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Incidence of Cladosporium, Alternaria and total fungal spores in the atmosphere of Melbourne (Australia) over three years
Abstract and Figures
A Burkard spore trap was used to monitor daily fungal spore counts in the atmosphere of Melbourne (Australia) between October
1991 and December 1994. Annual total spore counts varied widely (range 345 770 in 1994 to 1 106 037 in 1992), of which approximately
half were identified asCladosporium sp. and only about 1%Alternaria sp. Highest daily total spore counts were recorded late-summer through to mid-winter, probably corresponding to senescence
of annual grasses and leaf fall. Spore counts were negatively correlated with rainfall (P<0.05), significantly correlated with average temperature (P<0.001), and showed a highly significant linear relationship with cumulative temperature throughout the year.
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... Spores from Cladosporium and Alternaria, together with Aspergillaceae, are widely studied spore types from aerobiological and allergological perspectives owing to their abundance in the indoors and outdoors environment and their effects on human health (Burge & Rogers, 2000;Delfino et al., 1997). Its presence in the air has been detected practically throughout the world, such as in Europe (Grinn-Gofroń et al., 2019;Skjøth et al., 2016), Africa (Bardei et al., 2017;Berman & Hons, 2013), India (Reddy et al., 2015) America (Henríquez et al., 2001;Mallo et al., 2011;Martínez Blanco et al., 2016;Patel et al., 2018), or Australia (Mitakakis et al., 1997;Tham et al., 2019). ...
... The previous studies suggested that temperatures and relative humidity were the meteorological parameters displaying strongest correlations with the spore concentrations of Cladosporium and Alternaria, i.e. being positively and negatively correlated with temperatures and relative humidity respectively, the last parameter not favouring particles buoyancy (Mitakakis et al., 1997;Oliveira et al., 2009;Recio et al., 2012;O'Connor et al., 2014;Sadyś et al., 2016;Ianovici, 2016;Almeida et al., 2018). Sanchez-Reyes et al. (2009) also found similar behaviour in the case of Alternaria. ...
Because no consistent previous aerobiological studies exist from Qatar, the aim of this study is to define the seasonality and intradiurnal behaviour of two airborne fungal spores (Alternaria and Cladosporium) and the role that, in such arid scene, the meteorological parameters play on the spore concentrations.
... Spores from Cladosporium and Alternaria, together with Aspergillaceae, are widely studied spore types from aerobiological and allergological perspectives owing to their abundance in the indoors and outdoors environment and their effects on human health (Burge & Rogers, 2000;Delfino et al., 1997). Its presence in the air has been detected practically throughout the world, such as in Europe (Grinn-Gofroń et al., 2019;Skjøth et al., 2016), Africa (Bardei et al., 2017;Berman & Hons, 2013), India (Reddy et al., 2015) America (Henríquez et al., 2001;Mallo et al., 2011;Martínez Blanco et al., 2016;Patel et al., 2018), or Australia (Mitakakis et al., 1997;Tham et al., 2019). ...
... The previous studies suggested that temperatures and relative humidity were the meteorological parameters displaying strongest correlations with the spore concentrations of Cladosporium and Alternaria, i.e. being positively and negatively correlated with temperatures and relative humidity respectively, the last parameter not favouring particles buoyancy (Mitakakis et al., 1997;Oliveira et al., 2009;Recio et al., 2012;O'Connor et al., 2014;Sadyś et al., 2016;Ianovici, 2016;Almeida et al., 2018). Sanchez-Reyes et al. (2009) also found similar behaviour in the case of Alternaria. ...
