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Longitudinal Association Between Parenting Practices and Early Sexual Risk Behaviors among Urban African American Adolescents: The Moderating Role of Gender
Abstract
A sample of 274 African American families, living in impoverished neighborhoods with high HIV rates, participated in a longitudinal study of adolescent sexual development when children were in the 4th or 5th grade. Self-report and observational measures of parental warmth and parental behavioral control were collected from adolescents and parents at Time 1, and youth reported if they had initiated intercourse at Times 1 and 2. Regression analyses suggested that gender moderated associations between parental behavioral control and engagement in adolescent sexual behaviors. More generally, findings suggested that boys reared in low control/high warmth (i.e., permissive) homes and girls reared in high control/low warmth (i.e., authoritarian) homes were particularly at risk for early sexual behaviors. Clinical implications and directions for the future research are discussed.
... The connection between higher levels of parental warmth/support during adolescence and lower levels of risky sexual behavior has been explained in part by having fewer sexually active close friends, greater self-control, and a less cynical model of relationships (Simons et al., 2016). These sexual outcomes may also occur due to a close parent-child relationship, as a child who feels close to their parents may be more likely to consider the opinions of their parents when making decisions about engaging in sexual behaviors (Kapungu et al., 2006). ...
... Although the link between maternal warmth during preadolescence and adolescent sexual behaviors has rarely been examined, the relationship between parental support (a similar construct to parental warmth) during preadolescence and adolescent sexual debut was examined and no significant associations were found (Longmore et al., 2001). In another study of 11-year-old children, parental warmth was predictive of a greater likelihood of initiating sexual intercourse during adolescence but was only marginally significant when parental warmth was interacting with child gender (Kapungu et al., 2006). Limitations of the longitudinal research on parental warmth are that most studies that use parental warmth as a predictor of sexual behavior focus only on the timing of sexual debut (e.g., Kapungu et al., 2006), and combine several risky sexual behaviors into one measure rather than looking at specific behaviors separately (Henrich et al., 2006). ...
... In another study of 11-year-old children, parental warmth was predictive of a greater likelihood of initiating sexual intercourse during adolescence but was only marginally significant when parental warmth was interacting with child gender (Kapungu et al., 2006). Limitations of the longitudinal research on parental warmth are that most studies that use parental warmth as a predictor of sexual behavior focus only on the timing of sexual debut (e.g., Kapungu et al., 2006), and combine several risky sexual behaviors into one measure rather than looking at specific behaviors separately (Henrich et al., 2006). Although the timing of sexual intercourse is an important aspect of sexual development to study, there are a variety of sexual behaviors that could contribute to a more holistic view of adolescent sexual development. ...
Limited empirical evidence exists regarding longitudinal connections between parenting during childhood and adolescents’ sexual development. Using structural equation mediation modeling, this study examined how mothers’ parenting practices during childhood (ages 8 to 11) directly related to adolescent sexual outcomes (ages 12 to 16) and whether relationships were mediated by parenting practices persisting over time. Two waves of data were used from a large longitudinal national sample including 687 mother-adolescent pairs (Mage = 10.02, SD = 1.15, 50% female, 64% White) in 2002 and 2007. For boys, mothers’ knowledge of whereabouts and warmth during childhood had negative direct connections to later frequency of intercourse. However, no parallel connections were found for girls. For both boys and girls, mothers’ warmth during childhood was associated with an increased likelihood of sexual debut in adolescence. The findings highlight that parenting practices during childhood directly and indirectly (through parenting trajectories) shape sexual development of children.
... A assunção da importância das interacções familiares precoces nas questões da gravidez na adolescência tem, ainda, por base alguns estudos que apontam a influência de um ambiente familiar caracterizado por stress, pressão, conflitos e maior disfuncionalidade e rigidez (Lourenço, 1998), baixa qualidade da relação entre pais e filhas (Canavarro & Pereira, 2001), falta de comunicação e/ou instabilidade familiar, inadequação ou ausência de supervisão familiar e falta de apoio (Figueiredo, 2001;Holden, Nelson, Velasquez, & Richie, 1993;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Miller et al., 2001;Pereira et al., 2005), num maior risco para uma gravidez adolescente (cf. Miller et al., 2005, para uma revisão mais alargada). ...
... Relativamente aos aspectos relacionais familiares, os nossos resultados convergem com os dos estudos que sugerem uma influência das dinâmicas familiares no grau de vulnerabilidade para a ocorrência de uma gravidez na adolescência (Canavarro & Pereira, 2001;Figueiredo, 2001;Holden et al., 1993;Kapungu et al., 2006;Lourenço, 1998;Miller et al., 2001;Pereira et al., 2005), ao revelarem menores níveis de suporte emocional na infância por parte da figura materna no grupo de grávidas adolescentes e, portanto, ao confirmarem parcialmente a nossa hipótese H2h). Estes resultados revelam uma menor percepção de comportamentos parentais de aprovação, encorajamento, ajuda, compensação, expressão verbal e física de amor e carinho por parte das mães nas adolescentes do grupo GA, o que sugere uma menor qualidade da relação com esta figura (Canavarro & Pereira, 2001), bem como uma menor percepção de apoio percebido nas práticas educativas da mesma (Figueiredo, 2001), constituindo factores de risco para a ocorrência de uma gravidez precoce. ...
... Consideramos, de acordo com os modelos transaccionais e ecológicos, que este risco pode ser também entendido à luz do efeito que as experiências de menor suporte emocional podem ter em características individuais das jovens e sobre outros contextos de influência. Falamos, em primeiro lugar, da maior probabilidade que proporcionam para o desenvolvimento de baixa auto-estima e instabilidade emocional nas relações actuais (Bowlby, 1978;Kapungu et al., 2006) -factores individuais referidos respectivamente por Lourenço (1996) e Soares et al. (2001) no risco para uma gravidez adolescente -bem como da influência que podem ter nas diferentes áreas do desenvolvimento emocional, cognitivo, da personalidade e interpessoal (Rodrigues et al., 2004), nomeadamente no que respeita à ausência de competências pró-sociais e a um menor sentido de competência e valor (Miller et al., 2005). Em segundo lugar, referimo-nos à influência que parecem ser capazes de exercer noutros contextos de vida das jovens, como os pares -aumentando a probabilidade de abuso de substâncias ou associação a pares sexualmente activos -, a escola -não promovendo o envolvimento em actividades académicas e pró-sociais -e as relações românticas (Kapungu et al., 2006) -influenciando a escolha dos parceiros e o tipo de relação estabelecida (duradoura versus múltiplos parceiros). ...
... Over the past two decades there has been a large body of research substantiating the powerful influence of the family on adolescent sexual health behaviors and outcomes [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13]. In general, studies found that adolescents in married, biological two-parent families are less likely to engage in unprotected sex and early sexual initiation compared to adolescents from single parent, cohabiting stepfather, and married stepfather families [2]. ...
... While family structure has been suggested to have an indirect effect on adolescent sexual behavior, parent-child interactions and processes are believed to have a more direct effect on such behaviors. For instance, closer parentadolescent relationships and greater parental support and monitoring have been shown across multiple contexts to reduce adolescents' engagement in sexual risk behaviors [6][7][8][9][10]. ...
The main objective of this paper is to understand the role of the family on the sexual experiences of adolescents from urban, disadvantaged settings in Baltimore and Johannesburg. Data were collected as part of the WAVE study, a global study of disadvantaged youth in five cities. Qualitative data were based on key informant interviews, a Photovoice exercise, community mapping, focus groups and in-depth interviews with adolescents. Quantitative data were gathered from an ACASI survey that was administered to approximately 450–500 adolescents per site. Results from the qualitative data revealed that while parents were viewed as important sources of information for sexual and reproductive health, they were often not present in the adolescents’ lives. This lack of parental presence was perceived to result in adolescents feeling an overall lack of adult support and guidance. The impact of parental presence and support on adolescent sexual experience was further examined from the quantitative data and revealed a complex picture. In both Baltimore and Johannesburg, female adolescents who were raised by other relatives were less likely to report having had sex compared to those raised by two biological parents, which was not observed for males. In Johannesburg, female adolescents who were paternal orphans were less likely to have had sex compared to non-orphans; the opposite was true among males. Finally, in both sites, female adolescents who had been exposed to violence were more likely to have had sex compared to those who had not; for males, there was no significant relationship. The study demonstrates the powerful influence of both context and gender for understanding the influences of the family on adolescent sexual behaviors. Programs aiming to reduce adolescent sexual risk behaviors the need to understand the complex influences on risk behaviors in different settings and in particular, the role of mothers and fathers. Prevention strategies need to also understand and incorporate gender-specific messages and interventions in order to address the high risk of sexual behaviors among adolescents in these settings.
... However, the protective aspects of warmth are complex especially in terms of youth sexual risk behavior and substance use. For example, one study showed that boys reared in low control/high warmth homes and girls reared in high control/low warmth homes were at increased risk for early sexual behaviors (Kapungu et al. 2006), while another study showed that parental warmth was a stronger predictor of sexual risk behavior for females more than for males (Kincaid et al. 2012). In some studies, higher levels of warmth were associated with reduced adolescent drug use (Broman et al. 2006;Tandon et al. 2014), but other studies showed the opposite. ...
... The null findings for parental warmth might suggest other intervening variables (e.g., more nuanced parenting influences such as authoritative, authoritarian, permissive approaches) might be operating here. For instance, other studies have documented that more authoritarian versus permissive parenting styles are correlated with better behavioral outcomes for African American youth (Kapungu et al. 2006;Kincaid et al. 2012). ...
Background
African American youth in urban centers often reside in poorly resourced communities and face structural disadvantage, which can result in higher rates of poor behavioral health factors such as mental health problems, juvenile justice system involvement, substance use, risky sex and lower school engagement. While parental monitoring has been shown to be protective with regards to these risk factors, less understood are the effects of parental warmth in conjunction with monitoring. Objective
This study examined whether parental monitoring and warmth had a main or mediated relationship to behavioral health factors among low income African American youth. Method
African American youth (n = 638) completed self-administered questionnaires on parenting factors (i.e., monitoring and warmth), mental health, juvenile justice system involvement, substance use, school engagement, and sexual risk behaviors. ResultsParticipants reported higher mean parental monitoring versus warmth. Parental monitoring was correlated with lower substance use, delinquency, unsafe sex and higher school engagement. Higher parental warmth in contrast was uniquely correlated with better youth mental health but also higher rates of alcohol, cigarette and marijuana use. Conclusions
Monitoring their youth at high levels appears to be a common and effective strategy by parents in poorly resourced communities and was associated with lower behavioral health risks. By contrast, parental warmth had both positive and negative associations with behavioral health, suggesting that more research is needed to clarify the circumstances within which parental warmth may be protective or not.
... In terms of antecedent factors, parenting practices have been linked to risky sexual behavior in a profusion of studies (e.g., Capaldi et al. 2002;Kapungu et al. 2006;Lansford et al. 2010). What is not clear, however, is the mechanisms by which parenting exerts this influence. ...
... Parenting practices such as supportiveness, management and harshness are important determinants of whether offspring engage in various risky behaviors, including adolescent participation in risky sexual behavior. For example, numerous studies (e.g., Kapungu et al. 2006;Landor et al. 2011) have reported that having supportive parents, characterized by warmth, involvement and positive communication, is a protective factor against participation in risky sexual behavior. Such parenting during early adolescence predicts fewer sexual partners across gender and racial/ethnic groups during late adolescence (Lansford et al. 2010). ...
