZ) and T4 (diet with enzyme Nutrizymes NZ + Roxazyme PZ). Walking, lying, floor scratching, eating, wing flapping, feather pecking, dust bathing, preening and flying were not significantly (p<0.05) influenced by age while floor scratching, fighting and sleeping were significant (p<0.05). floor and fighting (3.20) behaviours were observed in broiler chickens atb5th week while birds appeared to sleep (0.81) more at 3rd week of age compared to the fifth week. Birds were seen lying down frequently (23.76) (p<0.5) in treatment 4 (NZ+PZ) while a higher occurrence of floor scratching (106.10) was observed on treatment 3 (NZ+VZ) diet which signifies better welfare. The interaction between enzyme and behaviour was significant (p<0.05) in birds on diet NZ+VZ with higher incidence of floor scratching (188.0) while fighting behaviour was seen on birds in T4 (NZ+PZ) diet. The study concluded that addition of enzymes in broiler diet enhances better behavioural response in NZ+PZ.
Farm animal welfare has been world-widely spread and become a global standard. Among of them, the housing systems for laying hens dramatically change and evolve. Here, we reviewed the advantages and disadvantages of housing systems from three perspectives : welfare (farm animal welfare and farmers’ welfare), economy (productivity of livestock products and retail price), and environmental impact. Each housing system has advantages and disadvantages. Differently evaluated indicators between cage and cage-free systems are freedom to express normal behavior, economy and farmers’ welfare. By plotting the actual values of the contrary indicators, we showed a well-balanced point in relationship between animal welfare and economy or farmers’ welfare. To form a sustainable livestock production system, scientific research and science-based discussion will be needed in near future.
n organic cattle and pig farming, access to pasture or an outdoor run is obligatory. In addition, increasingly innovative systems are used that do not allow a clear distinction between indoor and outdoor areas. Therefore, it is often uncertain which parts of the husbandry system are to be counted as indoor area and which as outdoor area according to the EU organic regulation. Despite sufficient total area, there may be shortfalls, especially with respect to the required indoor area without negative effects on animal welfare. On the other hand, such more open husbandry practices can offer advantages in terms of animal welfare. Therefore, the aim of the project was to develop husbandry criteria, taking account of the species-specific needs of cattle and pigs, to assess whether they are particularly animal welfare-friendly husbandry, irrespective of the distribution of the available space between indoor and outdoor areas. The criteria were discussed with large expert groups and their applicability was tested using examples of husbandry practices. In an English-language report, the current state of knowledge on the needs of pigs and cattle is elaborated with special reference to outdoor climatic conditions and husbandry criteria are derived. Examples of innovative, particularly animal welfare-friendly husbandry methods that fulfil the developed criteria are presented. It is concluded that for the new, more open husbandry systems, the distinction between indoor and outdoor areas is not very meaningful and instead it should be assessed on the basis of the developed criteria whether these methods offer preconditions for improved animal welfare. In Regulation (EU) 2020/464, it should be possible to deviate from the minimum indoor and outdoor areas laid down in Annex I, Part I, in the positive case, as long as the required minimum total area (indoor and outdoor area) is provided.
The aim of the study was to compare the keel bone profile of hens reared in cage and cage-free rearing systems. Experiments were carried out on a poultry farm on two alternative rearing systems and on one cage hall and measurements were carried out in laboratory conditions with Bovans Brown laying hens aged 32 to 47 weeks. The obtained results were evaluated using the statistical program SAS with version 8.2. In the set of 18 keel bone samples that we monitored, the average phosphorus content was measured as 15.19 g.kg-1 with a variation of the measured values of 6.09, an average magnesium content of 0.49 g.kg-1 with a variation of the measured values of 0.15, an average content of calcium 33.76 g.kg-1 with a variation of the measured values of 14.78 and an average value of the ratio between calcium and phosphorus of 2.19 with a variation of the measured values of 0.09. Individual laying hen breeding systems did not have a statistically significant effect (P >0.05) on the content of phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and the ratio between calcium and phosphorus in the keel bone of laying hens.