Daily monitoring of airborne fungal spores was carried out for the first time in Al Khor city, Qatar, using a Hirst type 7-day recording volumetric spore trap, from May 2017 to May 2019. During the sampling period, the annual and monthly fluctuations, as well as intradiurnal variations of airborne fungal spore concentrations, were evaluated. Cladosporium, followed by Alternaria, were the spore types most abundant in the atmosphere of the city, with a strong interannual variability in the atmospheric concentrations being observed. The Annual Spore Integrals (ASIns) were 3334 and 1172 spore * day/m3 (2017–2018), and 6796 and 1538 spore * day/m3 (2018–2019) for Cladosporium and Alternaria, respectively. Total daily spore concentrations showed significantly positive correlations with mean, minimum, and maximum temperatures but significantly negative correlations with relative humidity. However, due to the scarce rainfalls’ days, we did not find a statistically significant correlations between Cladosporium and Alternaria spore concentrations and this parameter. Despite this, the spore peaks were strongly related to precipitations that occurred during the previous month. In general, no significant correlations were found with wind speed but, regarding wind direction, the higher percentage of spores were collected when wind blows from the 4th quadrant (NW). According to the intradiurnal pattern, Cladosporium fungal spores displayed their maximum daily concentration during 8:00–10:00 h in the morning, with a second peak in the afternoon, while for Alternaria, the maximum peaks were observed between 08:00 and 14:00 h. Because no consistent previous aerobiological studies exist from Qatar, the aim of this study is to define the seasonality and intradiurnal behaviour of these two airborne fungal spore and the role that, in such arid scene, the meteorological parameters play on the spore concentrations.
... Eucalypt trees in Australia tend to drop leaves in response to drought, increasing litter on the ground, which promotes the growth of Alternaria spores (Bass & Morgan, 1997). In addition to leave fall, the dieback of annual grasses favours Alternaria growth (Mitakakis et al., 1997). ...
There is a need for information on pollen exposure to assess allergy risk. Monitoring of aeroallergens in a city is usually limited to the use of a single trap for the whole area. While a single trap provides enough information on background pollen concentration for the area, varying pollen exposure across different urban environments, however, is not considered. In this study, we analysed aerobiological data of three pollen seasons (2017–2020) recorded with a volumetric pollen trap in Sydney, Australia. In order to assess spatial differences in pollen exposure across the city, we installed ten gravimetric traps recording pollen deposition for eight weeks during the summer of 2019/2020. We considered the influence of meteorological variables, land use, urbanisation and distance to the sea. Our results showed differences in pollen season characteristics across the three analysed seasons and correlations with meteorological parameters. Considering all years, we found for Poaceae and Alternaria the strongest positive correlation with mean temperature and for Myrtaceae and Cupressaceae with maximum temperature. Likewise, there were negative correlations with humidity (Myrtaceae, Cupressaceae, Alternaria) and precipitation (Myrtaceae, Cupressaceae). Days with medically relevant pollen and spore concentrations varied between years and we recorded the highest amount in 2017/2018 for Poaceae and Alternaria and in 2019/2020 for Myrtaceae. In addition, we found spatial and temporal variations of pollen deposition. However, we did not detect significant correlations between pollen deposition and land use, which can be attributable to drought conditions prior to the sampling campaign and the temporal setting in the pollen season. This study highlights the importance of continuous volumetric aerobiological monitoring as well as the assessment of pollen exposure at several locations across a large urban area.
... Harvest time corresponds to the June-October term depending on the plants that Cladosporium and Alternaria can live on as pathogens and that can be released and increase the spore concentration in the atmosphere (Landecker, 1996). The seasonal pattern of Cladosporium generally follows the life cycle of the local vegetation (Mitakakis et al., 1997). Many factors affect the concentration of Cladosporium and Alternaria spores in the atmosphere, including geobotanical characteristics of the region, vegetation, climate, the types of fungal spores, proximity and abundance of the source of fungal spore and sporulation periods of them (Hjelmroos, 1993;Şakıyan and İnceoğlu, 2003;lanovici, 2016;Sindt et al., 2016;Grinn-Gofron et al., 2016;Olsen et al., 2020;Damialis and Gioulekas, 2006). ...
