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Distress Tolerance and Rational-Emotive Behavior Therapy: A New Role for Behavioral Analogue Tasks
Abstract
Rational-emotive behavior therapy (REBT) is a widely utilized treatment approach for many mental disorders, but it has been
“relatively neglected in the professional scientific literature” (Ellis 2003b). This neglect has been attributed in part to a lack of solid REBT outcome studies, which in turn stems from the difficulty
of measuring constructs of interest in REBT, such as irrational beliefs, via self-report measures. In light of these concerns,
the current paper aims to identify the potential utility of behavioral analogue laboratory tasks for advancing the understanding
of mechanisms in REBT, as well as treatment outcome using this therapeutic approach. Specifically, we focus on the utilization
of behavioral measures of distress tolerance and their application to the key REBT construct of frustration intolerance. In
identifying the parallels across distress tolerance and frustration intolerance, we consider how the incorporation of distress
tolerance tasks into REBT research can be useful in evaluating the role of frustration intolerance in the initiation, maintenance,
and treatment of disordered behavior across a broad range of clinical disorders.
... Uncertainty about clinical utilization notwithstanding, it is clear that the majority of REBT research has employed questionnaire or think-aloud (e.g., Davison and Zighelboim 1987) measures of irrational beliefs. The article in this issue by Rodman et al. (2009), on the other hand, argues for the possible utility of behavioral measures in REBT. In particular, they review a program of research by Lejuez and colleagues on a set of behavioral analog laboratory tasks intended to assess distress tolerance. ...
... In particular, they review a program of research by Lejuez and colleagues on a set of behavioral analog laboratory tasks intended to assess distress tolerance. Rodman et al. (2009) elaborate upon the relevance of this construct to the REBT conceptualization of ''low frustration tolerance'' (LFT) and consider how behavioral measures could reflect a valuable addition to the REBT assessment repertoire. For example, as indicated by Rodman et al. (2009), multimethod (selfreport and behavioral) assessment of specific components of LFT and distress tolerance could shed light on whether they reflect a highly general characteristic or whether the patient who cannot tolerate anxiety differs from the one who cannot tolerate imperfect performance or physical pain or boredom or other forms of discomfort. ...
... Rodman et al. (2009) elaborate upon the relevance of this construct to the REBT conceptualization of ''low frustration tolerance'' (LFT) and consider how behavioral measures could reflect a valuable addition to the REBT assessment repertoire. For example, as indicated by Rodman et al. (2009), multimethod (selfreport and behavioral) assessment of specific components of LFT and distress tolerance could shed light on whether they reflect a highly general characteristic or whether the patient who cannot tolerate anxiety differs from the one who cannot tolerate imperfect performance or physical pain or boredom or other forms of discomfort. ...
This article introduces a special issue of the Journal of Rational-Emotive & Cognitive-Behavior Therapy on assessment and diagnostic issues in REBT. Contributions to the special issue include reviews of (a) the psychometric properties
of irrational beliefs measures and (b) the potential utility for REBT research and practice of behavioral measures of distress
tolerance; (c) a primary study of the diagnostic and functional significance of high trait anger, with implications for classification
and REBT treatment of anger disorders; and (d) a closing commentary by John Malouff on themes raised in the earlier papers.
... The concept of low frustration tolerance (LFT) has long been implicated in Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) as a vulnerability factor for psychological distress and dysfunction. In a recent conceptual and empirical review Rodman et al. (2009), argued that LFT is closely related to distress intolerance and experiential avoidance, variables not generally linked with REBT but rather with Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (e.g., Segal et al. 2002), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (e.g., Hayes et al. 1999), and other so-called "third wave" behavior therapies (Hayes 2004). Rodman et al. (2009) reviewed research on distress intolerance and experiential avoidance and concluded that incorporation of measures of these variables could greatly benefit REBT research and practice. ...
... In a recent conceptual and empirical review Rodman et al. (2009), argued that LFT is closely related to distress intolerance and experiential avoidance, variables not generally linked with REBT but rather with Mindfulness-based Cognitive Therapy (e.g., Segal et al. 2002), Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (e.g., Hayes et al. 1999), and other so-called "third wave" behavior therapies (Hayes 2004). Rodman et al. (2009) reviewed research on distress intolerance and experiential avoidance and concluded that incorporation of measures of these variables could greatly benefit REBT research and practice. 1996). ...
... Patients who become able to stand setbacks, difficulties, and distress while continuing to pursue their fundamental goals would be seen as having achieved a very favorable outcome in REBT. Therefore, as noted by Rodman et al. (2009), the burgeoning research on experiential avoidance and distress tolerance is relevant to research and practice in REBT. ...
Experiential avoidance and distress intolerance play a central role in novel behavior therapies, yet they appear to overlap considerably the REBT concept of low frustration tolerance. Using baseline data from 100 adult cigarette smokers enrolled in a clinical trial of smoking cessation therapies, the present study evaluated the convergent validity of common questionnaire measures of experiential avoidance (Acceptance and Action Questionnaire; AAQ; Hayes et al. 2004, and Avoidance and Inflexibility Scale: AIS; Gifford et al. 2004) and behavioral measures of distress tolerance (computerized Mirror Tracing Persistence Task: MTPT-C: Strong et al. 2003; computerized Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task; PASAT-C; Lejuez et al. 2003). The distress tolerance measures correlated significantly (r = .29) with one another. However, the questionnaire measures of experiential avoidance did not correlate with each other, nor with the behavioral measures. Further research is needed on the validity of measuring experiential avoidance by self-report and of the overlap versus distinctiveness of seemingly similar constructs such as experiential avoidance, distress tolerance, and frustration tolerance.
... Previous studies have found that low frustration tolerance is associated with state and trait anger (Dryden, 2002;Jones & Trower, 2004;Martin & Dahlen, 2004). Frustration tolerance as a behavioral measure in combination with self-report measures can be used to gain information about the interaction between frustration-intolerant cognitions and distress-intolerant behaviors (Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009). Based on this literature, it can be assumed that longer persistence on difficult tasks is associated with higher levels of frustration tolerance, and lower levels of anger. ...
... We employed the computerized Mirror-Tracing Persistence Task (MTPT; Rodman et al., 2009) as a behavioral indicator of frustration tolerance. Based on Quinn, Brandon, and Copeland (1996) and Strong et al. (2003), we developed a computerized version of the MTPT in which participants were asked to trace a red dot along a star on the computer screen using a computer mouse, which was programmed to move the red dot in the reverse direction. ...
... Upon receiving either one of these instructions, participants were asked to perform the MTPT-C (Rodman et al., 2009;Strong et al., 2003). At the end, participants completed the PAD to measure anger and affective distress after performing the task. ...
... A student who has rational beliefs can learn to be more persistent and resilient. REBT instructs students to dispute irrational thinking, develop self-help skills, and offer students tools that reinforce rational thinking (Rodman et al., 2009). Therefore, they can see failure, difficulty as steps in the process of success. ...