Esse trabalho tem como finalidade analisar artigos científicos sobre os modelos de criação de aves poedeiras, abordaremos os sistemas utilizados no Brasil e suas características, tendo como principais modelos de criação o convencional que com o uso de gaiolas abrange a maior parte da cadeia de produção vindo logo após os sistemas alternativos que estão subdivididos em Cage-Free, Free-Range, Orgânico e Colonial (caipira), estes apresentam particularidades por estarem voltados ao melhor condicionamento de bem-estar das aves poedeiras. Contudo, vem havendo uma crescente demanda por produtos de origem orgânica por conta das mudanças dos hábitos alimentares, entretanto o sistema convencional ainda assim ocupa maior espaço na cadeia de produção por ser mais viável economicamente.
An animal-centered view guided by what animals value could improve welfare on farms.
To study animal welfare empirically we need an objective basis for deciding when an animal is suffering. Suffering includes a wide range ofunpleasant emotional states such as fear, boredom, pain, and hunger. Suffering has evolved as a mechanism for avoiding sources ofdanger and threats to fitness. Captive animals often suffer in situations in which they are prevented from doing something that they are highly motivated to do. The “price” an animal is prepared to pay to attain or to escape a situation is an index ofhow the animal “feels” about that situation. Withholding conditions or commodities for which an animal shows “inelastic demand” (i.e., for which it continues to work despite increasing costs) is very likely to cause suffering. In designing environments for animals in zoos, farms, and laboratories, priority should be given to features for which animals show inelastic demand. The care ofanimals can thereby be based on an objective, animal-centered assessment of their needs.
"In our attempt to extend a behavioristically oriented approach to the engineering control of animal behavior by operant conditioning techniques, we have fought a running battle with the seditious notion of instinct." Several instances of persistent nonreinforced behavior which interfere with learning "represent a clear and utter failure of conditioning theory." Persistent "behaviors to which… animals drift are clear-cut examples of instinctive behaviors… . It seems obvious that these animals are trapped by strong instinctive behaviors, and clearly we have here a demonstration of the prepotency of such behavior patterns over those which have been conditioned." In recent years "ethological facts and attitudes… have done more to advance our practical control of animal behavior than recent reports from American 'learning labs." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examines the preference behavior in a choice situation where an effortful and a relatively effortless response lead to the same reinforcer. 30 female Holtzman albino rats were trained to obtain food free or by bar pressing. Following equal amounts of training, the Ss were tested for 4 days for preference for bar pressing. Results indicate that Ss prefer to obtain food by bar pressing even when amount of work (FR-1, FR-3, and FR-11) is varied, and food can be obtained faster on the free side. An experiment with children also demonstrated a similar preference for bar pressing to obtain marbles. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Continued concern for animal welfare may be alleviated when welfare would be monitored on farms. Monitoring can be characterized as an information system where various stakeholders periodically exchange relevant information. Stakeholders include producers, consumers, retailers, the government, scientists, and others. Valuating animal welfare in the animal-product market chain is regarded as a key challenge to further improve the welfare of farm animals and information on the welfare of animals must, therefore, be assessed objectively, for instance, through monitoring. Interviews with Dutch stakeholder representatives were conducted to identify their perceptions about the monitoring of animal welfare. Stakeholder perceptions were characterized in relation to the specific perspectives of each stakeholder. While producers tend to perceive welfare from a production point of view, consumers will use visual images derived from traditional farming and from the animals natural environments. Scientists perceptions of animal welfare are affected by the need to measure welfare with quantifiable parameters. Retailers and governments (policy makers) have views of welfare that are derived from their relationships with producers, consumers, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), and scientists. All interviewed stakeholder representatives stated that animal welfare is important. They varied in the extent to which they weighted economic considerations relative to concern for the animals welfare. Many stakeholders emphasized the importance of communication in making a monitoring system work. Overall, the perspectives for the development of a sustainable monitoring system that substantially improves farm animal welfare were assessed as being poor in the short term. However, a reliable system could be initiated under certain conditions, such as integrated chains and with influential and motivated stakeholders. A scheme is described with attention points for the development of sustainable monitoring systems for farm animal welfare in the long term.
Welfare concerns that matter to animals is their state of need. Satisfaction and frustration of needs are associated with emotional states, the subjective experience of which directly determines the welfare status of an animal. Because emotional states are difficult to assess, overall welfare assessment (OWA) is best approached as an assessment of needs. For actual OWA, a list of needs must be formulated. Different authors have formulated different lists. From these lists a concept need-list was constructed. For validation the needs-based approach for OWA was discussed in interviews with experts (n=21) in the field of ethology and other welfare related sciences. These experts generally used mental terminology to define welfare, but when asked to classify their definition of welfare, many preferred a definition in terms of measurable parameters or a combination of both mental terms (feelings) and measurables. Most experts believed that welfare can be assessed objectively and that the problem of OWA is indeed best approached through an assessment of needs. Experts differ as to the exact composition of the list of needs. A list of needs is formulated which we intend to use for OWA in the case of sows.