This aeropalynological study aims to determine the inter-annual and seasonal variation of atmospheric spores belonging to Cladosporium Link and Alternaria Nees genera during the three years. Cladosporium and Alternaria spores are generally recorded as dominant in many atmospheric fungal spore studies and have high allergic effects on susceptible individuals. The species belonging to these two genera may also live as pathogens on the plants and cause low yield. This study was carried out for three years, between January 2018 to December 2020. Durham sampler, which is the device of the gravimetric method, was used in the research. A total of 17399 Cladosporium and Alternaria spores were recorded in the Gelibolu (Çanakkale) atmosphere for three years. The total numbers of Cladosporium spores were found about five times more than the total numbers of Alternaria spores. The maximum spore levels were recorded in June for both spore types. Summer months can be reported as a risky period in terms of Alternaria and Cladosporium pathogenicity and atmospheric fungal spore allergy in the region.
... The monitoring of fungal spores in Timisoara revealed the summer as the most favourable season for Cladosporium occurrence. Many surveys of the occurrence of Cladosporium spores in different regions of the world clearly show their dominance in comparison with other spores (Mitakakis et al., 1997). The present study will contribute to our knowledge of airborne spores in Romania. ...
An aeromycological study to identify and quantify allergenic fungi and their fluctuations was conducted at Timisoara. The diversity of the aeromycoflora in this study, based on the recovery of fungal propagules by the volumetric sampling method was conducted for 30 days using the Lanzoni sampler. The study showed that the most prevalent (major components) fungal spores in the air of Timisoara were Cladosporium spp., Drechslera/Helminthosporium spp., Alternaria spp. and Epicoccum spp. The abundant genera were Cladosporium, Fusarium/Leptosphaeria, Drechslera/Helminthosporium, Alternaria and Torula. Cladosporium was the most abundant fungal spore type (41%) collected throughout the period of study reaching.
... She found positive statistically significant correlations with maximum, minimum and mean temperature, and sunshine hours while negative statistically significant relationships with dew point temperature and air pressure. Contrary results were found for rainfall, relative humidity and wind speed by other researchers (Grinn-Gofroń 2008;Herrero and Zaldivar 1997;Hjelmroos 1993;Katial et al. 1997;Kurkela 1997;Mediavilla Molina et al. 1998;Mitakakis et al. 1997;Oliveira et al. 2009a;Stępalska and Wołek 2005;Troutt and Levetin 2001). However, this review did not include a wind direction analysis as this is a rarely studied parameter (Recio et al. 2012;Sánchez Reyes et al. 2009). ...
This study determined the relationship between airborne concentration of Cladosporium spp. spores and wind speed and direction using real data (local wind measured by weather station) and modelled data (air mass flow computed with the aid of HYbrid Single Particle Lagrangian Trajectory model). Air samples containing fungal conidia were taken at an urban site (Worcester, UK) for a period of five consecutive years using a spore trap of the Hirst design. A threshold of ≥6000 s m⁻³ (double the clinical value) was applied in order to select high spore concentration days, when airborne transport of conidia at a regional scale was more likely to occur. Collected data were then examined using geospatial and statistical tools, including circular statistics. Obtained results showed that the greatest numbers of spore concentrations were detected in July and August, when C. herbarum, C. cladosporioides and C. macrocarpum sporulate. The circular correlation test was found to be more sensitive than Spearman’s rank test. The dominance of either local wind or the air mass on Cladosporium spore distributions varied between examined months. Source areas of this pathogen had an origin within the UK territory. Very high daily mean concentrations of Cladosporium spores were observed when daily mean local wind speed was vs ≤ 2.5 m s⁻¹ indicating warm days with a light breeze.
... In our study, Cladosporium-sensitized individuals demonstrated the lowest Th2 levels of all the fungi tested and demonstrated significantly smaller wheal sizes (data not shown). Cladosporium is one of the most common fungi in Australia (25), with a study finding Cladosporium present in more than 90% of homes (26). The high prevalence of Cladosporium in Australia could indicate most people in this study were exposed to high levels in their environment, and therefore, their cytokine response patterns were different to those of other aeroallergens. ...