Academic success has been studied about self-efficacy and cognitive abilities but one phenomenon that has received less attention is academic grit. Recent evidence suggests that reductions in irrational beliefs brought about by REBT can facilitate increased academic success. This paper reports the findings of a study that used an A–B–A single-case research design to investigate the effect of rational emotive behavior therapy on academic grit. Participants consisted of three students (N = 3) in vocational high schools who experienced a low level of grit. Rational emotive behavior therapy intervention to increase academic grit was provided in 6 sessions. Treatment focused on developing consistency of passion and perseverance using disputing irrational beliefs, tape-recorded examination of beliefs, rational-emotive imagery, time projection, self-monitoring, and behavior reinforcement. Participants completed the Student Grit Inventory. Data were collected before, during, and after the REBT intervention. The results showed an increase in the level of grit during and after the intervention. Thus, rational emotive behavior therapy could be an intervention to increase academic grit.
... With regard to the LFT exercise, previous literature on frustration intolerance (e.g. Harrington, 2005;Harrington, 2007;Meindl et al., 2019;Rodman et al., 2009) was incorporated into the model. ...
Application of a self-practice self-reflection (SP/SR) framework to clinical training programmes for those learning cognitive behavioural therapy (CBT) have demonstrated positive outcomes. These programmes have typically resulted in reports of enhanced learning, improved clinical skills, heightened empathy, improved interpersonal skills, increased self-awareness, and self-development for those undertaking such training. However, the utility of specific activities within this framework for enhancing trainees’ learning still requires exploration. This study sought to explore the use of a low frustration tolerance (LFT) exercise to enhance trainee’s learning around issues relating to frustration and discomfort tolerance. It also further explored the possible application of SP/SR as a form of competency-based assessment. The study was based on 41 student trainees that engaged in a self-directed LFT exercise. Written reflections on these exercises were then thematically analysed. From a competency basis, the exercise provided an approach for observing the trainee’s competency with formulation skills, intervention planning, and self-reflective capacity. Participants reported both personal and professional development outcomes from the exercise. These included a ‘deepened’ understanding of cognitive behavioural principles related to their experiences, both in terms of principles relating to maintenance of dysfunction and to creating change. Increased self-awareness and learning outcomes relating to the development of interpersonal skills were also commonly reported by trainees.
Key learning aims
(1) To understand the usefulness of a behavioural experiment [a low frustration tolerance (LFT) exercise] for training within a SP/SR framework.
(2) To examine the potential for using SP/SR as a form of competency-based training.
(3) To demonstrate the benefits of experiential learning through SP/SR in training CBT.
... REBT telah terbukti mampu meningkatkan toleransi distres, frustasi ataupun ketidaknyamanan (Rodman, 2009) yang merupakan suatu fakta yang tidak dapat dihindarkan, dengan menolaknya akan menambah suatu kesengsaraan. REBT merubah respon tidak sehat menjadi respon yang lebih sehat dengan menantangnya akan memungkinkan keterlibatan lebih besar dalam kehidupan dan pencapaian tujuan pribadi sehingga akan meningkatkan kebahagiaan (Harrington, 2011). ...
Delusions and irrational thoughts often appear in schizophrenic patients. Can those negative thoughts be reduced to them? Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) is designed to help overcome the problems of negative thinking in schizophrenia. The assessment was carried out using interviews, observation and several psychological tests with the results of the dominance of negative feelings and low self-acceptance. The intervention aims to break irrational beliefs and increase self-acceptance through REBT techniques. The results of the intervention show that the client can see things from a different perspective in order to generate new, more rational thoughts so as to increase the client’s acceptance of himself, others, and the environment.
... Concerning resilience, this study supports Rodman, Daughters, and Lejuez's (2009) assertion that RBs are positively related to student persistence. Students who maintain irrational beliefs likely experience more intense emotions during adverse situations. ...
Data were collected from 289 undergraduate college students at a minority‐serving institution to explore the impact of academic rational beliefs on grit and resilience. Findings from hierarchical regression analyses suggested that academic rational beliefs related to evaluation and work habits accounted for a significant amount of variance in grit. Work habits explained a significant portion of the variance in resilience. On the basis of these results, recommendations for future research and implications for college counselors are offered.
... 29 Rational-affective behavioural therapy also has been recommended for failure to tolerate distress. 30 Overall, interventions by cognitive-behavioural techniques for the lack of distress tolerance can be expected to contribute to the treatment of psoriasis. ...
The purpose of this study was to compare distress tolerance in patients with psoriasis and patients with non-psychodermatological diseases and healthy controls. Parameters including sociodemographic data such as age, gender, cigarette and alcohol habits were studied, and the Distress Tolerance Scale (DTS) and Beck Anxiety Scale (BAS) were used for assessment. There was a statistically significant difference between the groups in terms of BAS scores, DTS total, DTS tolerance and DTS self-efficacy subscale scores (p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0.001, p<0001). The fact that psoriasis patients differed significantly from both the patient controls and the healthy controls in terms of the DTS total score suggests that distress intolerance in these patients is associated with a different mental process from those with chronic disease.
... However, various researchers have calculated test-taking persistence, based on different numbers of unsolvable anagrams (one, two, or more), and it is unknown which method may be preferred psychometrically. Arguably, the establishment of a relatively brief, accessible, and valid behavioral measure of test-taking persistence would be valuable, as the measurement of testtaking persistence has been observed across a variety of psychological disciplines, including addiction (e.g., Brandon et al., 2003;Quinn et al., 1996), psychological therapy (e.g., Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009), job recruitment (e.g., Arvey et al., 1990;Chan, Schmitt, DeShon, Clause, & Delbridge, 1997), and clinical neuropsychology (e.g., Busse & Whiteside, 2012). Consequently, the purpose of this investigation was to evaluate test scores from a 14-item version of the APT (seven easy and seven essentially unsolvable anagrams) for factorial validity and internal consistency reliability, across three methods of scoring: single-item, double-anagram, and multiple-anagram. ...
The purpose of this investigation was to examine a single-anagram, a double-anagram, and multi-anagram versions of the Anagram Persistence Task (APT) for factorial validity, reliability, and convergent validity. Additionally, a battery of intelligence tests was administered to examine convergent validity. Based on an unrestricted factor analysis, two factors were uncovered from the 14 anagram (seven very difficult and seven very easy) response times: test-taking persistence and verbal processing speed. The internal consistency reliabilities for the single-anagram, double-anagram, and multi-anagram (seven difficult anagrams) measures were .42, .85, and .86, respectively. Furthermore, all three versions of the APT correlated positively with intelligence test performance (r ≈ .22). However, the double-anagram and multi-anagram versions also evidenced negative, nonlinear effects with intelligence test performance (r ≈ −.15), which suggested the possibility of testee adaptation. Taking psychometrics and administration time into consideration, simultaneously, the double-anagram version of the APT may be regarded as preferred.
... Ellis (1994) pointed out that Frustration Intolerance determines emotional and behavioral problems involving lack of selfcontrol (addictive behaviors, procrastination, violent behavior). Some studies revealed the association between Frustration Intolerance and psychological problems as depression, self-control disorders, addictive behaviors, borderline, anger and antisocial personality disorders (Rodman et al. 2009;Stankovic and Vukosavljevic-Gvozden 2011). ...
The Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS, Harrington 2005a) was developed as a multidimensional measure of frustration intolerance. Frustration intolerance plays an important role in behavioral and cognitive model of emotional problems (Harrington 2006). The aim of this study is to translate the original English version of FDS into Italian and to assess the validity and reliability of the Italian version for application among Italian population. The Italian version of FDS-R, with the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale were administered on-line to 497 subjects aged from 18 to 66 years old. The exploratory factor analysis suggested a solution with four factors, plus a general factor. The factor analysis supports a multidimensional model of frustration intolerance but the distribution of the items is different. The internal consistency appears optimal for all four factors (range .637–.866). Despite encouraging evidence, the factor structure and other features of the FDS-R are yet to be firmly established.
... For example, one study found that people instructed to use cognitive reappraisal reported feeling greater self-efficacy and control in tolerating distress prior to a cold pressor task (i.e., during an anticipatory anxiety phase) as well as greater self-efficacy after the task was completed (Denson, Creswell, Terides, & Blundell, 2014). Cognitive reappraisal has also been found to be more effective than other emotion regulation strategies (i.e., acceptance, suppression) at reducing negative emotions such as anger during a Mirror-Tracing Persistence Task (MTPT; Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009), which is a widely used paradigm that serves as a behavioral indicator of distress tolerance (Szasz, Szentagotai, & Hofmann, 2011). Research has also supported to utility of acceptance as an emotion regulation strategy to tolerate distress. ...
When cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT) was first developed approximately 50 years ago, it revolutionized the field of clinical psychology and psychiatry. Since then, modern conceptualizations of psychopathology have increasingly emphasized the role of emotion dysregulation in the onset, maintenance, and exacerbation of psychological disorders. Thus, contemporary versions of CBT have begun to adopt an emotion regulation framework in treatment. Numerous randomized controlled trials (RCTs) have provided considerable empirical support for these newer, emotion-focused interventions. Additionally, laboratory-based experimental studies have begun to examine the specific emotion regulation mechanisms underlying the effects of CBT. However, one barrier preventing the field from advancing further and improving our cognitive-behavioral treatments is the apparent chasm between treatment outcome studies and laboratory-based experimental studies. This is a noteworthy limitation given that these methodologies are complementary and have their greatest potential when used in combination with each other. In this chapter, we first review treatment outcome studies (i.e., RCTs) that test the efficacy of cognitive-behavioral interventions that highlight the importance of emotion regulation as a key principle of treatment. We then discuss the utility of laboratory-based experimental studies to identify emotion regulation mechanisms underlying treatment efficacy. Lastly, we call for the integration of these two approaches in order to enhance our understanding of psychopathology and further elucidate the role of emotion regulation in cognitive-behavioral approaches to treating psychological disorders.
... There are several explanations for why the interaction between DT and PSS might be especially deleterious. Individuals with low DT often have difficulty coping with negative emotions (Leyro et al. 2010;Rodman et al. 2009). Therefore, an adolescent with low DT and low PSS may be less able to cope with the elevated interpersonal stressors that accompany lower levels of perceived support (Auerbach et al. 2011;Rigby 2000). ...
The purpose of the multi-measure, multi-wave, longitudinal study was to examine the interactive relation between behavioral distress tolerance (DT) and perceived social support (PSS) in 352 tornado-exposed adolescents aged 12–17 years (M = 14.44; SD = 1.74). At baseline, adolescents completed a computer-based task for DT, and self-report measures of PSS, depressed mood, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance use, and interpersonal conflict. Symptoms also were assessed 4 and 12 months after baseline. Findings showed that lower levels of DT together with lower levels of PSS conferred risk for elevated symptoms of prospective depression (t(262) = −2.04, p = .04; reffect size = 0.13) and PTSD (t(195) = −2.08, p = .04; reffect size = 0.15) following a tornado. However, only PSS was significant in substance use t(139) = 2.20, p = .03; reffect size=0.18) and conflict (t(138) = −4.05, p < .0001; reffect size=0.33) in our sample. Implications regarding adolescent DT, the transdiagnostic nature of PSS, and the clinical applications of our findings in the aftermath of a natural disaster are discussed.
... When ownership of thoughts and feelings are accepted and frustrations are tolerated, individuals are better positioned to work toward distal goals that lead to success. Rodman, Daughters, and Lejuez (2009) described the positive relationships between HFT and distress tolerance (i.e., persistence) and the pursuit of goals despite potential discomfort. HFT is associated with optimism, preferences, non-awfulizing and acceptance-factors that support goal attainment and enhance the quality of life (Morley, 2014). ...
The non-cognitive factors (NCFs) endorsed by Sedlacek (2004) appear to align with the core values of rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT). This article explores theoretical and empirical evidence that suggests REBT fosters the development of NCFs. School counselors can promote non-cognitive development by embedding REBT throughout direct and indirect student services. REBT-based strategies and interventions can aid school counselors in their efforts to close the achievement gap and foster college and career readiness among students, especially those from historically underrepresented populations. Recommendations for school counseling practice are provided.
... Similarly, frustration intolerance is conceptualized as a difficulty tolerating the aggravation experienced when the reality of a situation is not as we expected, and the construct is believed to have several components (e.g., emotional intolerance, demands for entitlement, comfort and achievement; Harrington 2005). While, theoretically, distress tolerance appears related to emotional intolerance and demands for achievement (Rodman et al. 2009), it is unclear how much the conceptualizations and measurements of frustration intolerance and distress tolerance overlap. Although a comprehensive analysis of the theoretical link between DT and other constructs is beyond the scope of this paper (for a review see Leyro et al. 2011), this conceptual overlap is problematic because it precludes a clear understanding of the role of DT in the development and maintenance of psychopathology. ...
Distress tolerance (DT) refers to an individual’s capacity to cope with aversive internal (e.g., physical, cognitive, emotional) states. A growing body of evidence suggests that there is a relationship between DT and the development and maintenance of problematic behavioral patterns. Despite emerging evidence for such associations, a number of issues remain unresolved. The results of recent studies suggest problems with the convergent validity of the primary measures used to assess DT, despite the fact that these measures are used interchangeably in the DT literature. In order to further examine the relationships among DT assessments, we evaluated intercorrelations among various self-report and behavioral measures of DT in an unselected undergraduate sample (n = 83). Results indicate that two self- report measures of DT were highly correlated with one another, but that neither measure was significantly correlated with the behavioral measures. The relation- ships among the behavioral measures and between self-report and behavioral measures were weak and non-significant. Correlations between self-report measures only were strong. The findings partially replicate prior research indicating weak correlations between certain, commonly used measures of DT, and raise questions about the current conceptualization of the construct.
... REBT merupakan teori yang sangat berpengaruh di seluruh dunia dalam membantu ahli terapi dalam membantu diri secara meluas (Farley, 2009). REBT adalah satu pendekatan rawatan secara meluas digunakan untuk banyak rawatan gangguan mental (Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009). Pada dasarnya, REBT membantu pelanggan belajar untuk mencabar pemikiran tidak rasional mereka sendiri dan membangunkan tabiat pemikiran dengan cara yang berfaedah dan rasional. ...