Several authors have concluded that scientists should not attempt to perform overall animal welfare assessment (OWA). They argue that scientists have continued to fail to make progress in this area and that value judgements are inherently involved in OWA for which science cannot provide answers. We take a more positive attitude toward OWA and argue that scientists should avoid creating a self-fulfilling prophecy. OWA is necessary for making actual moral and political decisions. Science has already accumulated much relevant information about welfare and this information should be applied in decision making. The task of OWA is to assess welfare based on knowledge of the biological needs of animals. Weighting of welfare relevant factors constitutes a problem. However, when scientists cannot provide empirical data to solve weighting issues, this does not mean that rational answers cannot be found, e.g. in the form of procedural rules. OWA is conceived as a problem of multi-criteria decision making with fuzzy information. If focuses on the descriptive aspect of welfare, i.e. on what the welfare status of the animals really is without taking an ethical stance. The welfare status of animals depends on their biology and on the way animals assess their own welfare. It does not depend on how it happens to be perceived by us. Even though OWA necessarily remains a human activity, it is not arbitrary, nor does it allow of multiple 'correct' answers. OWA is a descriptive activity that can achieve more and more accuracy as science proceeds.
The progress of a project aimed at developing a decision support system (DSS) for overall welfare assessment is described. We chose the pregnant sow as a 'case' to develop the assessment method. First, we designed and tested a very simple prototype DSS in order to examine several basic ideas as to how welfare can be assessed on a scientific basis. In this prototype welfare assessment was based on the needs of animals. The second version of the DSS, which extended the approach taken in the first, included a wider range of housing systems and an improved knowledge base. It used a rigid formal procedure to construct the model, moving directly from scientific statements into if-then rules. However, this extended version resulted in counter-intuitive scores for the seven main housing systems for pregnant sows. In the third version of the DSS the complexity of the model was reduced, if-then rules being excluded. It was based on more general biological considerations (needs and sub-needs) and produced scores which accorded better with expert opinion. Weighting was managed in a simplified, but procedural way. For improved welfare assessment we suggest that the method of 'reflective equilibrium' should be used.
Individual domestic pigs, Sus scrofa, were given the opportunity in daily test sessions to work on fixed ratio (FR) schedules of reinforcement for access to one of three different commodities (food, contact with a partner animal, and a stimulus change called 'door opening'). The amount of work required for access to each reinforcer was varied systematically by changing the size of the FR schedule (FR 1, 2, 5, 10, 15, 20 and 30). Demand curves, analogous to those used in economics, were derived for each commodity. The slopes of these curves were shallowest (inelastic demand) for food, an apparently essential item, and were steepest (more elastic demand) for door opening, an apparently less essential item. Demand functions could be generated for a range of different stimuli and demand elasticity appeared to provide a useful quantitative index of the relative importance of different environmental features to pigs.