Background:
Evidence suggests that specific allergen sensitisations are associated with different allergic diseases which may reflect different underlying immune profiles. We aimed to examine the cytokine profiles of individuals sensitised to eight common aeroallergens.
Methods:
We used data from the Tasmanian Longitudinal Health Study (TAHS) a population-based cohort study of 45 year olds. Serum cytokines (IL-4, IL-5, IL-6, IL-8, IL-10, TNF-α) were measured in 1,157 subjects using the Lincoplex assays. Participants underwent skin prick testing for house dust mite (HDM), cat, grasses and molds. Multivariable linear regression was used to compare serum cytokine levels between sensitised and non-atopic subjects.
Results:
The prevalence of allergic sensitisation to any aeroallergen was 51% (95%CI 47%,54%). Being sensitised to any aeroallergen was strongly associated with current asthma (OR=3.7, 95%CI 2.6,5.3) and being sensitised to molds was associated with a very high risk of current asthma (OR=11.4, 95% 5.4,24.2). The geometric mean (GM) levels of Th2 cytokines (IL-4, IL-5 and IL-6) for adults sensitised to Cladosporium were significantly lower than the levels for non-atopic individuals [IL-4 ratio of GMs=0.25, 95%CI 0.10-0.62, p=0.003; IL-5 GM=0.55, 95%CI 0.30-0.99, p=0.05; and IL-6 GM=0.50, 95%CI 0.24-1.07, p=0.07]. Individuals sensitised to other aeroallergens all showed elevated Th2 cytokine levels.
Conclusion:
First large population-based study to demonstrate reduced Th2 cytokines levels in people sensitised to mold. Underlying biological mechanisms driving allergic inflammatory responses in adults sensitised to molds may differ from those sensitised to other aeroallergens. These findings suggest that it may be necessary to tailor treatments in individuals sensitised to molds compared with other aeroallergens in order to optimise outcomes. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
In heel Noord-Afrika wordt op grote schaal dadelpalmen gekweekt. In Tunesië neemt de dadelpalm een strategische plaats in de sociaal-economische stabiliteit van semi-aride en aride gebieden. Ver-scheidene biotische en abiotische factoren kunnen de dadelpalmteelt in gevaar brengen. In 2017 observeerden we uitgebreide symptomen van plotselinge achteruitgang, bladverwelking en bladvlek-ken op dadelpalmen in zuidelijk Tunesië. Fusarium was het meest waargenomen schimmel geslacht. De sequenties van TEF1, Calm1 en RPB2 werden gebruikt om de Fusarium stammen te identifice-ren. De voornaamste gedetecteerde soort was F. proliferatum, en in veel mindere mate F. brachygib-bosum, F. caatingaense, F. clavum, F. incarnatum, en F. solani. Alle Fusarium soorten waren patho-geen en voldeden aan Koch's postulaten. De F. proliferatum stammen produceerden vooral fumo-nisinen (FB's), beauvericine (BEA), en, in mindere mate, enniatinen (ENN's) en moniliformine (MON). Alle F. brachygibbosum stammen produceerden lage gehalten BEA, diacetoxyscirpenol, en neosolaniol; twee stammen produceerden ook T-2 toxine, en een enkele stam HT-2 toxine. Fusarium caatingaense, F. clavum en F. incarnatum produceerden alleen BEA. De F. solani stammen produceerden MON, BEA, en ENNs. Voor het derde syndroom, bladvlekken, worden Alternaria soorten worden echter gerapporteerd als de meest frequente ziekteverwekkers. Vijftig stammen werden geïsoleerd en geïdentificeerd als Alternaria en Curvularia. Door sequentie-bepaling van de allergen-alt-1a, GPD en calm1 genen konden we 35 stammen, geïdentificeerd als A. arborescens, A. tenuissima en A.alternata soorten, en 10 stammen, geïdentificeerd als A. consortialis. Op basis van de analyse van de seqentie van de gecombineerde Internal Transcribed Spacer, GPD en Elongation factor, werden alle 5 Curvularia stammen geïdentificeerd als C. spicifera. Alle Alternaria en Curvularia soorten die op dadelpalm plantjes getest