Abstrak Penggunaan teknologi canggih seperti komputer dan telefon pintar yang dilengkapi kemudahan internet secara berpanjangan dan tanpa bimbingan boleh meningkatkan risiko pelajar untuk mengalami gangguan emosi yang meliputi kebimbangan, kemurungan, tekanan perasaan, takut, marah, sedih, dendam dan sebagainya. Masalah emosi ini mungkin timbul akibat gangguan dan serangan siber yang kemudiannya boleh membawa kepada perubahan tingkah laku yang tidak baik atau lebih berat lagi, meningkatkan kecenderungan untuk membunuh diri. Di samping itu, pihak yang mencetuskan gangguan dan serangan siber juga mungkin mengalami masalah dan tingkah laku yang perlu dirawat demi kelangsungan hidup yang sejahtera. Salah satu pendekatan yang sering digunakan untuk menangani masalah berkaitan emosi dan tingkah laku ialah Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT). Keberkesanan REBT tidak dinafikan namun dalam pendekatan tersebut telah mengabaikan aspek agama, khususnya agama Islam yang bersifat sejagat dan syumul serta begitu akrab dengan masyarakat nusantara. Justeru, artikel ini akan membahaskan tentang kepentingan untuk menyuntik unsur keislaman dalam REBT dan seterusnya mencadangkan unsur keislaman yang sewajarnya dimasukkan dalam REBT. Berdasarkan cadangan-cadangan tersebut maka satu modul penerapan unsur keislaman dalam REBT boleh dibina dan diuji keberkesanannya untuk menangani kesan gangguan dan serangan siber dan juga masalah-masalah lain yang berkaitan emosi dan tingkah laku.
... This approach has been taken in some of the acceptance-and mindfulness-based treatments. Functional diagnostic dimensions that have been developed in the context of these treatments, such as experiential avoidance (Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Follette, & Strosahl, 1996) and distress tolerance (Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009), can be examined for their relevance across a range of topographically distinct problems. This provides a means of categorizing clinical problems in a way that directly informs treatment. ...
There have been disagreements about whether mindfulness- and acceptance-based therapies represent a significant development from more traditional cognitive behavior therapies (CBT). The current chapter describes differences between acceptance- and mindfulness-based therapies and traditional CBT at the level of their respective theoretical models of psychopathology, intervention, and health. The importance of these newer therapies is further discussed in relation to examining the progressivity of the current scientific strategy within CBT. Contextual behavioral science, the scientific strategy undertaken by acceptance and commitment therapy researchers, is presented as an alternative approach. In particular, we argue for moving from technology-focused treatment testing with highly specified syndromes and manuals to a theory-focused model of treatment testing with functionally defined problems and process-oriented treatments that are tightly linked to basic science and underlying philosophical assumptions. These changes in scientific strategy are proposed as a significant paradigm shift in CBT and potentially a new wave of behavior therapy.
... Discomfort and emotional intolerance are associated with passivity and avoidance, entitlement and achievement frustration with confrontation and action (Harington, 2011). Rodman et al. (2009), Stankovic & Vukosavljevic-Gvozden (2011 revealed the association between FI and psychological problems as depression, self-control disorders, addictive behaviors, borderline, anger and antisocial personality disorders. Ellis (1994) pointed out that FI underlies emotional and behavioral problems involving lack of self-control (addictive behaviors, procrastination, violent behavior, and selfharm). ...
Frustration intolerance (FI) is a central REBT concept and it was defined as inability to tolerate reality that is different from our demands. The present study aims to support the idea that Roma population differs from Romanian population regarding frustration tolerance and to reveal that FI could be a factor that prevents Roma to value education and marriage's stability. The participants (55 Roma and 40 Romanians) completed SGABS and LFT scale. The Roma subjects recorded higher FI than Romanians. The educated Roma expressed higher tolerance to school, work and future. The Roma with several partners showed higher FI to school. (C) 2012 Published by Elsevier B. V. Selection and/or peer-review under responsibility of PSIWORLD2011
... In addition, they evidenced greater persistence on a distress tolerance task (i.e., Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task [PASAT] ; Lejuez, Kahler, & Brown, 2003) than those instructed to suppress or accept their cravings (Szasz, Szentagotai, & Hofmann, 2012). Similar findings come from another study by the same research group, in which participants who were instructed to reappraise their anger following an induction (i.e., think of an unresolved situation in which they felt anger towards another person) reported greater reductions in anger and subsequently persisted longer in another distress tolerance task (i.e., the Mirror--Tracing Persistence Task ; Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009;Strong et al., 2003) than those who were instructed to accept or suppress this emotion (Szasz, Szentagotai, & Hofmann, 2011). Null findings on behavioral outcomes, however, come from a study examining the use of reappraisal, acceptance, or suppression while giving a speech. ...
... Given the significant burden of pain on society, much research has been devoted to understanding and improving various aspects of pain, including pain tolerance. Low pain tolerance is associated with a variety of adverse outcomes, including mental health issues, such as addictive behaviors [1][2][3]. Relatively less research has linked pain tolerance directly to positive outcomes. However, positive traits such as optimism [4][5][6], self efficacy [7][8][9], and hope [6,10,11] are associated with higher pain tolerance or lower pain intensity, and positive traits are in turn linked with a variety of adaptive outcomes [12][13][14]. ...
Few experimental studies have been conducted on social determinants of pain tolerance.
This study tests a brief, computer-delivered social norm message for increasing pain tolerance.
Healthy young adults (N = 260; 44 % Caucasian; 27 % Hispanic) were randomly assigned into a 2 (social norm) × 2 (challenge) cold pressor study, stratified by gender. They received standard instructions or standard instructions plus a message that contained artifically elevated information about typical performance of others.
Those receiving a social norm message displayed significantly higher pain tolerance, F(1, 255) = 26.95, p < .001, η p (2) = .10 and pain threshold F(1, 244) = 9.81, p = .002, η p (2) = .04, but comparable pain intensity, p > .05. There were no interactions between condition and gender on any outcome variables, p > .05.
Social norms can significantly increase pain tolerance, even with a brief verbal message delivered by a video.
... Persistence with stressful tasks of a physical (Hajek, Belcher, & Stapleton, 1987) or psychological (Brandon et al., 2003) nature reflects an adaptive ability to tolerate distress. Distress tolerance (DT) is associated with more successful smoking cessation (Rodman, Daughters, & Lejuez, 2009) and other positive markers for substance abuse recovery such as staying in treatment. (Daughters et al., 2005;MacPherson, Stipelman, Duplinsky, Brown, & Lejuez, 2008). ...
Numerous studies have established a link between distress tolerance and smoking cessation outcomes. The present study examined whether smoking status affected physical distress tolerance, and considered this question separately for men and women. The sample was comprised of healthy adults, 56 smokers (63% male) and 58 nonsmokers (62% female). The pain stimulus was a cold pressor task. Outcome variables were seconds immersed in cold water when pain was first reported (threshold), and total seconds immersed in cold water (tolerance). Participants verbally reported their pain rating on a 0-100 scale after the task, and then completed the McGill Pain Questionnaire-Short Form. Smokers displayed lower pain tolerance than nonsmokers (p=.045), and women displayed lower pain tolerance than men (p=.017). Female smokers had significantly lower pain tolerance than other groups (p=.001). There were no significant differences in pain threshold or pain perception by smoking status or gender (p>.05). Lower physical distress tolerance could place female smokers at risk for difficulty in quitting smoking. This population needs additional research to better understand their unique pain experience and how physical distress tolerance impacts their smoking cessation outcomes.