The aim of this paper is to investigate the question of whether there exist needs to perform paruc- ular behaviours when the physiological needs of the animal are taken care of. According to current theory, there exist apparent behavioural needs to perform parts of the behavioural repertoires of ani- mals, fulfilling some or all of the following three criteria: ( 1 ) the behaviour patterns are mainly caused by internal factors; (2) the tendencies are gradually built up while they are not being performed; ( 3 ) the mere performance of the behaviour patterns is rewarding. This has led to a "catalogue approach'. where welfare theorists have attempted to divide the behavioural repertoire of different species into those whose expression constitute needs and those that do not. We dispute this simplistic view. In light of the data we review, we argue that it is conceptually wrong to dichotomize and rank the moti- vational effects of external and internal factors. Motivation is inextricably a function of both, al- though the variation in behavioural output may, in a given situation, be explained by the variation in either. In some cases, the tendency to perform a behaviour does rise as a function of time. This may be caused by factors associated with tissue needs or factors intrinsic to the nervous system, or both. However, we see no reason for why a behavioural expression should be a need if its tendency builds up with time and not so if other motivational processes are responsible for its variation. We also argue that although species-specific motor activity sometimes might appear to be reinforcing to an animal. this is, in most cases, difficult to ascertain. Moreover, a need may be present even if the behaviour is not self-rewarding. In assessing the needs of animals we argue for a holistic approach to the motiva- tional control of behaviour. Rather than focusing on one aspect, e.g. whether the behaviour is caused by external or internal factors, we suggest that the total behavioural system is analyzed. When consid- ering even rather simple and well-defined behaviour, like nest building of domestic sows (Sus scr~fa ) and dust-bathing of domestic hens (Gallus gallus), such a complicated picture emerges, that we re- gard it as impossible to denote the performance of some behaviour patterns of a species as 'needs" as opposed to other elements of the repertoire. We reject the 'catalogue approach', but not the idea that there are needs which are best described as ethological; in the sense that preventing an animal from carrying out a certain behaviour in a given situation might cause signs of suffering. There are probabl~ needs associated with the performance of all species-specific behaviour and those are a complex of obtaining a goal and performing the motor patterns. Whether one wants to describe behaviour as a need therefore depends on a knowledge of the environmental context. Thus, a behaviour may be a called need in a particular situation.
Claims about animal welfare based on data regarding the pituitary-adrenocortical axis should be viewed with scepticism because of the lack of consistency between the results of different studies. Occasional sampling of blood does not give an accurate description of the episodic nature of corticosteroid secretion. Too little is known about how chronic stress affects the activity of the pituitary-adrenocortical axis, or whether changes in mean daily level or in the nature of the secretory episodes are most important. More attention should be paid to basic research to understand the nature of this biological system rather than to premature attempts to “measure” animal welfare by corticosteroid values.
Scientific research on ‘animal welfare’ began because of ethical concerns over the quality of life of animals, and the public looks to animal welfare research for guidance regarding these concerns. The conception of animal welfare used by scientists must relate closely to these ethical concerns if the orientation of the research and the interpretation of the findings is to address them successfully.
At least three overlapping ethical concerns are commonly expressed regarding the quality of life of animals: (1) that animals should lead natural lives through the development and use of their natural adaptations and capabilities, (2) that animals should feel well by being free from prolonged and intense fear, pain, and other negative states, and by experiencing normal pleasures, and (3) that animals should function well, in the sense of satisfactory health, growth and normal functioning of physiological and behavioural systems. Various scientists have proposed restricted conceptions of animal welfare that relate to only one or other of these three concerns. Some such conceptions are based on value positions about what is truly important for the quality of life of animals or about the nature of human responsibility for animals in their care. Others are operational claims: (1) that animal welfare research must focus on the functioning of animals because subjective experiences fall outside the realm of scientific enquiry, or (2) that studying the functioning of animals is sufficient because subjective experiences and functioning are closely correlated. We argue that none of these positions provides fully satisfactory guidance for animal welfare research.
We suggest instead that ethical concerns about the quality of life of animals can be better captured by recognizing three classes of problems that may arise when the adaptations possessed by an animal do not fully correspond to the challenges posed by its current environment. (I) If animals possess adaptations that no longer serve a significant function in the new environment, then unpleasant subjective experiences may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant disruption to biological functioning. Thus, a bucket-fed calf may experience a strong, frustrated desire to suck, even though it obtains adequate milk. (2) If the environment poses challenges for which the animal has no corresponding adaptation, then functional problems may arise, yet these may not be accompanied by significant effects on subjective feelings. Thus, a pig breathing polluted air may develop lung damage without appearing to notice or mind the problem. (3) Where animals have adaptations corresponding to the kinds of environmental challenges they face, problems may still arise if the adaptations prove inadequate. For example, an animal's thermoregulatory adaptations may be insufficient in a very cold environment such that the animal both feels poorly and functions poorly. We propose that all three types of problems are causes of ethical concern over the quality of life of animals and that they together define the subject matter of animal welfare science.
In hedonic theories of motivation, ‘motivational affective states’ (MASs) are typically seen as adaptations which motivate certain types of behaviour, especially in situations where a flexible or learned response is more adaptive than a rigid or reflexive one. MASs can be negative (eg unpleasant feelings of hunger or pain) or positive (eg pleasant feelings associated with eating and playing). Hedonic theories often portray negative and positive MASs as opposite ends of a one-dimensional scale.