werden, bleken pathogeen te zijn, en voldeden aan Koch's postulaten. Het vermogen om in vitro mycotoxinen te produceren werd geanalyseerd. Geen van de A. consortialis stammen produceerde enig mycotoxine, terwijl meer dan 80% van de stammen uit de Alternaria sectie zeer wisselende hoeveelheden van meerdere mycotoxi-nen produceerde, zoals AOH, AME, TEN en TA. Bovendien produceerde 40% van de stammen van de Alternaria sectie ook ALT. We testten ook de productie van FB's. Enkel de C. spicifera stammen vertoonden het vermogen fumonisinen te produceren. Dit werk rapporteert voor het eerst een uitgebreide multidisciplinaire studie van schimmel pathogene soorten die in verband gebracht worden met sudden decline disease, bladverwelking en bladvlekken op dadelpalmen, waarbij zowel fytopathologische als voedselveiligheids kwesties aan de orde komen. De gevoeligheid van de isolaten voor zeven fungiciden werd geëvalueerd zowel in in vitro proeven als in het veld. In vitro bleken de contactfungiciden uitstekend te werken. Van de doordringende fungiciden vertoonde Luna Experience een hogere werkzaamheid tegen Fusarium soorten om de myceliumgroei te remmen. Ook vertoonde het een vergelijkbaar effect tegen Alternaria en Curvula-ria soorten. Wat contactfungiciden betreft, werd de beste remming gerapporteerd voor Biobac WP. En het derde fungicide dat een uitstekende werking tegen Alternaria vertoonde was Carial Top. Een veldproef met deze drie beste fungiciden tegen dadelpalm bladziekte veroorzaakt door A. arbores-cens, bevestigde hun werkzaamheid
Periods when asthma admissions peaks have serious implications for asthma sufferers and hospitals. We assessed the association between aeroallergen exposure and childhood asthma peak periods during two grass pollen seasons using the Melbourne Air Pollen Children and Adolescent Health (MAPCAH) study conducted in Melbourne, Australia. Two peak periods were identified. Effect modifications by atopy and sex were considered. All pollen 2 days prior was associated with increased odds of these peak periods. Same day fungal spores, but not pollen, were important. Grass at lag 2 was associated with increased odds 1.03 (95%CI 1.01, 1.05) as was the same day Alternaria 1.02 (1.00, 1.04) per spore/m³ for boys. In addition to pollen, fungal spores particularly Alternaria may result in days of high exacerbations during pollen seasons. Further guidance is needed to better prepare families/carers with information about the increased risk of asthma attacks in children prior to pollen seasons.
The microbiological traits and susceptibility of 446 uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains of community origin were studied and diagnosed in Ponta Grossa, Paraná. Based on their microbiological traits, seven groups of uropathogenic Escherichia coli were determined: lactose-
positive, lactose-negative, alpha-hemolytic, beta-hemolytic, and three biotype codes with frequencies higher than 10%. Twenty-nine biotype codes were identified; three lactose-positive ones were prominent, representing about 63.5% of the isolates. It was observed that 27% of the strains did not show resistance and were sensitive to the 19 antimicrobials tested, while 8.9% were resistant to more than three antimicrobials among the first-choice ones. Non-lactose fermenting uropathogenic Escherichia coli strains were 13.2%; these strains had lower general susceptibility, where resistance rate to fluoroquinolones was twice as high (about 14%) when compared with the general resistance rate of 7%. Resistance rates <10% were observed for nitrofurantoin, gentamicin, and norfloxacin, indicating that these canbe used empirically, while resistance rates >20% were obtained for ampicillin, trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, and cephalotin, indicatingthat their use should be referenced by the antibiogram result.