Introduction
the role of stress in inducing bedtime procrastination is a new research topic that has emerged in recent years. This study aimed to explore the psychological mechanism by which perceived stress affects bedtime procrastination in Chinese college students in a life history framework.
Methods
first, we investigated whether life history strategy mediate their relationships. Then, we examined whether distress tolerance moderated the direct effects of perceived stress on bedtime procrastination and/or the indirect effects of them mediated by life history strategy. The data of 1021 college students were analyzed.
Results
the results showed that: (1) perceived stress had a significant predictive effect on bedtime procrastination; (2) life history strategy played a mediating role in the relationship between perceived stress and bedtime procrastination; (3) distress tolerance moderated the indirect effect between them mediated by life history strategy, but not the direct effect between them.
Discussion
the present study suggested that life history-based interventions might be an effective intervention for stress-induced bedtime procrastination. Specifically, it might be helpful for alleviation of bedtime procrastination to develop slow life history strategy, when faced with similar stressful situations in the future. Furthermore, distress tolerance may be an important alternative target.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) assumes that when people are faced with adverse, activating events, their irrational beliefs generate dysfunctional feelings and maladaptive behaviors, while their rational beliefs generate functional feelings and adaptive behaviors (Ellis, 1994).
Distress tolerance (DT) is a transdiagnostic construct linked to multiple psychiatric disorders. We conducted three studies using different methods to investigate the relationship between DT and body dysmorphic disorder (BDD). Study 1 found a significant relationship between low DT and more severe BDD symptoms in an adult community sample (N=81). In Study 2, we found a similar relationship between lower DT and greater BDD symptoms in a student sample (N=192). Furthermore, we found a unique relationship between greater BDD symptoms and lower self-reported tolerance of anger and sadness mood induction tasks. Greater BDD symptoms were not significantly associated with lower self-reported tolerance of a fear mood induction task. In Study 3, a clinical sample of individuals with BDD (N=40) reported lower DT than a sample of healthy controls (N=36). Findings suggest that low DT is a broad vulnerability factor related to BDD.
This commentary focuses on the current status of assessment in rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior therapy, in the context
of making comments about three assessment articles published in the same journal issue. The commentary describes important
characteristics of rational-emotive and cognitive-behavior assessment measures, suggests several avenues of psychometric research
on behavioral tests of distress tolerance as clinical measures, reviews psychometric and other important properties of existing
irrational belief measures, and endorses assessment related to newly proposed anger disorder diagnoses.
Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2016 APA, all rights reserved)
"This paper advocates a validational process utilizing a matrix of intercorrelations among tests representing at least two traits, each measured by at least two methods. Measures of the same trait should correlate higher with each other than they do with measures of different traits involving separate methods. Ideally, these validity values should also be higher than the correlations among different traits measure by the same method." Examples from the literature are described as well as problems in the application of the technique. 36 refs. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
R. Eisenberger's (1992) learned industriousness theory states that individuals display differing degrees of persistence depending on their history of reinforcement for persistent, effortful behavior. These differences may influence the development, maintenance, and cessation of addictive behaviors. lndividuals with low persistence may especially be attracted to the immediate reinforcement of drugs. Drug use may constitute further training in low persistence. These individuals may also fail to persist in behaviors needed for cessation. Therefore, substance users should display lower persistence than nonusers. In an initial test of this hypothesis, cigarette smokers (
n = 52) were found to be less persistent than nonsmokers (
n = 57) on 2 behavioral tasks. Moreover, drug and alcohol abuse was inversely related to persistence. If future research supports a role of learned industriousness in addictive behaviors, possible approaches toward prevention and treatment would follow. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Syndromal classification is a well-developed diagnostic system but has failed to deliver on its promise of the identification of functional pathological processes. Functional analysis is tightly connected to treatment but has failed to develop testable, replicable classification systems. Functional diagnostic dimensions are suggested as a way to develop the functional classification approach, and experiential avoidance is described as 1 such dimension. A wide range of research is reviewed showing that many forms of psychopathology can be conceptualized as unhealthy efforts to escape and avoid emotions, thoughts, memories, and other private experiences. It is argued that experiential avoidance, as a functional diagnostic dimension, has the potential to integrate the efforts and findings of researchers from a wide variety of theoretical paradigms, research interests, and clinical domains and to lead to testable new approaches to the analysis and treatment of behavioral disorders. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It may be argued that behavior therapy has proceeded with minimal regard for the therapeutic alliance (TA) as a key mechanism of change. However, ignoring the role of TA in behavior therapy may not only be problematic on a practical level, but also may be inconsistent with basic principles that underlie behavior therapy. In beginning to address these issues, the authors consider the role of TA in behavior therapy with a focus on relevant basic principles. Keeping a focus on these basic principles, the authors then outline three contemporary behavior therapies that already incorporate a focus on the therapeutic relationship and conclude with a clinical case illustration.
Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Frustration intolerance beliefs are hypothesized by rational–emotive behaviour therapy (REBT) to form one of two major categories of psychological disturbance, along with those referring to self-worth. Although frustration intolerance is a central REBT concept its content and factor structure are unclear. Therefore, a multidimensional measure, the Frustration Discomfort Scale (FDS), was developed based on REBT literature and theory. An exploratory factor analysis, using a combined clinical and student population, indicated a four-factor structure. These dimensions were labelled (I) emotional intolerance, involving intolerance of emotional distress; (II) entitlement, involving intolerance of unfairness and frustrated gratification; (III) discomfort intolerance, involving intolerance of difficulties and hassles, and (IV) achievement, involving intolerance of frustrated achievement goals. From these results, a simplified scale was developed, with confirmatory factor analysis supporting a four-factor solution. Both the preliminary and revised scales showed good internal reliability, and evidence of discriminative validity. Copyright © 2005 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Most instruments that assess personality disorder rely principally on self-report. However, there are major limitations to using self-report for the diagnosis of personality pathology. First, the self provides only one opinion. Second, like everyone else, people with personality disorders are frequently unable to view themselves realistically and are unaware of the effect of their behavior on other people. Using informant data, therefore, may improve the reliability and validity of diagnostic assessment. A review of the literature reveals that agreement between informant- and self-reports of personality disorder is modest at best, even though informants tend to agree with each other. Self-informant concordance appears to be higher for older subjects and for Cluster B traits (excluding narcissism). Further research should focus on methods of resolving discrepancies between self- and informant-reports of personality disorder and determining when self or informant data are more valid.
There is currently limited research on the potential mechanisms underlying the development of antisocial personality disorder (ASPD). One such mechanism, distress tolerance (defined as an individual's behavioral persistence in the face of emotional distress) may underlie the development of ASPD and its associated behavioral difficulties. It was hypothesized that substance users with ASPD would evidence significantly lower levels of distress tolerance than substance users without ASPD. To test this relationship, we assessed 127 inner-city males receiving residential substance abuse treatment with two computerized laboratory measures of distress tolerance. The mean age of the sample was 40.1 years (SD = 9.8) and 88.2% were African American. As expected, multiple logistic regression analyses indicated that distress intolerance significantly predicted the presence of an ASPD diagnosis, above and beyond key covariates including substance use frequency and associated Axis I and II psychopathology. Findings suggest that distress tolerance may be a key factor in understanding the development of ASPD, setting the stage for future studies expanding on the nature of this relationship, as well as the development of appropriate interventions for this at-risk group.