Risky sexual behavior, particularly among adolescents, continues to be a major source of concern. In order to develop effective education and prevention programs, there is a need for research that identifies the antecedents of such behavior. This study investigated the mediators that link parenting experiences during early adolescence to subsequent risky sexual behaviors among a diverse sample of African American youth (N = 629, 55 % female). While there is ample evidence that parenting practices (e.g., supportive parenting, harsh parenting, parental management) are antecedent to risky sexual behavior, few studies have examined whether one approach to parenting is more strongly related to risky sex than others. Using a developmental approach, the current study focused on factors associated with six theories of risky sexual behavior. While past research has provided support for all of the theories, few studies have assessed the relative contribution of each while controlling for the processes proposed by the others. The current study addresses these gaps in the literature and reports results separately by gender. Longitudinal analyses using structural equation modeling revealed that the mediating mechanisms associated with social learning and attachment theories were significantly related to the risky sexual behavior of males and females. Additionally, there was support for social control and self-control theories only for females and for life history theory only for males. We did not find support for problem behavior theory, a perspective that dominates the risky sex literature, after controlling for the factors associated with the other theories. Finally, supportive parenting emerged as the parenting behavior most influential with regard to adolescents' risky sexual behavior. These results provide insight regarding efficacious approaches to education and preventative programs designed to reduce risky sexual behaviors among adolescents.
... According to Zamboni and Silver (2009), a review of the literature supports the notion that open conversations between parents and their children about sex may have an effect in delaying their desire to have sex. For youth, feeling the warmth and support of their parents had the effect of delayed sexual behaviors (Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006). However, in a study conducted by Pearson et al. (2006), Caucasian and Latino female adolescents whose parents reported speaking to their children about sex were more likely to initiate sex. ...
... Adolescent participants who had not engaged in sex came from married parents, were attending high school, and had plans to attend college (Flores et al., 2002). Adolescents who felt they had an emotional bond with their families were less likely to engage in sex at an early age and engage in other risky behaviors (Kapungu et al., 2006). These findings suggest that schools play a role in teaching parents how to speak to their teens about sexuality. ...
The purpose of this study was to investigate and compare the sexual behaviors of African American, Caucasian, and Hispanic adolescent males and females. The data utilized for this study were collected by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDCP) using the 2007 Youth Risk Behavior Surveillance System (YRBSS). African American adolescents and males reported higher levels of sexual activity than Caucasian and Hispanic youth and females. At the conclusion of this study, a comparison was made between the results of the 2007 and the 2009 YRBSS.
... Research has also established that certain parenting behaviors are associated with risky sexual behaviors. For instance, many studies have demonstrated the importance of parental warmth/support (Kapungu et al. 2006;Miller et al. 2001;Resnick et al. 1997;Rodgers 1999). Numerous studies (e.g., Miller et al. 2001;Resnick et al. 1997;Kapungu et al. 2006;Landor et al. 2011) have found that having warm and supportive parents is a protective factor against risky sexual behavior. ...
... For instance, many studies have demonstrated the importance of parental warmth/support (Kapungu et al. 2006;Miller et al. 2001;Resnick et al. 1997;Rodgers 1999). Numerous studies (e.g., Miller et al. 2001;Resnick et al. 1997;Kapungu et al. 2006;Landor et al. 2011) have found that having warm and supportive parents is a protective factor against risky sexual behavior. ...
Participation in risky sexual behaviors has many deleterious consequences and is a source of concern for parents as well as practitioners, researchers, and public policy makers. Past research has examined the effect of family structure and supportive parenting on risky sexual behaviors among emerging adults. In the present study, we attempt to identify the mediators that explain this relationship. Using survey data from a sample of over 2,000 college students (1,297 females and 780 males) we use structural equation modeling to investigate the role of commitment to marriage, desired characteristics in an intimate partner, and sociosexuality in linking the influence of family structure and supportive parenting to risky sexual behaviors. Results indicate that respondents from continuously married families were more committed to marriage, and this commitment reduced the probability of risky sexual behavior both directly, as well as indirectly through its negative impact on unrestricted sociosexuality. On the other hand, respondents who reported having supportive parents rated sensitivity and similarity of values as more important in a mate than physical attractiveness and sexual compatibility. This approach to mate selection reduces unrestricted sociosexuality and, in turn, risky sexual behavior. Even after taking our mediators into account, there is still a direct effect of family factors on risky sexual behavior. Gender differences in the pattern of findings are discussed and directions for future research are identified.
... On the other hand, poor family relations, including low attachment, involvement, and monitoring, are also associated with higher levels of risky sexual behavior, substance use, and delinquent involvement (Chen & Thompson, 2007;Crosby, Leichliter, & Brackbill, 2000;DiClemente et al., 2001;Huebner & Howell, 2003;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mosack, Gore-Felton, Chartier, & McGarvey, 2007;Robertson et al., 2005). Adolescents who do not have a healthy emotional bond to a parent will be less concerned with the consequences of disobeying rules and letting the parent down. ...
... Indeed, different kinds of family environment and/or peer groups provide differing standards for behaviors (Wilson & Donnermeyer, 2006). Poor family relations, including low attachment, involvement, monitoring, and inconsistent or harsh discipline are consistent predictors of a range of problem behaviors, including sexual behavior, substance use, and criminal involvement (Chen & Thompson, 2007;Crosby et al., 2001;DiClemente et al., 2001;Gorman-Smith et al., 2000;Huebner & Howell, 2003;Kapungu et al., 2006;Mosack et al., 2007;Robertson et al., 2005). Developmental research also reveals important racial and gender differences in parenting practices (Bulcroft, Carmody, & Bulcroft, 1996;Park & Bauer, 2002;Pinderhughes et al., 2000). ...
This study focuses on the interrelationships between risky sexual practices, substance use, and arrest history. The sample consists of 948 newly arrested juvenile offenders processed at a centralized intake facility in 2006. A series of confirmatory factor analysis and structural equation modeling techniques are used to 1) determine if risky sexual behavior, marijuana and cocaine use, and arrest history form a unidimensional latent factor, 2) examine the direct effect of age on the latent factor, and 3) compare the factor structure, as well as the effect of age on the latent factor, across four demographic subgroups based on race and gender. Results provide moderate support for all three research objectives. Important similarities, as well as differences, in the factor structure across the four groups were found. The prevention and intervention implications of the findings, limitations of the current study, and directions for future research are discussed.
... Research interest has also shifted towards exploring the potential moderator and mediator on relationship between predictors identified and adolescents' premarital sexual practices, in order to effectively tackle the SRH issues among adolescents. Among others, gender has been frequently studied and found to significantly moderate the relationship between predictors and premarital sexual practices among adolescents (19)(20)(21). Furthermore, the role of gender in moderating adolescents' premarital sexual practices has been recognized especially in relation to parenting or parental related determinants (20). ...
Introduction: Premarital sexual is a sexual and reproductive health concern among adolescents in Malaysia. Guided by the constructs of the Social Cognitive Theory (SCT), this study aimed to determine the moderating role of gender on premarital sexual practices among the late adolescents in Kuantan, Pahang. Methods: Probability sampling was utilized to sample the late adolescents from tertiary educational centres. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) was conducted to verify the factor structure of the observed variables, with the interrelationship between variables were studied using structural equation modelling (SEM). Moderation analysis was completed via multigroup analysis (MGA). Results: A response rate of 72.2% was obtained, with 390 adolescents aged 18 to 19 years old participated in the study. The total mean for premarital sexual practices was 1.14 ± 0.47, with highest mean observed for masturbation (1.33 ± 0.83). Attitude (β = -0.111, p = 0.021), religiosity (β = -0.014, p = 0.032) and high-risk activities (β = 0.999, p < 0.001) illustrated significant relationships with premarital sexual practices. A moderated regression analysis showed significant interactive effects between gender and premarital sexual practices, with negative association between attitude and religiosity with premarital sexual practices were found among male respondents. Conclusion: This empirical study demonstrated significant moderation effect of gender between attitude and religiosity with premarital sexual practices among targeted late adolescents’ population in Pahang, Malaysia. Any efforts to tackle issue related to premarital sexual practices among similar population should be directed towards male adolescents with lower religiosity score.
... Furthermore, many socialization practices are highly dependent on gender (Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Consequently, research consistently concludes that differences in socialization lead to differential achievement outcomes for Black boys and girls (Annunziata, Hogue, Faw, & Liddle, 2006;Kapungu Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). These differences affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. ...
Black girls represent a unique subpopulation of science learners. Black girls are unique because they consistently outperform Black boys in science. Despite this trend, Black girls often face dual marginalization in STEM classrooms and professions. Racial and gender marginalization can inhibit the success of Black girls in science if researchers, teachers and parents do not address the most salient factors. This exploratory analysis investigates how the specialized science content knowledge of Black girls is differentiated on the NAEP and how the dispositions, opportunities to learn, and parental involvement mechanisms are characterized by the NAEP assessment data. This within-group, content-specific analysis identifies teaching and learning strengths and weaknesses for Black girls that are difficult to assess using between-group designs. This study offers educators, researchers, and parents a holistic view of the performance profile of Black girls, as learners and doers of science. The results indicate that Black girls possess a basic understanding in life and physical sciences, however earth science remains the greatest challenge. Overall, the data shows that Black girls have a positive academic disposition towards science, yet are not engaged with the content. Recommendations for researchers, teachers, parents and other educational stakeholders to further meet the needs of Black girls in science are provided.
... Furthermore, many socialization practices are highly dependent on gender (Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Consequently, research consistently concludes that differences in socialization lead to differential achievement outcomes for Black male and female students (Annunziata, Hogue, Faw, & Liddle, 2006;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). These differences affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. ...
The purpose of this study was to utilize an ethnically homogeneous design to examine Black female student U.S. History content-specific knowledge. The study aims to elucidate the importance of single-group analyses as an alternative to between-group comparative designs. The present study utilized a critical, quantitative, descriptive research design to examine the achievement of Black girls in U.S. History from a strength-based and growth-focused perspective. The study contributes to the literature on Black girls' achievement by applying a quantitative approach to intersectional research. This study utilized two subsamples of Black 8 th grade girls from the 2006 and 2010 National Assessment of Educational Progress (N = 4,490). Mean differences in Black girls' specialized U.S. History content knowledge were assessed using both descriptive statistics and an analysis of variance (ANOVA). The results indicate statistically significant growth overall, and on the democracy and world role domains. Data also indicate that scores on the democracy and culture domains were statistically significantly higher than scores on the technology and world role domains. This study provides implications for middle grades U.S. History achievement and the specific needs of Black girls.
... Their findings show that parents' religious affiliation fails to moderate the negative associations between authoritarian parenting and positive adjustment. Kapungu, Holmbeck, and Paikoff (2006) find that in contrast to boys, girls reared in authoritarian homes are particularly at risk for early sexual behavior. The present study finds that SDA young adults raised under authoritarian parenting are similarly less likely to be sexually abstinent. ...
Abstract
This study proposes to strengthen the nascent scholarship investigating sexual behavior among Seventh-day Adventist emerging adults. A sample of 592 unmarried, 18 to 25-year old university students, who are baptized or SDA religious adherents, responded toa questionnaire which investigated their socio-psychological motivations for abstinence. The analysis is guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior. Regression analysis reveals that it is not religiousness, but attitude toward abstinence, the support of friends for the concept of abstinence, and high self-efficacy, that motivates their decision to remain abstinent. These factors remain significant net of other significant co-variates such as authoritarian
parenting, coming from a two-parent family, age, and race/ethnicity. Discussion centered on the value of promoting these key constructs rather than religiousness alone, to achieve abstinence among SDA emerging adults.