An aerobiological study to determine the spectrum of air spora and to identify the potential aero-allergens in Auckland, New Zealand was undertaken at three different locations spanning an area of 30 km, encompassing agricultural, horticultural and forested environments within the region. Burkard volumetric 7-day recording spore traps were operated at each of three locations for 12 months period. In two locations, basidiospores (damp-spora) dominated the overall concentration of airborne species followed by “dry-spora” at the third location. The fourteen most frequent categories of fungal air spora were selected to study the influences of meteorological factors. Hourly meteorological and spore data were computed and the “Spearman Rank” correlation coefficient method was used to analyse for relationships. The results showed significant negative correlations between wind speed and basidiospores of Ganoderma, and with the coloured “basidiospores group”. Significant positive correlations were found between mean, maximum and midnight temperatures, and basidiospores of Ganoderma, Coprinues, Hypholoma, “coloured” and “hyaline” basidiospores as well as with conidia of Cladosporium and Polythrincium. The strongest correlations were demonstrated by Cladosporium conidia and Coprinus basidiospores. Relative humidity and rainfall showed significant correlations with ascospores, while Leptosphaeria ascospores showed significant strong correlations with rainfall on the day of sampling. “Aspergillus-Penicillium” type did not show any significant correlation with any of the meteorological factors.
Aeropalynological studies have shown a marked increase in recent years due to the many related disciplines that rely on this subject for information. A short analysis of this trend is followed by a presentation of the results of a 5 week survey of the airspora spectrum of an industrial site central to the greater Cape Town region (South Africa), during winter, 1987. The results indicate that fungal spores dominate the airspora spectrum during this period; with basidiospores the most dominant fungal spore and Poaceae the most dominant pollen. Daily volumetric concentrations of pollen and fungal spores are then correlated with several meteorological variables, including wind velocity, temperature, relative humidity, precipitation, atmospheric pressure and sunshine hours. Single and multiple regressional analysis indicates that significant correlations exist between pollen concentrations, temperature, relative humidity, and sunshine hours and between spore concentrations, sunshine hours and wind velocity.
In order to obtain actual data about the qualitative and quantitative occurrence of airborne fungi in The Netherlands, a viable-volumetric sample survey with the Andersen sampler was undertaken. From April 1981 to the end of June 1983, one day a week samples were taken on the unobstructed rooftop of a hospital in the N-E Netherlands. An average of 268 Colony Forming Units (CFU), per sample, per cubic metre of air were found. Almost three-quarters of the total catch consisted of seven genera, Cladosporium predominating. Botrytis showed in surprisingly high numbers when compared with other surveys, while Alternaria occurred in very low concentrations. Most atmospheric airborne spora were found between May and September. Aspergillus and Penicillium prevailed in the autumn and winter months, although were present the year-round. Momentary weather conditions seemed less important for the overall spore picture than the average meteorological characteristics for a whole season. The obtained aero-mycological information may be useful in determining clinical strategies for skin testing and serological investigations in patients with suspected mould allergies.
By means of regression analysis the Cladosporium and Alternaria spore counts for 1980–89 for Stockholm are explored and modelled at 6-hour intervals in order to find the relationship between spore presence and climate for the same time periods. Six different weather parameters are used. For Cladosporium daily mean temperature and daily precipitation seem to be consistently significant. The presence of Alternaria appears to be more complex. There is a tendency for Alternaria spore concentrations to increase with the daily precipitation, wind velocity and total cloud cover. The models are evaluated statistically.
Quantitative data on the seasonal and diurnal incidence of grass pollen in the atmosphere of
Melbourne have been obtained by using two Burkard spore traps sited 11 km apart. Grass pollen
concentrations are compared with pollen of other plants and fungal spores over two pollen seasons,
1975-76 and 1976-77. At the height of the 1975-76 pollen season, grass pollen concentrations were
greatest at night, while at the end of the same season the peak occurred in the late afternoon as has
been reported for several European cities. The aerobiological patterns are compared with the time
of pollen release in the field from plants of ryegrass (Lolium perenne).