The need for a measure of severity of concussion apart from duration of post-traumatic amnesia is examined. The paced auditory serial-addition test, a measure of rate of information processing, is presented as a convenient test for estimating individual performance during recovery. Procedures for administration and control data are given, and the programme used for managing the rehabilitation of concussion patients described.
This article proposes that binge eating is motivated by a desire to escape from self-awareness. Binge eaters suffer from high standards and expectations, especially an acute sensitivity to the difficult (perceived) demands of others. When they fall short of these standards, they develop an aversive pattern of high self-awareness, characterized by unflattering views of self and concern over how they are perceived by others. These aversive self-perceptions are accompanied by emotional distress, which often includes anxiety and depression. To escape from this unpleasant state, binge eaters attempt the cognitive response of narrowing attention to the immediate stimulus environment and avoiding broadly meaningful thought. This narrowing of attention disengages normal inhibitions against eating and fosters an uncritical acceptance of irrational beliefs and thoughts. The escape model is capable of integrating much of the available evidence about binge eating.
Efforts to increase the practice of evidence-based psychotherapy in the United States have led to the formation of task forces to define, identify, and disseminate information about empirically supported psychological interventions. The work of several such task forces and other groups reviewing empirically supported treatments (ESTs) in the United States, United Kingdom, and elsewhere is summarized here, along with the lists of treatments that have been identified as ESTs. Also reviewed is the controversy surrounding EST identification and dissemination, including concerns abou research methodology, external validity, and utility of EST research, as well as the reliability and transparency of the EST review process.
The present study tested the hypothesis that limited ability to tolerate physical and psychological distress is associated with early relapse from smoking cessation. Specifically, the authors exposed 16 current smokers who had failed to sustain any previous quit attempt for more than 24 hr (immediate relapsers) and 16 smokers with at least 1 sustained quit attempt of 3 months or longer (delayed relapsers) to psychological (mental arithmetic) and physical (carbon dioxide inhalation-breath holding) stressors. Relative to delayed relapsers, immediate relapsers were characterized by higher baseline levels of affective vulnerability, by greater levels of dysphoria and urge to smoke after 12 hr of nicotine deprivation, and by less task persistence on the stressors, suggesting that these may be risk factors for early lapse in the context of quitting smoking.
R. Eisenberger's (1992) learned industriousness theory states that individuals display differing degrees of persistence depending on their history of reinforcement for effortful behavior. These differences may influence the development, maintenance, and cessation of addictive behaviors. In cross-sectional studies, E. P. Quinn, T. H. Brandon, and A. L. Copeland (1996) found that cigarette smokers were less persistent than nonsmokers, and R. A. Brown, C. W. Lejuez, C. W. Kahler, and D. R. Strong (2002) found that smokers who had previously abstained for 3 months were more persistent than those who had never quit. The present study extended these findings by using a prospective design. A pretreatment measure of task persistence (mirror tracing) completed by 144 smokers predicted sustained abstinence throughout 12 months of follow-up. Moreover, persistence predicted outcome independent of other significant predictors: gender, nicotine dependence, negative affect, and self-efficacy.
This article proposes that binge eating is motivated by a desire to escape from self-awareness. Binge eaters suffer from high standards and expectations, especially an acute sensitivity to the difficult (perceived) demands of others. When they fall short of these standards, they develop an aversive pattern of high self-awareness, characterized by unflattering views of self and concern over how they are perceived by others. These aversive self-perceptions are accompanied by emotional distress, which often includes anxiety and depression. To escape from this unpleasant state, binge eaters attempt the cognitive response of narrowing attention to the immediate stimulus environment and avoiding broadly meaningful thought. This narrowing of attention disengages normal inhibitions against eating and fosters an uncritical acceptance of irrational beliefs and thoughts. The escape model is capable of integrating much of the available evidence about binge eating.
This paper reviews recent studies of rational emotive therapy (RET) to determine whether there is empirical evidence to support the assertion that the reasons for therapeutic gains in RET are via changing irrational to rational beliefs. Before such issues can be examined, problems with the definition and measurement of irrational beliefs are first discussed and the evidence pertaining to the validity of current measures is addressed. Treatment outcome studies using RET published between 1982 and 1988 were examined. While RET has been shown to be relatively efficacious, no evidence was found to support the assertion that the mechanism for the efficacy of RET is via change of irrational beliefs to rational beliefs.
The relationships between PASAT test scores and intelligence, memory and information processing abilities were examined in ninety-four healthy young adult patients with type 1 (insulin-dependent) diabetes. PASAT scores correlated significantly with all WAIS-R subtests. Factor analysis revealed that PASAT performance loaded on the 1st principal component (the ‘general intelligence’ factor) at about the same level as some WAIS-R performance subtests. Varimax rotation showed that PASAT scores had very low loadings on verbal and performance factors, but had high loadings on the third rotated factor, which was tentatively identified as the ‘freedom from distraction’ factor found in recent factor analyses of the WAIS-R. Scores from the 4 second PASAT presentation correlated better than 2 second PASAT scores with indices derived from the Rey auditory verbal learning test, whereas the faster PASAT test correlated at higher levels with test of Inspection Time and Reaction Time. The PASAT test was developed to measure attention and concentration but, while this appears to have been realised to some extent, general intellectual ability is also tapped by the test. Different speeds of presentation might index other abilities to different degrees, but this finding might be explained by order effects which cannot be excluded by the present study.
Beliefs regarding intolerance of frustration are central to the theory of Rational Emotive Behaviour Therapy (REBT) and are hypothesised as playing an important role in procrastination. However, there is evidence that frustration intolerance may involve several dimensions. To investigate the relative contribution of these dimensions, a multidimensional measure of frustration intolerance beliefs was employed in a student sample (n=86). The Frustration-Discomfort Scale included four sub-scales: discomfort intolerance, emotional intolerance, achievement frustration, and entitlement. Since REBT distinguishes frustration intolerance beliefs from those relating to self-worth, this was separately assessed using the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale. Results indicated that self-esteem, the discomfort intolerance and emotional intolerance sub-scales were correlated with the severity of procrastination. However, only discomfort intolerance and self-esteem remained unique predictors in a regression analysis. The emotional intolerance and achievement frustration sub-scales were correlated with lower procrastination frequency. The research supported the validity of the Frustration-Discomfort Scale and the usefulness of distinguishing self-esteem from frustration intolerance as well as between the dimensions of frustration intolerance.