... Oftentimes, boys are not as informed but encouraged to engage in early sexual activity, while girls are more informed but discouraged from sexual activity (Udell & Donenberg, 2011;Dilorio et al., 2003). Prior research examining ethnic and racial differences in progression of sexual activities among adolescents have found that experiences like petting, kissing, and hugging are more likely to lead directly to sexual intercourse among African-American adolescents (Kapungu, Holmbeck & Paikoff, 2006). Kapungu and colleagues (2006) , 1999). ...
Prior health disparities research has indicated that urban, low-income African-American families and adolescents experience ecological and environmental hardships that result in higher rates of engagement in risk behaviors. Contextual factors like community violence, socioeconomic status, and family processes, as well as limited sexual health knowledge, a psychological element, also contribute to high rates of sexual risk among urban African-American adolescents. However, protective factors like parental monitoring and parent-adolescent communication about sex may decrease sexual risk among this urban teen population. Therefore, the current study sought to explore the following research questions: (1) Is parent-adolescent communication about sex associated with adolescent sexual health knowledge?, (2) Is parent-adolescent communication about sex associated with parental monitoring?, (3) Are parental monitoring and parent-adolescent communication about sex predictors of adolescent sexual risk?, (4) Are there gender differences in parent-adolescent communication about sex and parental monitoring?, and (5) Are age and gender predictors of adolescent sexual risk? A sample of approximately 1102 African-American adolescents aged 13–17 from urban Midwestern high schools were included in this study. There was no significant association found between sexual health knowledge and parent communication about sex or parental monitoring. Female adolescents reported higher levels of communication about sex than males. Findings indicated a significant negative association between parental monitoring and adolescent sexual risk, with the association being stronger for males than females. There was a significant negative association found between sexual health knowledge and adolescent sexual risk. Additionally, findings indicated a significant negative association between parental monitoring and adolescent sexual risk.
... Differences in socialization affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. Research consistently concludes that differences in socialization contribute to differential achievement outcomes for Black boys and girls (Annunziata, Hogue, Faw, & Liddle, 2006;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). According to Wood, Kaplan, and Mcloyd (2007), Black student achievement on tests is directly related to differences in parent socialization based on gender. ...
The racial achievement gap is one of the most persistent and pervasive issues in educational research. Unfortunately, the current research on Black student achievement lacks empirical studies that address the academic strengths and challenges facing Black girls. Specifically, there is a dearth of resources in the form of books, articles, and policies to support the learning of Black girls. Therefore studies that isolate gender as a contributing factor are warranted. The author presents an argument to explicate why the dearth of research supporting the achievement of Black girls is unjustified. Three research and data integrity considerations are presented to support this argument.
... 24. Kapungu, Holmbeck, and Paikoff (2006) Offending not outcome measuremeasured early sexual risk behaviors. 25. ...
Parental supervision has been identified as an important influence on offending. This systematic review focuses specifically on parental supervision, compared to existing systematic reviews which tend to concentrate on a wider range of family factors. The main aim of this article is to assess the precise nature of the association between parental supervision and offending. Overall, 19 prospective longitudinal studies were identified (published since 1996) which met the inclusion criteria. The results show a weighted mean effect size (ES) of Cohen's d=0.37 between parental supervision and later offending. This review discovered that studies use different types of behavior to define parental supervision. Interestingly, a larger weighted mean effect size (d=0.45) was found for studies measuring ‘level of parental knowledge’ compared to studies measuring ‘child disclosure to parents’ (d=0.33) or ‘parental rule setting’ (d=0.14). The results suggest that the strength of social bondsis important for enablingparents tomaintainhigh levelsofknowledge. Prevention programsshould aim to develop robust channels of communication that increase parental knowledge regarding the activities of their children. Future research should also clarify the definition of parental supervision, in order to make it possible to compare different studies of parenting.
... Furthermore, many socialization practices are highly dependent on gender (Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Consequently, research consistently concludes that differences in socialization lead to differences in achievement outcomes for Black male and Black female students (Annunziata et al., 2006;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). These differences affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. ...
The achievement socialization of Black girls is highly dependent upon the interactions within their sphere of socialization. Black gender socialization patterns may build an academic resilience in Black women that gives them the capacity to navigate the U.S. educational system substantially better than their male counterparts. In this chapter, the authors describe how parents and teachers can leverage the racial, disciplinary, and academic identities of Black girls to increase their performance in mathematics. This chapter equips teachers and parents with explicit tools to build on the trends observed in prior research. These tools can help parents and teachers build bridges to mathematics success for Black girls.
... That is, the research has not sufficiently examined how parenting styles influence child outcomes within the context of child gender dyads. Children's gender has been found to be important in the emergence of child behavior problems and how children respond to parenting styles, and several studies have suggested the role of gender differences in internalizing versus externalizing problems [50][51][52][53][54][55][56]. Early childhood is a critical period for child development related to social adaptation. ...
While ineffective discipline can be attributed to authoritarian and permissive parenting styles, little research has examined the role of gender in the association between parenting style and early childhood behavioral problems. Thus, this study aimed to clarify the effects of authoritarian and permissive parenting on children’s externalizing and internalizing behaviors during the preschool-to-elementary-school transition according to gender in Japan. A sample of 1668 Japanese children (853 boys and 815 girls) were followed longitudinally over one-year intervals, and assessed based on parenting styles (the Parenting Scale), children’s behavioral problems (the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire), and family characteristics. Multivariate analyses revealed that, when analyzed by gender, authoritarian discipline influenced externalizing problems in boys (β = 0.048, p = 0.047) and girls (β = 0.067, p = 0.023), while permissive discipline influenced externalizing problems in boys only (β = 0.049, p = 0.038). The results document the relationship between family processes and the development of disruptive behavior disorders in children. Support for parents employing such child-rearing styles in early childhood may be effective in reducing school maladjustment.
... Furthermore, many socialization practices are highly dependent on gender (Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Consequently, research consistently concludes that differences in socialization lead to differences in achievement outcomes for Black male and Black female students (Annunziata et al., 2006;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006;Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). These differences affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. ...
The achievement socialization of Black girls is highly dependent upon the interactions within their sphere of socialization. Black gender socialization patterns may build an academic resilience in Black women that gives them the capacity to navigate the U.S. educational system substantially better than their male counterparts. In this chapter, the authors describe how parents and teachers can leverage the racial, disciplinary, and academic identities of Black girls to increase their performance in mathematics. This chapter equips teachers and parents with explicit tools to build on the trends observed in prior research. These tools can help parents and teachers build bridges to mathematics success for Black girls.
... In a recent metaanalysis, it was revealed that more autonomy-supportive strategies were implemented with males than females in the 1970s and 1980s, but since 1990 this trend has reversed . Regarding outcomes, Kapungu et al. (2006) found that females exposed to authoritarian style and males exposed to permissive style were more likely to engage in early sexual behaviors. Parental psychological control, a key component of authoritarian parenting, was associated more with antisocial behavior, depression, and anxiety in females than in males (Pettit et al. 2001). ...
Regarding parental influences on child adjustment, research has examined parental and child gender separately more often than the interaction between them. Thus, the current study investigated the effects of parenting styles, discipline practices, and parental psychological symptoms in parent–child gender dyads. The sample consisted of 177 male and 313 female emerging adults who ranged in age from 18 to 24 years and reported they were primarily White and African American. Participants reported on parental characteristics including perceived parenting styles, discipline practices, and parental psychological symptoms in addition to their own psychological symptoms. Results indicated that parent and emerging adult gender moderated some relationships. Notably, interaction effects suggested that higher levels of authoritative parenting were associated with higher levels of emerging adult psychological symptoms. This unexpected finding may indicate that parents provide less authoritative parenting to high functioning emerging adults compared to those who have problems, or that emerging adults perceive high levels of authoritative parenting during this time in their lives as problematic. Thus, effective parenting may vary as a function of children’s development.
... Some studies have also indicated that the level of global self-esteem and parental attitude have gender differences (Kapungu et al. 2006;Benjet and Hernandez-Guzman 2001;Garaigordobil and Aliri 2012). These results suggested that the effects of perceived parental attitude and self-esteem vary between males and females. ...
The present study examined the mediating effects of global self-esteem on the relationship of perceived parental attitude with sex and sex knowledge acquisition. The mediating model was established using parental attitude toward sex education questionnaire, sex knowledge scale, and Rosenberg self-esteem scale in Chinese version on 901 Chinese senior high school students as participants. Path analysis indicated that global self-esteem partially mediated the relationship between perceived parental attitude and sex and sex knowledge. Multi-group analysis indicated a partial mediating effect on female adolescents, but the mediating effect on male adolescents was not significant. Limitations and implications for future study were also discussed.
... Furthermore, many socialization practices are highly dependent on gender (Raley & Bianchi, 2006). Consequently, research consistently concludes that differences in socialization lead to differential achievement outcomes for Black boys and girls (Annunziata et al., 2006;; Kapungu et al., 2006;; Mandara, Varner, & Richman, 2010). These differences affect student success across the entire achievement spectrum. ...
Black girls are unique K-12 learners that bring specific funds of knowledge to the reading classroom. These experiential learning tools are underutilized as pedagogical scaffolds - apparent by the consistent challenges Black children present on national assessments. This study showcases a single group summary of the achievement of Black girls in 4th grade reading over a decade of NAEP administrations. The achievement results of 25,527 Black girls suggest that despite the consistent rhetoric of underachievement from 2003 to 2013 Black girls have made statistically significant gains. Based on the specific achievement gains and growth patterns of Black girls, the study provides strength based recommendations for teachers, families, and Black girls to spark a reading revolution - one book and one girl at a time.
... We include several time-varying control variables that prior literature suggests are correlated with peer acceptance and/or sexual behaviors and thus may make our hypothesized associations spurious (Boislard et al. 2013;Kapungu et al. 2006;Rostosky et al. 2004;Schvaneveldt et al. 2001). These variables were measured in the inschool survey. ...
A sexual double standard in adolescence has important implications for sexual development and gender inequality. The present study uses longitudinal social network data (N = 914; 11–16 years of age) to test if gender moderates associations between adolescents’ sexual behaviors and peer acceptance. Consistent with a traditional sexual double standard, female adolescents who reported having sex had significant decreases in peer acceptance over time, whereas male adolescents reporting the same behavior had significant increases in peer acceptance. This pattern was observed net of respondents’ own perceived friendships, further suggesting that the social responses to sex vary by gender of the sexual actor. However, findings for “making out” showed a reverse double standard, such that female adolescents reporting this behavior had increases in peer acceptance and male adolescents reporting the same behavior had decreases in peer acceptance over time. Results thus suggest that peers enforce traditional sexual scripts for both “heavy” and “light” sexual behaviors during adolescence. These findings have important implications for sexual health education, encouraging educators to develop curricula that emphasize the gendered social construction of sexuality and to combat inequitable and stigmatizing peer responses to real or perceived deviations from traditional sexual scripts.
... Covariates-Because research has demonstrated that gender, parents' education, parental marital status, and race/ethnicity may be associated with parenting style or moderate the association between parenting and offspring's outcomes (Dornbusch, Ritter, Leiderman, Roberts, & Fraleigh, 1987;Gasper, Stolberg, Macie, & Williams, 2008;Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006), we included gender, parents' education, parental marital status, and race/ethnicity as covariates in all analyses. ...