We suggest that natural selection has favoured negative and positive affect as separate processes to solve two different types of motivational problems. We propose that negative MASs (eg thirst, fear) evolved in response to ‘need situations’ where the fitness benefit of an action has increased, often because the action is needed to cope with a threat to survival or reproductive success. We propose that these negative MASs develop in response to a change in the body (eg dehydration) or the environment (eg the approach of a predator) which creates the need for action, and that negative MASs can become intense and prolonged if the threat to fitness is high and persistent. We propose that positive MASs evolved in ‘opportunity situations ‘ where an action (eg playing, exploring) has become advantageous because the fitness cost of performing it has declined. We propose that these positive MASs occur during, or as a result of, the performance of types of behaviour which are beneficial for fitness at a variety of times, not only when they are required to meet immediate needs; and that the pleasure inherent in the behaviour motivates the animal to perform it when the cost of so doing is sufficiently low. Some behaviour (eg eating) can be motivated by both positive and negative affect. Other behaviour, such as playing or fleeing from a predator, may be motivated largely by positive or negative affect alone. Our hypothesis needs to be tested, but we suggest that it corresponds well to common human experience.
The hypothesis provides a basis for predicting whether an aspect of animal management is likely to cause strong and prolonged negative affect (‘suffering’), or to prevent animals from experiencing certain types of pleasure. This distinction is important for bringing animal welfare assessment into line with ethical concerns.
Six domestic sows were kept in pens enriched with a soil bed and a straw rack (rich situation), and six were kept in identically shaped pens with no soil or straw (poor situation). Ss' behavior was videotaped during the 48 hrs preceding farrowing. No significant differences between the situations were found with regard to the total frequencies of nesting behavior. The relative frequencies of behavior patterns mainly performed at the beginning of the nesting period (nosing and rooting) were significantly higher in the poor environment, while those mainly performed later during nesting (carrying material, arranging) were more frequent in the rich environment. Factor analysis of behavior in the rich situation suggested the existence of 2 different clusters of behavior patterns, associated with either a "preparation factor" (standing, nosing and rooting) or a "nest material factor" (walking, carrying material and arranging). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In order to obtain a better knowledge of the behaviour of the domestic pig, a small population was established in 1978 near Edinburgh in an enclosure with several types of habitat, including woodland and bog. Over a 3·5-year period 13 different groups were studied with each group typically containing a boar, four sows, a young sub-adult boar and an immature gilt. The sow and her piglets were allowed to determine the time of weaning and, apart from providing food for maintenance and reproduction, handling was kept to a minimum. The behaviour of these pigs, which included most of the behaviour of the European wild boar, is described in a general manner for the non-specialist.
In this review we attempt to link the efficiency by which animals behave (economy of animal behaviour) to a neuronal substrate and subjective states to arrive at a definition of animal welfare which broadens the scope of its study. Welfare is defined as the balance between positive (reward, satisfaction) and negative (stress) experiences or affective states. The state of this balance may range from positive (good welfare) to negative (poor welfare). These affective states are momentary or transient states which occur against the background of and are integrated with the state of this balancing system. As will be argued the efficiency in behaviour requires that, for instance, satisfaction is like a moving target: reward provides the necessary feedback to guide behaviour; it is a not steady-state which can be maintained for long. This balancing system is reflected in the brain by the concerted action of opioid and mesolimbic dopaminergic systems. The state of this system reflects the coping capacity of the animal and is determined by previous events. In other words, this integrative approach of behavioural biology and neurobiology aims at understanding how the coping capacity of animals may be affected and measured. We argue that this balancing system underlies the economy of behaviour. Furthermore we argue that among other techniques anticipation in Pavlovian conditioning is an easy and useful tool to assess the state of this balancing system: for estimating the state of an animal in terms of welfare we focus on the conditions when an animal is facing a challenge.