To simulate psychological stress in studies of psychopathology, researchers have used a variety of stressful tasks that included exposure to challenging problems. A lack of consistency in the procedural details of these studies necessarily limits across-study comparisons. To address this need, we present a modified version of the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Task (PASAT), originally developed for the assessment of information processing and capacity in patients with head trauma, referred to here as the PASAT-C. The PASAT-C is a modified computer version of the original test, used to assess neuropsychological functioning. In pilot data we exposed 32 adults to the PASAT-C. Self-report of anxiety, difficultly concentrating, bodily discomfort, and irritability were completed on the computer via a 0 to 100 visual analog scale. Performance on the PASAT predicted termination latency, with higher scores being associated with lower relative risk of task termination across the 10-min trial. The PASAT-C may be used to produce psychological stress in laboratory examinations of experimental psychopathology. This task allows for the comprehensive examination of behavioral/motor, cognitive/self-report, and psychological response modes without sacrificing experimental precision and control. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Morality is a set of rules that enable people to live together in harmony, and virtue involves internalizing those rules. Insofar as virtue depends on overcoming selfish or antisocial impulses for the sake of what is best for the group or collective, self-control can be said to be the master virtue. We analyze vice, sin, and virtue from the perspective of self-control theory. Recent research findings indicate that self-control involves expenditure of some limited resource and suggest the analogy of a moral muscle as an appropriate way to conceptualize virtue in personality. Guilt fosters virtuous self-control by elevating interpersonal obligations over personal, selfish interests. Several features of modern Western society make virtue and self-control especially difficult to achieve.
Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy (REBT) includes several main theories and practices, especially the hypotheses that people are both constructivists and destructivists. It holds that they have powerful innate and socially acquired tendencies to often be self-helping and rational but also self-defeating and irrational. REBT largely derives its method of therapy from many clients seen by the author, from hundreds of therapy studies, and from the social psychology literature. This article shows how REBT formulations overlap with some of the findings of social psychology, how these findings can appreciably be used to improve REBT practice, how some of the unique theories and methods of REBT may contribute to the field of social psychology, and how social psychologists can help to research some of the main REBT principles.
Frustration intolerance beliefs are central to the theory and practice of Rational Emotive Behavior Therapy. However, there
has been little investigation of the content of these beliefs, and empirical evidence linking specific beliefs to distinct
psychological problems is sparse. To redress this, the Frustration–Discomfort Scale has been developed as a multidimensional
measure. This was used to explore the relationship between the four dimensions of frustration intolerance (emotional intolerance,
demands for entitlement, comfort, and achievement) and problems of self-control. Results indicated that the Frustration–Discomfort
sub-scales showed differential relationships with self-control problems, independent of self-worth beliefs. This supported
the validity and usefulness of the scale and the importance of distinguishing between dimensions of frustration intolerance.
Burgess' Attitude and Belief Scale, a measure of Ellis' irrational beliefs, was administered to a large sample of outpatients. All 13 subscales demonstrate very adequate internal consistency. A factor analysis yielded one factor accounting for 83% of the variance, which was labeled irrationality. Clients endorsed focused items more than overgeneralized items, self-referential items more than non-self-referential items, and preferential items more than irrational items. Clients also received higher scores on the irrational process of demandingness than they did on the irrational process of awfulizing, self-worth and low frustration tolerance. The results were consistent with new formulations in Rational-Emotive theory. Suggestions were made for the construction of measures of irrational beliefs.
Although rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) has been the pioneering cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) of the twentieth century, and although its main methods are very popular among practicing clinicians as well as members of the public, it has been relatively neglected in the professional and scientific literature. Reasons for this neglect are discussed and some steps are suggested to make REBT more effective and more scientifically accepted.
Although rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT) has been the pioneering cognitive behavior therapy (CBT) of the twentieth century, and although its main methods are very popular among practicing clinicians as well as members of the public, it has been relatively neglected in the professional and scientific literature. Reasons for this neglect are discussed and some steps are suggested to make REBT more effective and more scientifically accepted.
In 1977, DiGiuseppe and Miller provided a review of the literature assessing the effectiveness of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET). In 1984, McGovern and Silverman completed a similar review for outcome studies conducted from 1977 through mid-1981. This present study is meant as a continuation of those reviews. The 89 studies reviewed are divided into three sections: outcome studies that do not compare Rational-Emotive Therapy with other types of treatment; a review of outcome studies that do compare RET with other types of psychotherapy; and a review of Rational-Emotive outcome studies that either combine RET with other therapies or are not appropriate for the first two sections. There does appear to be some increased sophistication in the research conducted since 1982. Increases were noted in the number of control groups used in the current research as well as in the number of follow-up studies. There also appears to be an improvement in the comparison of RET with other forms of therapy, and the number of problem areas in which RET has been tested has increased. A decrease in post-test only studies and an increased variety of subjects have also improved the current research. Issues such as socioeconomic status and I.Q. of subjects, duration of treatment, and lack of longitudinal studies remain unaddressed. It is suggested that future researchers concentrate on these specific problems to improve the credibility of RET. This review coincides with the previous findings that RET is a valuable, effective therapy that warrants increased research to broaden its application.
A study to examine how learned industriousness, social values, and cooperative-versus-competitive goal structures interact to influence task persistence was carried out. The relative strengths of college students' cooperativeness, individualism, and competitiveness were assessed with an experimental game. The students later solved easy or difficult problems involving mathematics and perceptual discriminations. Next, the generalized effects of this effort training were tested by measuring persistence on a difficult anagram task with either a cooperative or competitive goal structure. Cooperators showed greater generalized persistence with the cooperative task, and Individualists showed greater generalized persistence with the competitive task. Competitors showed equivalent generalization of effort to both tasks. These results suggest that learned industriousness provides a dynamic mechanism through which rewarded effort is channeled into goal-oriented behavior.
Although researchers successfully have used carbon dioxide-enriched air in experimental and clinical preparations, its functional properties may differ across laboratories due to procedural differences. Additionally, current procedures may be too simplistic for more complex experimental designs. To address these issues, we present three devices for administering carbon dioxide-enriched air. Although these devices differ concerning variables such as mode of operation, ease and cost of implementation, and complexity of experimental designs that may be undertaken, a reasonable level of standardization may be achieved because the inhalations experienced by participants are functionally equivalent across devices. We discuss advantages and disadvantages of these devices regarding experimental panic provocation and aversive conditioning preparations.
The efficacy of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) in reducing maladjustment, while insistently touted by its advocates, has not been unambiguously demonstrated in outcome research. Previous reviews have generally been quite partisan and subjective, and have not reflected available research. The object of the present review was to determine the extent to which RET significantly improved adjustment of adult subjects on different outcome measures in comparison with wait-list, placebo, and other treatment conditions. In 75 outcome reports, RET was effective in only about 25% of comparisons. Its main effect was to reduce scores of self-reported irrationality and dysphoria. Little change was noted in behavioral measures. The few comparisons favoring RET could be attributed to psychometric artifacts rather than to the reduction of irrational beliefs.
A test consistency and confirmatory factor analyses were performed on the Survey of Personal Beliefs, a new measure of irrational thinking based on rational-emotive personality theory. The survey, which was logically derived, includes a general rationality factor and subscales measuring five hypothesized core categories of irrational beliefs. Subjects included a nonclinical sample of 130 men and 150 women, with a mean age of 46. Results indicated that the Survey of Personal Beliefs had satisfactory total and scale reliability. The confirmatory analyses supported a higher order factor model including 5 first-order factors ( awfulizing, self-directed shoulds, other-directed shoulds, low frustration tolerance, and self-worth) and 1 second-order or general factor.