Although parenting is clearly linked to academic engagement in adolescence, less is known about links between parenting and academic engagement in emerging adulthood. A diverse sample of college students (N = 633; 53.1% female, 45.7% White/European American, 28.3% Asian American/Hawaiian/Pacific Islander, 26.4% Hispanic/Latino American, 21.6% Black/African American, and 2.8% Native American/American Indian) answered surveys about mothers’ and fathers’ parenting style, parent–offspring relationship quality, academic attitudes, academic behaviors, and academic performance. Emerging adults with more permissive mothers viewed grades as less important than emerging adults with less permissive mothers. Mothers’ authoritarian parenting, mothers’ permissive parenting, and relationship quality with father were differentially related to academic engagement depending on emerging adults’ gender. Both mothers’ and fathers’ parenting characteristics may affect the academic engagement of emerging adults via past parenting behaviors and current quality of the parent–offspring relationship, despite decreased physical proximity of emerging adults and their parents.
... Their findings show that parents' religious affiliation fails to moderate the negative associations between authoritarian parenting and positive adjustment. Kapungu, Holmbeck, and Paikoff (2006) find that in contrast to boys, girls reared in authoritarian homes are particularly at risk for early sexual behavior. The present study finds that SDA young adults raised under authoritarian parenting are similarly less likely to be sexually abstinent. ...
This study proposes to strengthen the nascent scholarship investigating sexual behavior among Seventh-day Adventist emerging adults. A sample of 592 unmarried, 18 to 25 year old university students, who are baptized or SDA religious adherents, responded to a questionnaire which investigated their socio-psychological motivations for abstinence. The analysis is guided by the Theory of Planned Behavior. Regression analysis reveals that it is not religiousness, but attitude toward abstinence, the support of friends for the concept of abstinence, and high self-efficacy, that motivates their decision to remain abstinent. These factors remain significant net of other significant co-variates such as authoritarian parenting, coming from a two-parent family, age, and race/ethnicity. Discussion centered on the value of promoting these key constructs rather than religiousness alone, to achieve abstinence among SDA emerging adults.
... In a cohort study, spending too much time in social networks in a 1.5-year follow-up is a predictor of an increase in adolescents' sexual experience (25). Parents being permissive on adolescent boys and authoritarian on adolescent girls is another factor of risky sexual behavior in adolescents (27). ...
: Adolescence is the key time in the formation of sexual confidence and fertility in people and many risky sexual behaviors in this sensitive era are the roots of many adulthood diseases. STD and early pregnancy are among the most important issues of adolescence.
This study deals with reviewing ecological factors related to the sexual and reproductive health of adolescents.
As this study was a narrative review the researchers conducted their computer search in public bases such as Google Scholar and then in more specialized ones such as MEDLINE, EMBASE, Science Direct, Up-to-date, SPRINGER, SID, Magi ran, Iranmedex and Irandoc with the key words adolescents, sexual health, reproductive health and ecological from 1991 to 2015. Initially 152 articles were elicited and after a review study of the title and abstract, 80 articles entered the study. After reading the full text, 39 articles were chosen for writing the current review article.
Reviewing the articles led to organizing the contents in three main classes according to Bronfenbrenner’s suggestion namely ecological factors at microsystem, mesosystem and macrosystem levels which include individual predisposing factors, environmental enabling factors and social reinforcing factors.
Adolescents are at a high risk of STD and early pregnancy. Many factors are considered as effective at this critical era, based on which comprehensive intervention based on ecological factors is needed to step forward toward preventing adolescence risks.
... According to Simons et al. (2004), the family unit socializes children's beliefs and values (including religiousness) as well as internal mechanisms like self-control, which in turn contributes to reduced engagement in risk behavior. Parenting that is warm and supportive has been related inversely to adolescents' risky sexual behavior (Kapungu et al. 2006;Landor et al. 2011). Using data from ADD Health, Chen et al. (2010) found that when adolescents perceived parental disapprove of premarital sex, they were less likely to engage in casual sexual encounters, providing some evidence that parental values are related to the sexual decision-making of their children. ...
As emerging adults recenter (Tanner and Arnett in Debating emerging adulthood: Stage or process? Oxford University Press, New York, pp 13–30, 2011) their relationships with their family, they may retain some values and behaviors, while they disregard others temporarily or even for good. In the current study, we investigated whether emerging adults’ personal and family religious practices contribute to sexual intercourse within and outside a committed relationship cross-sectionally and over 1 year. College students completed questionnaires (N
T1 = 779; N
T2 = 538). Using hierarchical logistic regressions on sexual intercourse within and outside a committed relationship at Time 1, family and personal religious practices predicted sexual intercourse within and outside a committed relationship; the family × personal religious practices interaction was also significant. Hierarchical logistic regressions showed that for Time 1 virgins (N = 286), only sexual permissive attitudes predicted sexual intercourse within and outside a committed relationship at Time 2. Thus, the current study’s findings supported this important developmental shifting that promotes emerging adults’ individuation.
... Studies have taken sex differences into account and mentioned that different cultures treat girls and boys differently, which subsequently affect their socialization and various behaviors. Studies carried out by Huebner et al. and Kapungu et al. revealed similar results (23,24). ...
Family plays an important role in helping adolescent acquiring skills or strengthening their characters.
We aimed to evaluate the influences of family factors, risky and protective, on adolescent health-risk behavior (HRB).
In this cross-sectional study, students of high schools in Kerman, Iran at all levels participated, during November 2011 till December 2011. The research sample included 1024 students (588 females and 436 males) aged 15 to 19 years. A CTC (Communities That Care Youth Survey) questionnaire was designed in order to collect the profile of the students' risky behaviors. Stratified cluster sampling method was used to collect the data.
Using logistic regression, 7 variables enrolled; 4 of them were risk factors and 3 were protective factors. The risk factors were age, (linear effect, ORa = 1.20, P = 0.001), boys versus girls (ORa = 2.33, P = 0.001), family history of antisocial behavior (ORa = 2.29, P = 0.001), and parental attitudes favorable toward antisocial behavior (ORa = 1.72, P = 0.03). And, protective factors were family religiosity (ORa = 0.65, P = 0.001), father education (linear effect, ORa = 0.48, P = 0.001), and family attachment (ORa = 0.78, P = 0.001).
Our findings showed that family has a very significant role in protecting students against risky behaviors. The education level of the father, family religiosity, and attachment were the most important factors.
... However, the finding that greater maternal warmth was predictive of sexual risk was unexpected and inconsistent with some studies that have found that warmth was associated with decreased sexual risk (e.g., Coley et al., 2009). Our findings, however, are consistent with studies that have suggested that high warmth, which could be interpreted as parental permissiveness, among African American males is associated with greater risky sexual behaviors, as adolescents perceiving their mothers as permissive may be more likely to spend time outside of the home and have greater opportunities to engage in sexual behaviors (Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006). ...
The current study examined 14 waves of data derived from a large, community-based study of the sexual behavior of impoverished youth between 12 and 17 years of age residing in the Deep South. We used multilevel linear modeling to identify ecological predictors of intercourse frequency and number of sexual partners among gender-specific subsamples. Results indicated that predictors of adolescent sexual behavior differed by both type of sexual behavior and gender. For males, age, maternal warmth, parental knowledge, curfew, self-worth, and sense of community predicted intercourse frequency, while age, parental knowledge, curfew, self-worth, friend support, and sense of community were significantly associated with having multiple sexual partners. Among females, age, curfew, and self-worth exerted significant effects on intercourse frequency, while age, parental knowledge, curfew, and self-worth exerted significant effects on having multiple sexual partners. Implications and future directions are discussed.
... Family involvement in HIV prevention efforts is increasingly recognized as important to sustain adolescent behavior change (Kapungu et al. 2006(Kapungu et al. , 2010Pequegnat and Szapocznik 2000), especially among teens with psychiatric symptoms (Donenberg and Pao 2005;Nappi et al. 2007Nappi et al. , 2009). Unfortunately, family-based prevention intervention studies are hampered by poor participation (approx. ...
The purpose of this study was to examine the effectiveness of evidence-based recruitment and retention strategies for a longitudinal,
family-based HIV prevention intervention study targeting adolescents in psychiatric care by (1) determining consent rate (recruitment),
rate of participation at the first intervention session (retention), and follow-up attendance rate (retention); and (2) examining
socio-demographic factors, family-level processes, sexual risk-related indices, and intervention factors (i.e., treatment
arm) associated with study retention. Only one-third of the families contacted ultimately enrolled in the study. 81% of those
enrolled participated in the workshop and 72% attended the booster sessions with no significant differences between families
on any variable based on attendance. Retention over 1 year was 85% and did not differ by treatment arm. Strategies employed
were successful at retaining families once they were enrolled. Findings highlight barriers to enrollment for adolescents in
psychiatric care and suggest that it may be critical to integrate HIV prevention programs within community-based mental health
services in order to counteract recruitment challenges.
... Over time, parental monitoring reduces African American and Latino adolescents' risk of early sexual debut in neighborhoods with high levels of disorder (Roche & Leventhal, 2009). Parental behavioral control may be particularly important for males (Kapungu, Holmbeck, & Paikoff, 2006). Further, parental values and expectations related to sexual behavior are also important. ...
This article provides a comprehensive review of studies conducted over the past decade on the effects of neighborhood and poverty on adolescent normative and nonnormative development. Our review includes a summary of studies examining the associations between neighborhood poverty and adolescent identity development followed by a review of studies addressing both direct and indirect linking among neighborhood poverty to academic achievement as well as internalizing and externalizing behaviors. Available neighborhood studies that examined physical health disparities, as well as genetic and environmental influences on adolescent development, were also included. Within each section we summarize findings that address the direct and indirect effects of neighborhood poverty. We conclude with promising strategies for future research, including recommendations for addressing theoretical and methodological issues that continue to plague this field of research.
... These issues become even more challenging when investigations seek to understand multiple identities (gender, sexual, ethnic, age, etc), especially those linked to multiple forms of minority status. This is not to say that more contextualized studies are impossible; recent studies, for example, provide insightful analyses of intersections among ethnicity and other key categories, such as gender ( Elling and Knoppers, 2005;Kapungu, Holmbeck, and Paikoff, 2006). But these efforts to examine intersections are remarkable for their rarity, perhaps because these efforts often face enormous practical, statistical and methodological challenges. ...
The study of adolescence may have come of age, but it remains debatable whether research appropriately considers the ethnic
diversity of adolescence. Given a heightened interest in supporting a more inclusive approach to adolescent research, this
study takes stock of how seriously we actually are pursuing a more inclusive study of adolescence. To do so, this study examines
the extent to which six leading journals dedicated to the study of adolescence publish articles that include ethnic participants,
report the nature of that inclusion, and present findings that consider the ethnic dimensions of their samples. Although results
reveal some diversity among journals, trends do emerge. For example, the study of adolescence is quite international: overall,
more than 40% of 1283 empirical articles (published from 2000 to and including 2006) report findings from non-U.S. samples.
If we remove international studies from our analyses, we find that the vast majority of studies (93%) describe the ethnic
composition of their samples. That finding diverges considerably from reports from other fields of research. Also unlike other
fields of research, studies from journals on adolescence do tend to include ethnic groups. The majority (68%) of articles
actually do not have samples with a majority of participants from European American groups. Over 40% of articles present empirical
analyses relating to identified ethnic groups, and at least 19% present findings that focus on one ethnic group (rather than
comparing one to another). We do, however, find relatively ignored groups (such as Native and Asian Americans) and a tendency
to lump diverse groups into five dominant ethnic groups or into “other” groups. We place these findings in the context of
research on adolescence and explore their significance.