The incidence, on exposed slides, of pollen grains and spores from the
atmosphere of Melbourne is recorded. Observations over 4½ years show that 30
types of pollen appear regularly each year and few of these are in great abundance.
The highest concentration of pollen is in the period August-December and the lowest
concentration in the period Aprii-May. In eariy spring, pollen grains from conifers
and deciduous trees are most numerous, and in later spring and summer those
from grasses and plantains predominate.
Variations in weather conditions produce variations in the duration and concentration
of the pollen cloud, both annually and within the season.
High concentrations of fungal spores, at times exceeding those of pollen
grains, occur during late spring and early summer, but follow a less clearly defined
seasonal pattern than the pollen cloud.
Pollen normally transferred by insects may at times become airborne in
significant concentration.
Grass pollen, because of its presence in the air over a long period and its
high concentration during the Melbourne pollinosis season, must be considered
important in relation to seasonal allergy. Other types of pollen and fungal spores,
which are in high concentration for a shorter period or in less quantity for a long
period, may also contribute to allergic symptoms.
Three different sampling units in current use and different sampling strategies were tested. Randomly placed microscope fields are good in estimating the daily mean concentration, but very big sample size is needed. Traverses across the slide in systematic order are best to estimate the shortterm concentrations and diurnal variation. A formula for the estimation of the error in one transverse traverse is given. Twelve transverse traverses in systematic order is also enough to estimate the daily mean concentration. One or two traverses along the length of the slide give often unreliable estimates because of the irregularities in the transverse variation of the particle concentrations on the slide. For the same reason it is not safe to choose an “effectively collecting area”. Instead the whole width of the tape should be studied.
A survey of atmospheric fungal spores was carried out in north west of Amman, Jordan for a whole year (June 1987 — May 1988), using a Burkard Seven day recording Volumetric Spore Trap. A total of 14 families and 38 genera, belonging to three classes were recorded. Daily and monthly counts of fungal spores were carried out and a spore calendar was plotted for the first time in the study area. The calendar showed that Ascomycetes were highly abundant between January and May, while maximum trapped basidiospores occurred between April and August. In contrast, Deuteromycetes were most common in October.
The fungal airspora of a large hospital in Delhi Metropolis was studied from May 1989 – April 1991, using Andersen Six Stage Volumetric Sampler and Burkard Personal Slide Sampler. Simultaneously, samples were also collected from outside the hospital to act as a control. Samplers were operated for 10 min. each time, at 10 - day intervals. Additional samples were also collected from different sections of 3 other hospitals. Some of the dominant forms encountered wereCladosporium spp.,Aspergillus flavus, Smut,Fusarium spp.,Aspergillus niger, Alternaria spp.,Penicillium citrinum, Aspergillus versicolor, andPenicillium oxalicum. Aspergillus flavus showed significantly high concentration inside hospital (n=66, x=53 CFU m–3, p
Environmental monitoring of pollen grains in the atmosphere of Melbourne has been achieved using Burkard volumetric traps. Twenty-two families of flowering plants and confiers were identified in the pollen counts. About 62% of these pollen grains belonged to trees, 20% to grasses and 9% to herbs and weedy plants. During spring and summer, the atmosphere contained about 70% of the total annual pollen count. Tree pollen, predominantly elm and cypress, occurred abundantly in late winter and spring, with grass pollen predominantly in spring and early summer. These three types of pollen grains occurred in significant amounts, together accounting for more than 60% of the total annual catch. A seasonal incidence chart (pollen calendar) for Melbourne based on 2 years observation has been constructed. This pollen calendar is useful in identifying sources of allergies against particular seasonal airborne pollen types. Comparison of the time of occurrence of a particular pollen type using the pollen calendar and the time of allergic symptoms, can lead to accurate diagnosis and preventive measures being taken. This study has confirmed that grass pollen is the major source of allergenic pollen in the external environment triggering hay fever and allergic asthma in spring and early summer in Melbourne, Australia.