The Munich Personality Test (MPT) is a brief questionnaire for the assessment of six personality dimensions proper (Extraversion, Neuroticism, Frustration Tolerance, Rigidity, Isolation Tendency, Esoteric Tendencies), one additional scale (Schizoidia, composed of the two shortest scales, Isolation Tendency and Esoteric Tendencies); an Orientation towards Social Norms, which might bias the rating, and the Motivation to perform the rating adequately can be ascertained by means of two control scales. There are two test versions, one for self-rating, the other one for a rating by a key person from the subject's social surroundings ("relatives' rating"). The instruction of both scales explicitly relates to times of mental and physical health in order to reduce the influence of symptoms of a disease on the values of the scales. The data presented indicate a highly consistent factorial structure of self-ratings and relatives' ratings, a significant concordance of both kind of ratings, a sufficient to marked degree of internal consistency of the test scales depending on the number of items in the scales, a fair degree of retest reliability after approximately 1 year and also, though less markedly, after around 7 years in psychiatric patients, and significant differences between groups of psychiatric patients and healthy subjects in all personality scales proper, partially depending on the type of the mental disorder. Judging from relatives' ratings and from other authors' data obtained in recovered patients, these differences cannot be fully explained by the influence of symptoms on the ratings. On the other hand, secondary changes of personality after brain damage have been demonstrated by other authors using a modified testing procedure. On the whole, the MPT offers a fairly differentiated picture of the personality structure in mental patients and healthy subjects.
A pretreatment test of breath-holding endurance predicted end-of-treatment outcome in 56 Smokers Clinic clients (r = .44; p less than .001). The cut off points derived by discriminant analysis were 32 seconds for men and 20 seconds for women, which correctly classified 78.6% of cases. The breath-holding test might sample the type of endurance necessary to withstand the discomfort associated with cigarette withdrawal and may also be relevant to success in quitting other addictive behaviours. However, alternative explanations are possible and more data are needed.
Recent theory and research suggest that the process of changing addictive behaviors may be conceptualized as a stage phenomenon consisting of precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, and maintenance stages. Accurately assessing motivation or commitment to change seems to be a crucial step in matching patients to appropriate interventions. Using the University of Rhode Island Change Assessment Scale (URICA; McConnaughy, Prochaska, & Velicer, 1983), previous research has identified subtypes of outpatient alcoholics based on their attitude toward each of the stages of change. Profiles derived for each subtype roughly corresponded to one of the specific stages of change. The goals of this study were to determine if similar groups could be identified for patients receiving substance abuse treatment in a residential setting and to examine whether these groups would differ on other theoretically relevant variables. Stage of change scale scores for 141 patients entering an alcohol treatment program at a VA domiciliary were submitted to a hierarchical cluster analysis. A two-cluster solution appeared to fit the data best, with group means suggesting the existence of precontemplation and contemplation/action stage groups in this population. The two clusters did not differ on demographic variables, biochemical markers of alcohol consumption, or self-reported awareness of alcohol-related problems. However, participants in the precontemplation cluster reported being less worried about their use, less receptive to help, and having sought out help fewer times in the past. Participants in the contemplation/action cluster also reported greater symptoms of depression and anxiety. Preliminary treatment outcome data for each group are presented, as well as suggestions for treatment matching. Results suggest that the URICA can be used to identify clinically meaningful subtypes of treatment-seeking alcoholics.
Stress coping is defined as a behavioral or cognitive response of an individual to uncomfortable or difficult situations. It has been suggested that coping, like personality, is related to the pathology and course of mental disorders. Accordingly, we here used a clinical sample to investigate the relationships between coping strategies and personality traits.
Subjects were 60 outpatients who were in remission from major depressive disorder and who completed the Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations (CISS) and the Munich Personality Test (MPT).
Task-oriented coping showed a positive correlation with extraversion and frustration tolerance. Emotion-oriented coping was closely associated with neuroticism, esoteric tendencies and isolation tendency. Avoidance-oriented coping was related to extraversion. Principal component analysis indicated three corresponding factors between coping and personality; one was related to psychopathology (loading from the neuroticism, esoteric tendencies and isolation tendency scales of the MPT, and from the emotion-oriented coping scale of the CISS), a second was a social-adaptive ability component (loading from the frustration tolerance and extraversion scales of the MPT, and from the task-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping scales of the CISS), and a third was a passive-avoidance coping component (loaded from the emotion-oriented coping and avoidance-oriented coping scales of the CISS only).
Some personality traits such as extraversion and frustration tolerance are significantly related to task-oriented coping, and psychopathological personality traits such as neuroticism are associated with emotional-oriented coping in major depressive disorder.
Morality is a set of rules that enable people to live together in harmony, and virtue involves internalizing those rules. Insofar as virtue depends on overcoming selfish or antisocial impulses for the sake of what is best for the group or collective, self-control can be said to be the master virtue. We analyze vice, sin, and virtue from the perspective of self-control theory. Recent research findings indicate that self-control involves expenditure of some limited resource and suggest the analogy of a moral muscle as an appropriate way to conceptualize virtue in personality. Guilt fosters virtuous self-control by elevating inter-personal obligations over personal, selfish interests. Several features of modern Western society make virtue and self-control especially difficult to achieve.
This study explores whether personality is mediating the effects of adverse parenting on having had a lifetime history of major depressive disorder and whether personality dimensions, related to the development of lifetime depression, are disposed by adverse parenting in cross-sectional data derived from an epidemiological sample of volunteer workers. Of 447 individuals who were asked to complete the Munich Personality Test (MPT), the Parental Bonding Instrument (PBI) and the Inventory to Diagnose Depression Lifetime version (IDDL), 322 subjects were included in the analyses (150 male and 172 female; and 38 were diagnosed as having had a history of depression). Comparisons in fit between logistic regression models revealed that a combination of frustration tolerance and rigidity among personality dimensions, as measured by the MPT, and maternal care among the PBI scales were most primary in predicting a lifetime history of depression. Maternal care was, however, not significantly predictive of dimensional scores on the personality dimensions. Neither frustration tolerance nor rigidity was predicted by any PBI scale. When entering the variables sequentially, maternal care and the personality variables were additive and independent risk factors in predicting a lifetime history of depression. The results of this preliminary study raised an objection to a hypothesis that adverse parenting experienced in childhood disposes one to a dysfunctional personality, which then predisposes one to the development of depression in adulthood.
The carbon dioxide (CO(2)) challenge paradigm has been useful for modeling panic in the laboratory. While showing promise as a technique able to promote a better understanding of the etiology of panic disorder (PD), this goal has been impeded by the lack of standardization of the challenge methodology and by uncertainty concerning the optimal definition and assessment of laboratory panic. The purpose of this paper is to highlight the impact of method variance on laboratory findings and to present recommendations for future challenge research. We begin by reviewing studies that have employed CO(2) as a stimulus for panic provocation focusing on the status of key methodological parameters between the studies and the relationship of these parameters to findings. We then make pragmatic and theoretically-based recommendations concerning approaches to methodological standardization, the establishment of a valid laboratory panic definition and the desirability of using of additional outcome measures. We conclude that although further work is needed to improve the CO(2) challenge laboratory model of panic, this paradigm can play an important role in understanding the psychopathology of PD.