Parenting is the general practise of child rearing that affects children's physical, emotional, mental, and social development in both the short-and long-term. Children's behaviour and behavioural symptoms are directly impacted by parenting style in the family. Numerous studies have shown a correlation between parenting style and behavioural issues in kids. In this paper, numerous parenting styles are examined along with the impacts they have on the children's lives in general. The work aims to make a unique addition by identifying gaps in the literature, making suggestions for further study on how parents influence their children's futures, and concluding with a clear and concise argument.
The issue of sexuality among teenagers was investigated in this study to assess factors that could predispose them to it. Factors such as parenting style, sex education, locality and self-efficacy were assessed to know the extent of their influence on teenagers’ experiment with sex. Three hundred and Sixty four students (220 males, 67 Females In Agege and Ipaja Local government, Lagos State and 44 males, 33 Females in Esure, Ekiti State) participated in the study. Result showed that permissive and authoritarian parenting styles influence teenagers’ experiment with sex, while authoritative parenting does not. Also sex education and self-efficacy significantly predict sex experimentation. There is also relationship between experimenting with sex and self-efficacy, permissive parenting, authoritarian parenting and sex education, but not significantly related to authoritative parenting. The study found a significant main effect of sex and locality on experimenting with sex, while teenagers in rural setting are significantly higher in experimenting with sex and authoritarian parenting than their counterparts in urban setting, those in urban setting are significantly higher in self-efficacy, authoritative parenting and comprehensive sex education.
HIV/AIDS disproportionately affects African, Caribbean, and Black (ACB) communities in Canada. ACB women are overrepresented in new HIV infections compared with Canada’s general population. Sexual concurrent relationships and multiple sex partners are factors that may spread HIV and other sexually transmitted infections more rapidly among this group. The purpose of this study was to understand factors related to sexual concurrency and number of partners among ACB women ages 16–25 living in Canada. Participants were recruited through respondent driven sampling. We surveyed 274 ACB women living in Canada and 153 participants reporting sexual intercourse were retained in analysis. Descriptive statistics were used to determine distribution of sexual concurrency behaviour by variables of interest. Analysis of variance and linear regression were used to examine differences in number of partners by individual, family, and community factors. Approximately 45% of participants were of African origin, 35% were Caribbean and 11% were Black. The majority of participants lived in Canada for ten years or more (68%). Sexual concurrency was not prevalent among ACB women living in Canada ages 16–25, but ethnicity, nativity, interactions with the criminal justice system, and perceived neighborhood quality were associated with number of sex partners. Various individual and structural factors impact sexual risk behaviour. Efforts to reduce HIV/STI risk should consider of factors outside of individual behaviour.
Families apply their own parenting methods for individual and social training of their children. These methods include models of child rearing that are shaped by interaction between behavior of parents and their reactions to children's behaviors. For assessing these methods, different kinds of scales and instruments have been proposed. The aim of this study was to investigate psychometric properties of Arjmandnia Parenting Methods Scale (APMS) on families who have children with intellectual disabilities. This research was a cross-correlational research. The population of this study included all parents who have children with intellectual disability in Tehran. Arjmandnia Parenting Methods Scale (APMS) and the Baumrind Parenting Styles (BPS) were administrated to 300 parents who were selected according to availability sampling method. The results of exploratory factor analysis revealed the validity of the five factors of the scale as indicators of internal consistency (Cronbach's Alpha and Theta respectively) and also the split half method indicated favorable credit for the scale and its components. The results show that the APMS has appropriate characteristics and totally can be used in the Iranian sample.
Family factors and adolescent life satisfaction have profound effects on later behavior. The present study examined the effects of family cohesion and life satisfaction on internalizing (depression and self-esteem) and externalizing (deviance) outcomes among adolescents. Moreover, this study also viewed internalizing outcomes as conduits that channeled the effects of family cohesion and life satisfaction on later adolescent deviance. Using the Taiwan Youth Project (TYP), results indicated that the family cohesion and life satisfaction of Taiwanese adolescents declined with time, and this, in turn, led to negative life outcomes, such as higher levels of depression and deviance, and lower levels of self-esteem. In addition to the direct relationship between family cohesion and adolescent outcomes, family cohesion also had indirect effects on self-esteem and depression through change in life satisfaction. Also, initial life satisfaction is indirectly related to later deviance through change in family cohesion. Limitations and implications are also discussed.
Despite the numerous challenges that most African American males confront, growing up in a society in which they and their families continue to be marginalized, many are able to survive and thrive. In this chapter, consideration is given to examining both struggles and victories confronting African Americans raising healthy sons. Drawing on Ecodevelopmental theory, and a relational development system model, we highlight the protective nature of families in buffering their sons from risk often associated with disparities confronting African American males, including academic outcomes and behavioral health, namely conduct/delinquent problems and early sexual initiation and substance/drug use. Further, the protective nature of person-context relations are examined to identify malleable targets that can be manipulated in preventive interventions aimed to reduce disparities in these multiple domains. Finally, our review raises an important question: Why is the study of African American male’s adjustment and development primarily based on their lived experiences in public spaces and institutions and void of their lives as members of families? The implications of this omission for theory building, research, and policy are discussed.
Aim: Determination of the prevalence of risky health behaviors (RHB) of adolescents and evaluation of knowledge of family, school and family physician about RHB. Methods: The study was performed in high schools situated in a district in Ankara. Sample of this research included 1,467 adolescents. Data was collected using a standardized questionnaire under observation from adolescents. Face to face interviews were conducted with mothers, teachers and family health practitioners of some adolescents. Frequencies, ANOVA and independent t test; linear regression analysis were used when appropriate. Ethical consent was taken from Hacettepe University. Results: Mean age of adolescents was 17.15±0.45. In the study, 567 of them had risky health behaviors. The mean score of RHB scale score (t:-0.992, p: 0.321) and the mean scores of subgroups of physical activity (t: 2.261, p: 0.024), nutrition (t:0.48, p: 0.962), hygiene (t:-0.418, p: 0.676), psychosocial t:-2.772, p:0.006) and substance abuse (t:-1.273, p:0.203) of governmental high school adolescents were statistically higher than Anatolian high school adolescents (p<0.05). Families, teachers and family physicians were unaware of RHBs of adolescents (p<0.001; p=0.002; p=0.001). Conclusions: Consequently, this study was important for health professionals worked in primary health services and school health services. The study is evidence that shows school type effects health behaviors of adolescent. On the other hand, it’s seen that family is the most important side of behavioral development. Moreover, adolescents had communication problems with their social environments.
Although various theories describe mechanisms leading to differential parenting of boys and girls, there is no consensus about the extent to which parents do treat their sons and daughters differently. The last meta-analyses on the subject were conducted more than fifteen years ago, and changes in gender-specific child rearing in the past decade are quite plausible. In the current set of meta-analyses, based on 126 observational studies (15,034 families), we examined mothers’ and fathers’ differential use of autonomy-supportive and controlling strategies with boys and girls, and the role of moderators related to the decade in which the study was conducted, the observational context, and sample characteristics. Databases of Web of Science, ERIC, PsychInfo, Online Contents, Picarta, and Proquest were searched for studies examining differences in observed parental control of boys and girls between the ages of 0 and 18 years. Few differences were found in parents’ use of control with boys and girls. Parents were slightly more controlling with boys than with girls, but the effect size was negligible (d = 0.08). The effect was larger, but still small, in normative groups and in samples with younger children. No overall effect for gender-differentiated autonomy-supportive strategies was found (d = 0.03). A significant effect of time emerged: studies published in the 1970s and 1980s reported more autonomy-supportive strategies with boys than toward girls, but from 1990 onwards parents showed somewhat more autonomy-supportive strategies with girls than toward boys. Taking into account parents’ gender stereotypes might uncover subgroups of families where gender-differentiated control is salient, but based on our systematic review of the currently available large data base we conclude that in general the differences between parenting of boys versus girls are minimal.
The objective of this study was to analyze the predictive power that parental practices have in adolescents' depressive symptomatology considering children's and parents' gender. A non-probabilistic sample was used, consisting of 1934 adolescents, from three different cities from the Mexican Republic (26.5% from Mexico City, 26.7% from Poza Rica, Veracruz, and 46.8% from Culiacan, Sinaloa). 51.4% were males and 48.6% were females, with an age range from 11 to 17 years old, and a mean of 13.3 years old. Nine dimensions of parental practices were evaluated, five for the mother: Communication, Autonomy, Imposition, Psychological control, and Behavioral control; and four dimensions for the father: Communication/Behavioral control, Autonomy, Imposition, and Psychological control. To evaluate the depressive symptomatology, a revised and adapted for Mexican population version of the Scale of Depression of the Epidemiologic Studies Center (CES-D-R) was used. The results showed that women obtained higher scores in depressive symtomatology than men. Depressive symptomatology was associated in a positive way to psychological control and imposition, in both parents, and in a negative way with communication, autonomy and behavioral control, both maternal and paternal. Linear regression analyses were done to determine the effect of parental practices in the depressive symptomatology, which were conducted by gender and by city. In general, the results showed that women had a higher percentage of explained variance (from 26% to 31%) than men (from 6% to 25%) and the dimension that explained the higher variance in most of the groups was maternal psychological control, except on men from Mexico City and Culiacan.
Context:
Increasingly, health care providers are using approaches targeting parents in an effort to improve adolescent sexual and reproductive health. Research is needed to elucidate areas in which providers can target adolescents and parents effectively. Parental monitoring offers one such opportunity, given consistent protective associations with adolescent sexual risk behavior. However, less is known about which components of monitoring are most effective and most suitable for provider-initiated family-based interventions.
Objective:
We performed a meta-analysis to assess the magnitude of association between parental monitoring and adolescent sexual intercourse, condom use, and contraceptive use.
Data sources:
We conducted searches of Medline, the Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, PsycInfo, Cochrane, the Education Resources Information Center, Social Services Abstracts, Sociological Abstracts, Proquest, and Google Scholar.
Study selection:
We selected studies published from 1984 to 2014 that were written in English, included adolescents, and examined relationships between parental monitoring and sexual behavior.
Data extraction:
We extracted effect size data to calculate pooled odds ratios (ORs) by using a mixed-effects model.
Results:
Higher overall monitoring (pooled OR, 0.74; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.69-0.80), monitoring knowledge (pooled OR, 0.81; 95% CI, 0.73-0.90), and rule enforcement (pooled OR, 0.67; 95% CI, 0.59-0.75) were associated with delayed sexual intercourse. Higher overall monitoring (pooled OR, 1.12; 95% CI, 1.01-1.24) and monitoring knowledge (pooled OR, 1.14; 95% CI, 1.01-1.31) were associated with greater condom use. Finally, higher overall monitoring was associated with increased contraceptive use (pooled OR, 1.42; 95% CI, 1.09-1.86), as was monitoring knowledge (pooled OR, 2.27; 95% CI, 1.42-3.63).
Limitations:
Effect sizes were not uniform across studies, and most studies were cross-sectional.
Conclusions:
Provider-initiated family-based interventions focused on parental monitoring represent a novel mechanism for enhancing adolescent sexual and reproductive health.
Purpose
Few studies link technology use to normative sexual outcomes despite concerns that high use may be accelerating sexual development. This study used longitudinal online survey data to predict sexual development (having had a boyfriend or girlfriend, first oral sex, first intercourse) and tests for mediation by four types of technology use common among adolescents: texting (from a mobile phone), general Internet/computer use, video gaming, and watching television.