The increasingly widespread use of the term ethological ‘need’, implying that the welfare of animals in intensive husbandry systems will suffer if they are unable to express a normal range of behaviour patterns, has been criticized on the grounds that the term has not been clearly defined nor does it rest on a solid scientific foundation. In this critical review, evidence is presented which is consistent with the idea that there are cases in which the performance of behaviour itself does have motivationally significant consequences which are not necessarily related to functional requirements. For example, hens go through nest-building sequences during pre-laying behaviour, even though the nest they created previously is still available. This kind of finding is difficult to explain without involving the concept of ethological ‘need’. Existing models of motivation are shown to be inadequate in explaining much of the behaviour seen in barren or impoverished environments, or when the animals are highly motivated in situations where consummatory behaviour is difficult to carry out. A modified model which can account for the occurrence of these stereotyped, abnormal and repetitive behaviour patterns is presented. The problems raised by equating the term ‘need’ with ‘necessity’ are discussed, particularly in the context of intensive environments where animals are faced with the task of occupying long periods of time with a limited range of behaviour patterns; the authors agree with Dawkins that one solution is its replacement by the concept of ‘elasticity’, but argue that the notion of ‘necessity’ may need to be broadened.
In the course of evolution organisms have been adapted to a species-specific part of their environment. This part, their Umwelt, is continuously on the move; it is not only transformed during a lifetime, but it also changes from hour to hour and from day to day. All these shifts and changes are mainly non random. Vertebrates respond, influence and anticipate most of these Umwelt-changes by performing both fixed (routines), and flexible, behaviours. The organism is in a continuous interactional state with its dynamic Umwelt. Three processes underlying and shaping this interactional state are discussed: 1) ontogenetic processes (like imprinting) and their relevance for adult behaviour 2) learning or the capability to associate causally related events (conditioning and operant learning) and 3) constraints in adaptation (the need to perform species-specific behaviour programs). Most if not all of these behaviour programs are parts of regulatory systems that serve the control of relevant Umwelt measures. Such programs are like scenarios that include their own expectancies. During acute and chronic stress, expectancies are not fulfilled; there is a reduced predictability and/or controllability of relevant Umwelt changes. Stress results from uncertainties experienced during and inherent in a given interactional state. The amount of stress can be measured in terms of changes in transitional probabilities of successive events. During acute stress, conflict behaviours (e.g. redirected, ambivalent and displacement activities) arise, whereas chronic stress brings about disturbed behaviour (stereotypies, injurious activities etc.) The significance of individual differences in coping is discussed briefly. It is argued that all Vertebrates have homologous emotions that play a critical role in shaping behaviour programs. Long-lasting negative emotions occur during chronic stress and characterize disturbed welfare.
A computer-based decision support system for welfare assessment in pregnant sows was constructed. This system uses a description of a husbandry system as input and produces a welfare score on a scale from 0 to 10 as output. Pregnant sows were chosen as a case in search for a formalised, i.e. structured, transparent, yet flexible procedure to 'objectively' assess the overall welfare status of farm animals in relation to the housing and management system based on available (and undisputed) scientific knowledge. The procedure to construct the welfare model and to calculate welfare scores is described. Decision making is based on the needs and distress of the animal thus from the perspective of the animal.The sow welfare (SOWEL) model was validated using expert opinion in that there is a substantial agreement between pig welfare scientists and the model about the ranking of housing systems and, to a lesser degree, about the weighting of attributes of housing systems. The most important welfare-relevant attributes concern aspects of social contact, space, and substrate. The housing systems were roughly divided into low-, mid-, and high-welfare systems. Low-welfare systems were conventional housing in individual stalls and tethers, while high-welfare systems in our data set all provided substrate and outdoor access.For practical applications further development of the decision support system is recommended, as well as ongoing validation, upgrading and extending of the model, e.g. to other species. The results show that integrated welfare assessment based on available scientific knowledge is possible.Keywords : farm animal welfare assessment, pigs, applied ethology, housing systems, model, computer, knowledge base, expert system.