Methods
Participants were 366 adolescents (37% male; 13–17 years) from eight Eastern Canadian high schools. All participants completed a range of measures assessing demographic information, sexual and relationship histories, and recent use of technologies. Participants (72%) completed the survey at a follow-up assessment two years later.
Results
After adjusting for age, higher levels of texting mediated the relationships in reports of both oral sex and sexual intercourse over time. The association between texting and sexual intercourse was moderated by parental closeness. No other technology was linked to sexual outcomes.
Conclusions
Texting appears to have unique features not shared by the other technologies, possibly related to its highly interactive nature. Insights regarding these outcomes are of value given the rapid uptake of new technologies by youth. Findings are discussed in terms of the role of technology in helping to meet intimacy and relational needs common to adolescents.
Negotiating the burgeoning sexuality of adolescent children is an age-old challenge for parents of every cultural background. Contemporary parents must also manage increasingly sexualized social media that allow children and adolescents to be sexually engaged in unprecedented ways. For Black parents, this quandary is exacerbated by racism and internalized racism-often expressed through the hypersexualization of African American males and females in music, videos, advertising, and popular culture in general. Additionally, as more diversity regarding sexual orientation in African American families emerges, the needs of lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgendered, and questioning (LGBTQ) Black adolescents must be addressed This article will outline a conceptual framework for consideration of these issues and make recommendations to assist Black parents in successfully guiding Black adolescents through the development of safe and healthy sexuality.
The present study sought to extend empirical inquiry related to the role of parenting on adolescent sexual risk-taking by using latent class analysis (LCA) to identify patterns of adolescent-reported mother responsiveness and autonomy-granting in early adolescence and examine associations with sexual risk-taking in mid- and late-adolescence. Utilizing a sample of 12- to 14-year-old adolescents (N = 4,743) from the 1997 National Longitudinal Survey of Youth (NLSY97), results identified a four-class model of maternal responsiveness and autonomy-granting: low responsiveness/high autonomy-granting, moderate responsiveness/moderate autonomy-granting, high responsiveness/low autonomy-granting, high responsiveness/moderate autonomy-granting. Membership in the low responsiveness/high autonomy-granting class predicted greater sexual risk-taking in mid- and late-adolescence compared to all other classes, and membership in the high responsiveness/ moderate autonomy-granting class predicted lower sexual risk-taking. Gender and ethnic differences in responsiveness and autonomy-granting class membership were also found, potentially informing gender and ethnic disparities of adolescent sexual risk-taking.
Students who engage in high-risk behaviors, including early initiation of sexual intercourse, alcohol use, marijuana use, tobacco use, and externalizing behavior are vulnerable to a broad range of adverse outcomes as adults. Latent class analysis was used to determine whether varying patterns of risk behavior existed for 212 urban African-American students from Baltimore public schools who were recruited as part of a study for the prevention of drug use. A two-class model was estimated. The proportion of the sample bearing a high probability of each of the five risk behaviors was 10.7%; in comparison, the proportion of students with a low probability of the risk behaviors was 89.3%. Controlling for other variables, older age and parental drug or alcohol use was associated with being in the high-risk class, whereas neighborhood was not predictive of latent class. Results from this study may be used to target early adolescents with co-occurring risk behaviors for prevention and treatment.
Authors examined if parental monitoring moderated effects of family sexual communication on sexual risk behavior among adolescents
in psychiatric care. Seven hundred and eighteen parents reported upon quality of family discussions about sex-related topics
and degree to which they monitor teen behavior. Adolescents reported the frequency of their own safe sex practices. Parental
monitoring moderated the family communication quality–sexual risk behavior relationship among African American families. African
American parents who perceived themselves as capable of open family sexual communication and frequent monitoring had adolescents
who reported decreased sexual risk behavior. The moderator model was not supported among Caucasian and Hispanic families and
findings did not depend upon gender. For African Americans, findings support the influential role of family processes in development
of teen sexual risk behavior and suggest, for parents of teens receiving mental health services, learning communication and
monitoring skills may be critical to their adolescent’s sexual health.
A sample of 198 African American families, living in urban poverty, participated in a longitudinal study of adolescent sexual development beginning when children were in the 4th or 5th grade. Self-reports of family conflict and pubertal development and videotaped family interaction data were collected at 2 time points approximately 2 years apart. Youths reported on sexual debut at each time point. More boys than girls reached sexual debut early. Greater levels of family conflict predicted early sexual debut. Observational data indicated more developed preadolescents with greater family conflict and less positive affect were least likely to delay debut. Changes in pubertal development and observed family conflict were associated with early debut. Possible mediating mechanisms and implications for preventive interventions are discussed.
Family interactions were examined longitudinally over 2 years in 79 middle-class African American families with early adolescents. Mothers and adolescents (as well as fathers and adolescents and triads in 2-parent families) were videotaped discussing a conflict for 10 min. A macro-coding system (J. G. Smetana, J. Yau, A. Restrepo, & J. L. Braeges, 1991) was modified to be culturally sensitive to African American families. Interaction ratings were reduced, through principal-components analyses, into composite variables. After control for family income, mothers' communication in triadic interactions became less positive over time. Both mothers' and fathers' communication was more positive in dyadic than triadic interactions. In triadic interactions, mothers validated sons more than daughters, and in dyadic interactions with either parent, boys were more receptive to parents than were girls. Findings extend previous research on adolescent–parent relationships to African American families.
The authors first describe individual differences in the structure of the self. In the independent self-construal, representations of others are separate from the self. In the interdependent self-construal, others are considered part of the self (H. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991). In general, men in the United States are thought to construct and maintain an independent self-construal, whereas women are thought to construct and maintain an interdependent self-construal. The authors review the psychological literature to demonstrate that many gender differences in cognition, motivation, emotion, and social behavior may be explained in terms of men’s and women’s different self-construals. Recognition of the interdependent self-construal as a possible alternative conception of the self may stimulate new investigations into the ways the self influences a person’s thinking, feeling, and behaving.
A meta-analysis of 47 studies was used to shed light on inconsistencies in the concurrent association between parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior. Parent–child associations were strongest when the measure of caregiving relied on observations or interviews, as opposed to questionnaires, and when the measure tapped combinations of parent behaviors (patterns), as opposed to single behaviors. Stronger parent–child associations were also found for older than for younger children, and for mothers than for fathers. Finally, externalizing was more strongly linked to parental caregiving for boys than for girls, especially among preadolescents and their mothers. The meta-analysis helps account for inconsistencies in findings across previous studies and supports theories emphasizing reciprocity of parent and child behavior.
This study investigated 3 broad classes of individual-differences variables (job-search motives, competencies, and constraints) as predictors of job-search intensity among 292 unemployed job seekers. Also assessed was the relationship between job-search intensity and reemployment success in a longitudinal context. Results show significant relationships between the predictors employment commitment, financial hardship, job-search self-efficacy, and motivation control and the outcome job-search intensity. Support was not found for a relationship between perceived job-search constraints and job-search intensity. Motivation control was highlighted as the only lagged predictor of job-search intensity over time for those who were continuously unemployed. Job-search intensity predicted Time 2 reemployment status for the sample as a whole, but not reemployment quality for those who found jobs over the study's duration. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The relationship between family influences and participation in violent and nonviolent delinquent behavior was examined among a sample of 362 African American and Latino male adolescents living in the inner city. Participants were classified into three groups: (a) nonoffenders, (b) nonviolent offenders, and (c) violent offenders. Families in the violent delinquent group reported poorer discipline, less cohesion, and less involvement than the other two groups. These results were consistent across ethnic groups. However, the factor Beliefs About Family related to violence risk in opposite directions for African American and Latino families. These results highlight the need to look at ethnic group differences when constructing models of risk.
This article examines associations among parenting, parent–child relationships, and children's exposure to sexual possibility situations. African American families (N = 310) with preadolescent children were interviewed regarding parenting, parent–child relations, and demographic history. Children were interviewed privately about their exposure to sexual possibility situations. Results revealed marginal effects of child gender as well as effects of parent education and parent employment on children's exposure to sexual possibility situations. An interaction effect indicated that parenting support may be a protective factor against exposure to sexual possibility situations among children whose mothers were adolescents at the time of their 1st childbirth.
Relationships of maternal sexual behavior, mother–adolescent communication about sex, and maternal attitudes about adolescent sexuality to adolescent sexual risk-taking behavior were examined in a sample of 397 Black and Hispanic families headed by single mothers. Some support emerged for a positive relationship between maternal sexual risk-taking behavior and adolescent risk-taking behavior; however, when considered in the context of communication about sex and maternal attitudes about adolescent sexuality, the relationship was no longer significant. When the process of sexual communication between a mother and an adolescent was open and receptive, less adolescent risk-taking behavior was reported. The role of single mothers in influencing their adolescents' sexual behavior is discussed.
Examined adolescent–parent conflict in 28 divorced, unremarried mother-custody families and 66 2-parent, married families with 6th–11th graders. Married mothers of early adolescents generated more conflicts than did divorced mothers of early adolescents and married mothers of mid-adolescents, and adolescents from married families rated conflicts as more serious than did adolescents from divorced families. Early adolescents from married families appealed to maintaining personal jurisdiction more when justifying conflicts and were rated as having more positive communication than early adolescents from divorced families. However, affective constraining was greater among mid-adolescents from married families than from divorced families. In addition, there was a trend toward more harmonious family relationships among divorced families than among married families. Differences in family interactions were obtained both when divorced families were compared with married families observed in triads (mothers, fathers, and adolescents) and dyads (mothers and adolescents). (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article contains a comprehensive, critical review of the acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS)-risk-reduction literature on interventions that have targeted risky sexual behavior and intravenous drug use practices. A conceptually based, highly generalizable model for promoting and evaluating AIDS-risk behavior change in any population of interest is then proposed. The model holds that AIDS-risk reduction is a function of people's information about AIDS transmission and prevention, their motivation to reduce AIDS risk, and their behavioral skills for performing the specific acts involved in risk reduction. Supportive tests of this model, using structural equation modeling techniques, are then reported for populations of university students and gay male affinity group members.
This study supports a model of adolescents' risky sexual behavior in which this behavior is seen as a product of the same peer and family factors which influence a wide range of problem behaviors. The Patterson et al. (1992) model of peer and parental factors associated with adolescents' sexual risk-taking behavior was tested on three independent samples of adolescents, ages 14 through 18. Adolescents whose peers were reported to engage in diverse problem behaviors were more likely to engage in risky sexual behavior. Poor parental monitoring and parent-child coercive interactions were associated having deviant peers, and poor parental monitoring also had a direct relationship to risky sexual behavior. Family involvement was associated with fewer parent-child coercive interactions. Less availability of parental figures in the family was directly associated with risky sexual behavior and was also associated with poorer parental monitoring.
This paper explores differences in adolescents' attitudes, beliefs, and resistance skills regarding sexual behaviors and use of substances in the context of AIDS prevention. A total of 553 7th and 8th grade students completed a self-administered questionnaire as baseline data collection for a human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) prevention project. Students' attitudes about sexual behavior and substance use differed markedly. Teens in this sample reported feeling significantly more comfortable discussing substance use with their parents than discussing sex; they also reported that it is easier to say "no" to alcohol or marijuana than to resist pressures to have sex. Furthermore, these young adolescents believed that their parents would be less upset to discover that they were sexually active than to find out they were using drugs. Among students who had ever had sex and who had ever used alcohol, young adolescents indicated that their parents would be much less upset to find out they were having sex than to discover they were smoking, drinking alcohol, or using drugs. Implications of the findings for HIV/AIDS prevention efforts are discussed.
Although interaction effects are frequently found in experimental studies, field researchers report considerable difficulty in finding theorized moderator effects. Previous discussions of this discrepancy have considered responsible factors including differences in measurement error and use of nonlinear scales. In this article we demonstrate that the differential efficiency of experimental and field tests of interactions is also attributable to the differential residual variances of such interactions once the component main effects have been partialed out. We derive an expression for this residual variance in terms of the joint distribution of the component variables and explore how properties of the distribution affect the efficiency of tests of moderator effects. We show that tests of interactions in field studies will often have less than 20% of the efficiency of optimal experimental tests, and we discuss implications for the design of field studies.
The authors first describe individual differences in the structure of the self. In the independent self-construal, representations of others are separate from the self. In the interdependent self-construal, others are considered part of the self (H. Markus & S. Kitayama, 1991). In general, men in the United States are thought to construct and maintain an independent self-construal, whereas women are thought to construct and maintain an interdependent self-construal. The authors review the psychological literature to demonstrate that many gender differences in cognition, motivation, emotion, and social behavior may be explained in terms of men's and women's different self-construals. Recognition of the interdependent self-construal as a possible alternative conception of the self may stimulate new investigations into the ways the self influences a person's thinking, feeling, and behaving.
The main threats to adolescents' health are the risk behaviors they choose. How their social context shapes their behaviors is poorly understood.
To identify risk and protective factors at the family, school, and individual levels as they relate to 4 domains of adolescent health and morbidity: emotional health, violence, substance use, and sexuality.
Cross-sectional analysis of interview data from the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health.
A total of 12118 adolescents in grades 7 through 12 drawn from an initial national school survey of 90118 adolescents from 80 high schools plus their feeder middle schools.
The interview was completed in the subject's home.
Eight areas were assessed: emotional distress; suicidal thoughts and behaviors; violence; use of 3 substances (cigarettes, alcohol, marijuana); and 2 types of sexual behaviors (age of sexual debut and pregnancy history). Independent variables included measures of family context, school context, and individual characteristics.
Parent-family connectedness and perceived school connectedness were protective against every health risk behavior measure except history of pregnancy. Conversely, ease of access to guns at home was associated with suicidality (grades 9-12: P<.001) and violence (grades 7-8: P<.001; grades 9-12: P<.001). Access to substances in the home was associated with use of cigarettes (P<.001), alcohol (P<.001), and marijuana (P<.001) among all students. Working 20 or more hours a week was associated with emotional distress of high school students (P<.01), cigarette use (P<.001), alcohol use (P<.001), and marijuana use (P<.001). Appearing "older than most" in class was associated with emotional distress and suicidal thoughts and behaviors among high school students (P<.001); it was also associated with substance use and an earlier age of sexual debut among both junior and senior high students. Repeating a grade in school was associated with emotional distress among students in junior high (P<.001) and high school (P<.01) and with tobacco use among junior high students (P<.001). On the other hand, parental expectations regarding school achievement were associated with lower levels of health risk behaviors; parental disapproval of early sexual debut was associated with a later age of onset of intercourse (P<.001).
Family and school contexts as well as individual characteristics are associated with health and risky behaviors in adolescents. The results should assist health and social service providers, educators, and others in taking the first steps to diminish risk factors and enhance protective factors for our young people.
Adolescents have been recognized as critical targets for health promotion efforts for two reasons. (1) The primary causes of adolescent morbidity and mortality are primarily related to preventable social, environmental, and behavioral factors, and (2)Much adult mortality can be attributed to modifiable factors that have their onset during the adolescent years. Over the past few decades, scientific principles for effectively promoting adolescent health have emerged from a variety of disciplines in the health and social sciences. This volume brings together these diverse literatures, providing an integrative, state-of-the-art review of the cross-cutting, critical issues in promoting adolescent health. With a focus in “what works”, the volume addresses a wide array of social, economic, cultural, and developmental influences on adolescent health, as well as a variety of specific health-related behaviors. The volume provides promising solutions to the crisis in adolescent health, with recommendations for action that will be valuable to social and health scientists, health care providers, educators, and those who plan and implement programs for adolescent health.
This article examined adolescent-parent conflict in 28 divorced, unremarried mother-custody families and 66 two-parent, married families with 6th-11th graders. Married mothers of early adolescents generated more conflicts than did divorced mothers of early adolescents and married mothers of midadolescents, and adolescents from married families rated conflicts as more serious than did adolescents from divorced families. Early adolescents from married families appealed to maintaining personal jurisdiction more when justifying conflicts and were rated as having more positive communication than early adolescents from divorced families. However, affective constraining was greater among midadolescents from married families than from divorced families. In addition, there was a trend toward more harmonious family relationships among divorced families than among married families. Differences in family interactions were obtained both when divorced families were compared with married families observed in triads (mothers, fathers, and adolescents) and dyads (mothers and adolescents).
This study extends current research on the relationship of parenting processes to adolescent sexual behavior by asking what parenting behaviors are related to sexual risk taking among sexually active adolescent males and females. Parenting behaviors considered were communication about sexual issues, support, and psychological and behavioral controls. Sexual risk taking was assessed by using a composite measure of the number of sexual partners, the consistency of contraceptive use, and the effectiveness of contraceptive method. The sample of 350 primarily White ninth- to 12th-grade students was drawn from a population of 2,257 junior and high school students who were surveyed as part of a larger study. Logistic regression analysis revealed gender differences in the effect of parents' behaviors on the sexual risk taking of their sons and daughters. An interaction effect was observed between parental communication about sexual issues and perceived parental support for males only. For females, parental psychological control increased the odds that a sexually active daughter would take more sexual risks. In addition, parental monitoring significantly decreased the odds that sexually active male and female adolescents would be high risk takers.
This study examines the independent and joint contributions of three core dimensions of authoritative parenting - acceptance-involvement, strictness-supervision, and psychological autonomy granting - to adolescent adjustment. A sample of 8,700 14- to 18-year-olds completed questionnaires that included indices of authoritative parenting and a set of instruments assessing different aspects of adjustment. Behavior problems were related more strongly to behavioral control than to psychological autonomy granting. Psychosocial development and internal distress were more strongly associated with both psychological autonomy granting and acceptance-involvement than with behavioral control. Academic competence demonstrated significant relations with all three parenting variables. Curvilinear and interactive relations between parenting practices and adolescent adjustment were observed, but the specific pattern varied as a function of outcome assessed.
The associations between menarcheal status and several child-rearing and outcome variables were examined for mother-daughter and father-daughter dyads. All variables were assessed with questionnaires as an extension of earlier observational studies. Analyses were conducted via multiple regression analyses wherein menarcheal status was treated as a continuous variable and was entered into the regression equation as a set of power polynomial terms. The results indicated that most of the significant relations occurred for the mother-daughter dyad, and most of these relations were curvilinear. When menarche occurs at or around the modal time, changes in parent-child relations may be best thought of as temporary perturbations, but when menarche occurs early the effects may persist.
Twenty-one parental and 16 adolescent topic-specific reservations that parents and adolescents may have about discussing sex and birth control were explored in a sample of 751 African American inner-city youths (14 to 17 years old) and their mothers. Both maternal and adolescent perspectives were obtained with regard to the prevalence of specific reservations and the extent to which they were predictive of communication behavior. Topic-specific reservations were predictive of communication behavior over and above more general family environment variables, such as the quality of the parentteen relationship and the overall quality of communication in general. A number of interaction effects were found, suggesting a differential impact of reservations as a function of the age and gender of the adolescent. The types of reservations expressed by parents were not correspondent with the types of reservations expressed by adolescents.
This paper presents a developmental perspective on the role of the family-and, in particular, the role of parental neglect-in the onset of juvenile delinquency. It is argued that the family's role in delinquency is best understood when distinctions are made among preadolescent onset, early adolescent onset, and middle adolescent onset delinquents, because the antecedent and concurrent conditions that produce delinquency are quite different across the three groups. Specifically, it is suggested that a lack of parental monitoring is associated with middle adolescent onset delinquency, an excess of parental permissiveness with early adolescent onset delinquency, and early disruption in the parent-child relationship with preadolescent onset delinquency. The implications of these propositions for theory, research, and practice in the area of delinquency prevention are discussed.
This study examined the utility of a two-step ecological model in predicting externalizing behavior among African-American seventh and eighth graders. It was predicted that the exosystem variables of parental work environment and parental social support would have an indirect impact on externalizing by influencing the microsystem variables of parental warmth, parental use of restrictive control, and conflict within the family. Path analysis indicated that this two-step model adequately fit the data. An additional set of analyses showed that the complete ecological model was a better fit than a more restricted model in which exosystem variables were excluded. The potential value of an ecological model of development for studying ethnic minority youth and families is discussed.
This investigation examined gender differences in growth rates of externalizing and internalizing problems over a 5-year period, from early to late adolescence. It also examined the role of parental warmth, low hostility, and child management practices in inhibiting the growth trajectories of these developmental problems. Specifically, parenting was hypothesized to exhibit either a compensatory or buffering effect on age-related increases in adolescent internalizing and externalizing problems. Data were collected annually from 319 mothers, fathers, and their adolescent children (168 girls, 151 boys). The results demonstrated significant gender differences in growth trajectories of externalizing and internalizing problems. Both the compensatory and buffering hypotheses were supported with regard to externalizing problems. A compensatory effect of parenting practices on levels of internalizing problems also was demonstrated.
This investigation examines how family relationship quality and contact with deviant peers (CDP) contributed to change in problem behaviors in a sample of German adolescents (M age = 14.6 years). In particular, the authors were interested in whether gender of the adolescent and parent moderated these associations, and whether individual differences in the average level and/or changes in family and peer risk factors predicted change in problem behaviors across a 12- to 18-month period. Two waves of data collected from 248 adolescents, mothers (N = 248), and fathers (N = 176) were analyzed using path analysis. Results revealed that CDP was directly associated with increases in problem behaviors, whereas family influence on problem behaviors was indirect and varied as a function of gender. Specifically, family cohesion and closeness with fathers were associated with females'CDP only. Findings are discussed in terms of theories positing females' sensitivity to family stress and the fathers' role for females' behavioral development.
This important volume presents a definitive review of the origins and implications of developmental psychopathology and what has been learned about the phenomenon of psychosocial resilience in diverse populations at risk. Chapters by distinguished investigators in clinical psychology, psychiatry, and child development, many of whose work led to the new developmental model of psychopathology, provide a unique review of research on vulnerability and resistance to disorder spanning from infancy to adulthood. The volume is a tribute to Professor Norman Garmezy, a pioneer in developmental psychopathology and a renowned researcher of resilience in children at risk. Highlighted throughout the volume is Professor Garmezy's theme that it is as important to understand successful outcomes as it is to study pathology in the search for better treatments and the prevention of developmental behavioural problems.