A total of 22 scientists contributed to a consensus-oriented conceptual framework for assessment of farm animal welfare, addressing priority issues in cattle, pigs, and chickens. They used the Delphi method, in which participants contributed anonymously through e-mail. The framework puts welfare in an evolutionary context. Welfare problems arise when animals are kept in environments to which they have difficulty adapting. For integrated welfare assessment, design criteria and welfare performance criteria must be used in which the former may be weighted based on the latter, which, in turn, may be weighted based on the aspects of intensity, duration, and incidence. The main performance criteria were pathological states, abnormal behaviors, and behavioral restrictions. Space, social conditions, and substrates were the main design criteria. Conventional housing systems generally ranked lower than alternative systems. In this article, we show that a broad consensus basis exists among welfare scientists concerning the assessment of farm animal welfare
The problem of how to objectively assess the overall welfare status of animals under farming conditions has contributed to an ongoing debate that has hampered actual decision making on animal welfare. For this reason we constructed a model based on the assumed hierarchical organization of the animals' needs for overall welfare assessment in the case of pregnant sows. This model is implemented in a computer-based decision support system that takes a description of a housing and management system as input and produces a welfare score as output. A formalized procedure was used to construct the model for welfare assessment in pregnant sows on the basis of available scientific knowledge. This SOWEL (from SOw WELfare) model contains 37 attributes that describe the welfare-relevant properties of housing and management systems. In the decision support system these attributes are linked to scientific statements and a list of needs to provide a scientific basis for welfare assessment. Weighting factors that represent the relative importance of the attributes are derived from the scientific statements about the various welfare performance criteria that have been measured by scientists. The welfare score is calculated as the weighted average score. All information in the decision support system is stored in tables in a relational database such that newly available knowledge and insights can be incorporated to refine the model. The model has been developed in line with several existing models but it differs from these models in that it is the first to provide a formalized procedure to explicate the reasoning steps involved in welfare assessment based on available scientific knowledge.
The adaptive responses of the body that maintain homeostasis in response to stressors can be called "allostasis", meaning "achieving stability through change". Mediators produced by the immune system, autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenal(HPA) axis produce allostasis. The brain also shows allostasis, involving the activation of nerve cell activity and the release of neurotransmitters. When the individual is challenged repeatedly or when the allostatic systems remain turned on when no longer needed, the mediators of allostasis can produce a wear and tear on the body and brain that has been termed "allostatic load". Examples of allostatic load include the accumulation of abdominal fat, the loss of bone minerals and the atrophy of nerve cells in the hippocampus. Studies of the hippocampus as a target of stress and sex hormones have revealed a considerable degree of structural plasticity and remodeling in the adult brain that differs between the sexes. Three forms of hippocampal structural plasticity are affected by circulating hormones: (1) repeated stress causes remodeling of dendrites in the CA3 region; (2) different modalities of stress suppress neurogenesis of dentate gyrus granule neurons; (3) ovarian steroids regulate synapse formation during the estrous cycle of female rats. All three forms of structural remodeling of the hippocampus are mediated by hormones working in concert with excitatory amino acids (EAA) and NMDA receptors. EAA and NMDA receptors are also involved in neuronal death that is caused in pyramidal neurons by seizures, by ischemia and by severe and prolonged psychosocial stress. The aging brain seems to be more vulnerable to such effects, although there are considerable individual differences in vulnerability that can be developmentally determined. Moreover, the brain retains considerable resilience in the face of stress, and estrogens appear to play a role in this resilience. "Resilience is an example of successful allostasis in which wear and tear is minimized, and estrogens exemplify the type of agent that works against the allostatic load associated with aging." This review discusses the current status of work on underlying mechanisms for protection and damage.
A comparative study was performed to evaluate the differences in behavioral and physiological stress responses during milking between cows that were milked by an automated milking system (AM-cows) and cows that were milked in a conventional tandem parlor (TM-cows). In a randomized design, 36 primiparous Holstein-Friesian dairy cows were observed and blood sampled (1-min intervals) individually during milking. AM-cows spent less time standing with their heads outside the feeding trough than TM-cows and had a lower heart rate. In addition, AM-cows had lower maximum plasma adrenaline and noradrenaline concentrations during milking. No differences were found in the number of steps. After tactile stimulation of the teats either by hand or by the cleaning brush, mean oxytocin concentrations did not differ. In AM-cows, however, elevated oxytocin levels were prolonged at the end of milking. Averaged over the first five blood samples, AM-cows tended to have higher plasma cortisol concentrations than TM-cows, but median fecal concentrations of the cortisol metabolite dioxoandrostane were comparable. Maximum quarter milk flow, maximum udder milk flow and residual milk as a percentage of the total milk volume was comparable. From this study it is concluded that behavioral and physiological responses, both in automatically and in conventionally milked cows, were relatively low and were typical for cows being milked. We therefore conclude that, as far as the welfare of the dairy cow during milking is concerned, automatic milking and conventional milking are equally acceptable.
Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards EdenBehavioural Aspects of Stress
- J Webster
- M B M Blackwell
- H Bracke
- P R Hopster Wiepkema
Webster, J. (1995), Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards Eden, Oxford: Blackwell. M.B.M. BRACKE AND H. HOPSTER Wiepkema, P. R. (1987), ''Behavioural Aspects of Stress,'' in P. R. Wiepkema and P. W. M. van Adrichem (eds.), Biology of Stress in Farm Animals: An Integrative Approach, Dordrecht: Martinus Nijhoff, pp. 113–133.
Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Livestock Kept in der Intensive Husbandry ConditionsThe Misbehavior of Organisms
- R W R Brambell
- Hmso
- London
- K Breland
- M Breland
Brambell, R. W. R. (1965), Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Livestock Kept in der Intensive Husbandry Conditions, Cmnd 28, HMSO, London. Breland, K. and M. Breland (1961), ''The Misbehavior of Organisms,'' American Journal of Psychology 16, pp. 681–684.
The Misbehavior of Organisms”American Journal of Psychology16681684
- K Breland
- M Breland
Contra Freeloading Decreases with Age and Social Isolation in Red Jungle Fowl and White Leghorn Layers
- C Lindqvist
- P Jensen
Lindqvist, C. and P. Jensen (2003), ''Contra Freeloading Decreases with Age and
Social Isolation in Red Jungle Fowl and White Leghorn Layers,'' in V. Ferrante
(ed.), Proceedings of the 37th International Congress of the ISAE, Fondazione
Iniziative Zooprofilattiche e Zootecniche, Brescia, p. 159.
en meten? Over soorteigen gedrag en dierenhuisvestingsbeleid bij productiedieren, proefdieren en plezierdieren [Fitting and Measuring About Species-Specific Behaviour and Policy Making on Housing for Livestock, Laboratory Animals and Pets
- E Röder
- R Bos
Animal Welfare Studies: Epidemiological Considerations
- P Willeberg
- J Webster
Webster, J. (1995), Animal Welfare: A Cool Eye Towards Eden, Oxford: Blackwell.
Beleidsnota Dierenwelzijn The Hague
LNV (2002). Beleidsnota Dierenwelzijn, Maart 2002 (Animal Welfare Policy
Memorandum, March 2002). The Hague: LNV.
Toekomst voor de veehouderij Agenda voor een herontwerp van de sector [Future for Livestock Production Agenda for a Redesign of the Sector
Wijffels (2001), Toekomst voor de veehouderij. Agenda voor een herontwerp van de
sector [Future for Livestock Production. Agenda for a Redesign of the Sector],
Report of the Commission Wijffels, The Hague.
Scientists' Assessment of the Impact of Housing and Management on Animal Welfare
- Anonymous
Anonymous (2001), ''Scientists' Assessment of the Impact of Housing and Management on Animal Welfare,'' Journal of Applied Animal Welfare Science 4, pp. 1-52.
Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the Welfare of Livestock Kept in der Intensive Husbandry Conditions
- R W R Brambell
Brambell, R. W. R. (1965), Report of the Technical Committee to Enquire into the
Welfare of Livestock Kept in der Intensive Husbandry Conditions, Cmnd 28,
HMSO, London.
Beleidsnota Dierenwelzijn
- Lnv
LNV (2002). Beleidsnota Dierenwelzijn, Maart 2002 (Animal Welfare Policy
Memorandum, March 2002). The Hague: LNV.
The Behaviour of Pigs in a Seminatural Environment
- A Stolba
- D G M Wood-Gush
Stolba, A. and D. G. M. Wood-Gush (1989), ''The Behaviour of Pigs in a Seminatural Environment,'' Animal Production 48, pp. 419-425.
- F M Toates
Toates, F. M. (1995), Stress: Conceptual and Biological Aspects, Chichester: Wiley.
Agenda voor een herontwerp van de sector [Future for Livestock Production
- Wijffels
Wijffels (2001), Toekomst voor de veehouderij. Agenda voor een herontwerp van de
sector [Future for Livestock Production. Agenda for a Redesign of the Sector],
Report of the Commission Wijffels, The Hague.
Proceedings of the Society for Veterinary Epidemilogy and Preventive Medicine
- P Willeberg
Willeberg, P. (1991), ''Animal Welfare Studies: Epidemiological Considerations,''
Proceedings of the Society for Veterinary Epidemilogy and Preventive Medicine,
London, pp. 76-82.