Examined whether the positive relation between authoritative parenting and adolescent adjustment is moderated by the ecological context in which adolescents live. A socioeconomically and ethnically diverse sample of approximately 10,000 high school students completed measures concerning their family background; their parents' behavior; and 4 indicators of adjustment: school performance, self-reliance, psychological distress, and delinquency. The Ss were grouped into 16 ecological niches defined by ethnicity, socioeconomic status (SES), and family structure, and analyses were conducted within each niche to contrast the adjustment scores of adolescents from authoritative vs nonauthoritative homes. Analyses indicate that the positive correlates of authoritative parenting transcend ethnicity, SES, and family structure. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Theoretical Perspectives on Attachment and Autonomy
Approaches to Measuring Attachment and Autonomy During Adolescence
Normative Development of Attachment and Autonomy
Individual Differences in Attachment and Autonomy Processes
Directions for Future Research
Keywords:
adolescence;
attachment ;
autonomy;
parent-adolescent relationships;
social development
Adolescents are at high risk for a number of negative health consequences associated with early and unsafe sexual activity, including infection with human immunodeficiency virus, other sexually transmitted diseases, and unintended pregnancy. As a result, researchers have attempted to identify those factors that influence adolescent sexual risk behavior so that meaningful prevention and intervention programs may be developed. We propose that research efforts so far have been hampered by the adoption of models and perspectives that are narrow and do not adequately capture the complexity associated with the adolescent sexual experience. In this article, we review the recent literature (i.e., 1990–1999) pertaining to the correlates of adolescent sexual risk-taking, and organize the findings into a multisystemic perspective. Factors from the self, family, and extrafamilial systems of influence are discussed. We also consider several methodological problems that limit the literature's current scope, and consider implications of the adoption of a multisystemic framework for future research endeavors. We conclude with a discussion of the implications of the available research for practitioners working to reduce sexual risk behavior among adolescents.
This article summarizes two decades of research about family, and especially parental, influences on the risk of adolescents becoming pregnant or causing a pregnancy. Research findings are most consistent that parent/child closeness or connectedness, parental supervision or regulation of children's activities, and parents' values against teen intercourse (or unprotected intercourse) decrease the risk of adolescent pregnancy. Largely because of methodological complexities, research results about parent/child sexual communication and adolescent pregnancy risk are very inconsistent. Residing in disorganized/dangerous neighborhoods and in a lower SES family, living with a single parent, having older sexually active siblings or pregnant/parenting teenage sisters, and being a victim of sexual abuse all place teens at elevated risk of adolescent pregnancy. Several biological factors (timing of pubertal development, hormone levels, and genes) also are related to adolescent pregnancy risk because of their association with adolescent sexual intercourse.
Whether a social cognitive theory AIDS prevention intervention would increase intentions to use condoms among 109 sexually active inner-city black female adolescents was tested. Analyses revealed that the women scored higher in intentions to use condoms, AIDS knowledge, outcome expectancies regarding condom use, and self-efficacy to use condoms after the intervention than before the intervention. Although increased self-efficacy and more favorable outcome expectancies regarding the effects of condoms on sexual enjoyment and sexual partner's support for condom use were significantly related to increased condom-use intentions, increases in general AIDS knowledge and specific prevention-related beliefs were not.
Predictors of intentions to care for AIDS patients were examined among 153 sophomore and senior nursing students. Multiple regression analysis revealed that students who had relatively less AIDS knowledge and who perceived greater occupational risk of HIV infection expressed stronger intentions to avoid caring for AIDS patients. However, avoidance intentions were not simply a function of concern about personal health and inadequate knowledge. Students who held more negative attitudes toward intravenous drug users also had stronger intentions to avoid caring for AIDS patients, even when the effects of AIDS knowledge and perceived occupational risk of HIV infection were controlled. AIDS content is incorporated in the nursing curriculum for these students beginning in the junior year. Multivariate analysis of variance performed to determine the effects of this content revealed a significant effect for year in school considering all the dependent variables simultaneously. Seniors had lower avoidance intentions, lower perceived occupational risk, and greater AIDS knowledge than did sophomores.
Disciplinary attitudes and practices of low-income black mothers were examined. Mothers were interviewed about their parenting attitudes and control practices, and their responses were coded in terms of the degree to which they took a parent-versus a child-oriented approach to discipline. Mothers in the sample varied widely in their attitudes toward physical punishment, and mothers who used power-assertive techniques were as likely to take the child's perspective and give input into the socialization process as those who did not. Factors associated with maternal disciplinary styles included: maternal education, father absence, maternal age, and self-reported religious beliefs. Findings are discussed in terms of the variability in disciplinary practices in this population, as well as the factors contributing to these individual differences.
This paper uses a representative national sample of adolescents to study the interrelationships among family structure, patterns of family decision making, and deviant behavior among adolescents. Mother-only households are shown to be associated with particular patterns of family decision making and adolescent deviance, even when family income and parental education are controlled. In contrast to adolescents in households with 2 natural parents, youth in mother-only households are perceived as more likely to make decisions without direct parental input and more likely to exhibit deviant behavior. The presence of an additional adult in a mother-only household, especially for males, is associated with increased parental control and a reduction in various forms of adolescent deviance. Finally, patterns of family decision making and family structure both make independent contributions to adolescent deviance, and the impact of family structure on deviance of adolescent males is hardly affected by controlling for patterns of family decision making.
In a recent study of current patterns of parental authority and their effects on the behavior of preschool children, the data for the 16 black children and their families were analyzed separately since it was thought that the effect of a given pattern of parental variables might be affected by the larger social context in which the family operates. The major conclusion from this exploratory analysis was that if the black families were viewed by white norms they appeared authoritarian, but that, unlike their white counterparts, the most authoritarian of these families produced the most self-assertive and independent girls.
A meta-analysis of 47 studies was used to shed light on inconsistencies in the concurrent association between parental caregiving and child externalizing behavior. Parent-child associations were strongest when the measure of caregiving relied on observations or interviews, as opposed to questionnaires, and when the measure tapped combinations of parent behaviors (patterns), as opposed to single behaviors. Stronger parent-child associations were also found for older than for younger children, and for mothers than for fathers. Finally, externalizing was more strongly linked to parental caregiving for boys than for girls, especially among preadolescents and their mothers. The meta-analysis helps account for inconsistencies in findings across previous studies and supports theories emphasizing reciprocity of parent and child behavior.
Maternal disapproval of premarital sex, maternal discussions about birth control and the quality of the parent-child relationship may have an important influence on adolescents' sexual activity and the consistency of their contraceptive use. Findings from a survey of 751 black youths showed that adolescent perceptions of maternal disapproval of premarital sex and satisfaction with the mother-child relationship were significantly related to abstinence from adolescent sexual activity and to less-frequent sexual intercourse and more consistent use of contraceptives among sexually active youths. Teenagers who reported a low level of satisfaction with their mother were more than twice as likely as those highly satisfied with their relationship to be having sexual intercourse. Discussions about birth control were associated with an increased likelihood that adolescents were sexually active. Such discussions were not significantly related to consistent contraceptive use for female adolescents, but were associated with increased contraceptive use for male teenagers.
Agreement between 57 African American mothers and their early adolescent daughters on measures of maternal support, maternal restrictive control, and parent-adolescent conflict were examined. To assess the relative validity of these reports, the study then evaluated them against the ratings of independent observers. Additionally, mother and daughter reports were combined to examine validity coefficients based on aggregate scores of each construct. All analyses were based on 2 sets of objective criterion ratings: ratings provided by coders of similar ethnic background (African American) and coders who were ethnically dissimilar (non-African American) to the families they rated. Overall, adolescents provided ratings that were more valid than those of their mothers when evaluated against both sets of independent ratings. Adolescent ratings of maternal control and parent-adolescent conflict converged at significantly higher levels than the ratings provided by their mothers. Maternal and adolescent reports of maternal support converged with objective criteria at statistically comparable levels. Validity coefficients for adolescent reports were also higher than those based on aggregate mother-daughter scores. Secondary analyses further revealed that African American coders rated mothers as less controlling and rated the dyadic interactions as less conflictual, and that their ratings were more consistent with the perceptions of the African American mothers and adolescents than were those provided by non-African American coders.
This study examined whether maternal control protects African American adolescents from the negative influence of problem peers. Two forms of control were examined, behavioral control and psychological control. It was hypothesized that there would be a curvilinear relation between control and adolescent problem behavior, with the strength of the relationship and the amount of control optimal for adolescent development varying by the level of peer problem behavior. In general, data supported this model, particularly in regard to behavioral control, where the predicted curvilinear interaction occurred even after controlling for initial levels of problem behavior. The predicted curvilinear interaction between psychological control and peer problem behavior was statistically significant if initial levels of problem behavior were not controlled for but was not significant after controlling for initial problem behavior. These findings suggest that high-quality parenting can play a modest but critical role in the face of environmental adversity.
To review the epidemiology and etiology of risky sexual behavior in adolescent women, and to discuss implications for primary prevention.
Adolescent women who participate in risky sexual behavior are at risk for sexually transmitted infections, including HIV. Black, Hispanic, and out-of-home adolescent women, however, are at greatest risk. Factors contributing to risky sexual behavior include early initiation of sexual intercourse, inconsistent use of condoms and other barrier contraception, and unprotected sexual intercourse. Identified protective factors for early initiation of sexual activity include the development of healthy sexuality, family and school connectedness, and the presence of caring adults.
Effective clinical interventions target high-risk adolescent women; incorporate environmental and cognitive-behavioral components; use social learning theories; address differences in regards to culture, developmental stage, and sexual experience; and support family and school involvement.
Adolescents are at high risk for a number of negative health consequences associated with early and unsafe sexual activity, such as infection with HIV and other sexually transmitted diseases, as well as unintended pregnancy. In the present study, a multisystem model was applied to one adolescent sexual behavior, penile-vaginal intercourse. Nine hundred seven Black and Hispanic adolescents (aged 14 to 17 years) and their mothers were interviewed. Factors from three systems (self, family, and extrafamilial) that are influential in the lives of adolescents were evaluated using four outcome measures. Factors from most or all systems emerged as predictors of each outcome measure. A cumulative risk index suggested a linear relationship between the number of systems identified as being at risk and indicators of adolescent sexual behavior. The implications for prevention are discussed.
Family interactions were examined longitudinally over 2 years in 79 middle-class African American families with early adolescents. Mothers and adolescents (as well as fathers and adolescents and triads in 2-parent families) were videotaped discussing a conflict for 10 min. A macro-coding system (J. G. Smetana, J. Yau, A. Restrepo, & J. L. Braeges, 1991) was modified to be culturally sensitive to African American families. Interaction ratings were reduced, through principal-components analyses, into composite variables. After control for family income, mothers' communication in triadic interactions became less positive over time. Both mothers' and fathers' communication was more positive in dyadic than triadic interactions. In triadic interactions, mothers validated sons more than daughters, and in dyadic interactions with either parent, boys were more receptive to parents than were girls. Findings extend previous research on adolescent-parent relationships to African American families.
The purpose of this study was to retrospectively ascertain behaviors and activities that may constitute high risk during the adolescent years (ages 12-18) of young adults (ages 20-25) who are infected with human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).
Subjects (n = 44) from 1 of 5 clinics in a large midwestern city completed a survey form, developed by the investigators, which examined 6 areas of behavior and activities that the literature suggested may be associated with high-risk behaviors.
The adolescent high-risk profile of an HIV-infected young man includes sexual abuse before the age of 12 years, heavy consumption of alcohol, heavy consumption of a variety of illicit drugs, a wide variety of sexual experiences at very young ages, and multiple sexual partners. The adolescent high-risk profile of an HIV-infected young woman in this study includes heavy consumption of alcohol, heavy consumption of a variety of illicit drugs, and unprotected vaginal intercourse at very young ages as evidenced by a high number of sexually transmitted diseases at very young ages.
Although the small number of participants in this study restricts interpretation of the results, adolescent health initiatives should be examined in light of these findings. Programs and services must consider the context of psychosocial situations, as well as past experiences, and incorporate this knowledge into prevention strategies.