Fengshui theory in urban landscape planning

Abstract

The spatial configuration of urban landscapes results from cumulative interactions between human activities and the physical environment. Traditional philosophies and cultural legacies have had important influences on urban development and planning in East Asia. In Seoul, traditional land use practices based on ‘Fengshui’ have significantly contributed to human-mediated patterns of landscape changes, in addition to the role of the socio-economic background (development) and other human activities. The concept of Fengshui was originally founded upon people’s empirical cognition of natural landscape patterns. Recently, however, advanced economic development, westernization and urbanization have been rapidly altering the old traditions of the holistic landscape systems through changing urban planning practices. Since the type, scale, frequency, distribution and spreading pattern of environmental and human disturbances have been changed, a new paradigm for urban landscape
planning is necessary to maintain the ecological and cultural integrity of landscapes in Korea. In this paper, we discuss recent concepts and methods of landscape ecology and urban planning from the viewpoint of Fengshui, the traditional land use patterns in Seoul, whose application has so far been restricted only to traditional land evaluation. We conclude that, to maintain the sustainability of the urban landscape, it is necessary to develop a new urban planning framework for the region that is based on the integration between landscape ecology principles with the traditional concepts of Fengshui.

Full text

DOI 10.1007/s11252-006-3263-2
Fengshui theory in urban landscape planning
Sun-Kee Hong ·In-Ju Song ·Jianguo Wu
Published online: 23 June 2006
C
Springer Science +Business Media, LLC 2006
Abstract The spatial configuration of urban landscapes results from cumulative interactions
between human activities and the physical environment. Traditional philosophies and cul-
tural legacies have had important influences on urban development and planning in East
Asia. In Seoul, traditional land use practices based on ‘Fengshui’ have significantly con-
tributed to human-mediated patterns of landscape changes, in addition to the role of the
socio-economic background (development) and other human activities. The concept of Feng-
shui was originally founded upon people’s empirical cognition of natural landscape patterns.
Recently, however, advanced economic development, westernization and urbanization have
been rapidly altering the old traditions of the holistic landscape systems through changing
urban planning practices. Since the type, scale, frequency, distribution and spreading pattern
of environmental and human disturbances have been changed, a new paradigm for urban
landscape planning is necessary to maintain the ecological and cultural integrity of land-
scapes in Korea. In this paper, we discuss recent concepts and methods of landscape ecology
and urban planning from the viewpoint of Fengshui, the traditional land use patterns in Seoul,
whose application has so far been restricted only to traditional land evaluation. We conclude
that, to maintain the sustainability of the urban landscape, it is necessary to develop a new
urban planning framework for the region that is based on the integration between landscape
ecology principles with the traditional concepts of Fengshui.
Keywords Asian landscape pattern .Fengshui theory .Landscape ecological planning .
Land use policy .Urban ecology
S.-K. Hong ()
Forest Science Institute, Kookmin University, 861-1 Jeongneung-dong, Songbuk-gu, Seoul 136-702,
Korea
e-mail: landhong@yahoo.co.kr
Present address: Institute of Island Culture, Mokpo National University, Jeonnam 534-729, Korea
I.-J. Song
Seoul Development Institute, 391 Seocho-dong, Seocho-gu, Seoul 137-071, Korea
J. Wu
Faculty of Ecology, Evolution, and Environmental Science, School of Life Sciences, Arizona State
University, Tempe, AZ 85287-4501, USA
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Introduction
The compositional diversity and spatial configuration of land mosaics reflect the influences
of natural, socioeconomic, and cultural processes in a given region (McHarg, 1969; Forman,
1995; Zonneveld, 1995; Zipperer et al., 2000). In East Asian countries, socioeconomic
and cultural influences are particularly important for understanding the structure, function-
ing, and dynamics of many of the ancient landscapes (March, 1968; Holzner et al., 1983;
Needham, 1986). For example, the land use pattern of Asian countries, including rapidly
expanding urban areas, has been significantly influenced by the nature-oriented, ancient the-
ory of landscape arrangement, Fengshui (or wind-water) theory (Choi, 1991; Forman, 1995;
Hong, 2000).
Fengshui theory was originated from the oriental human consciousness and attitude toward
nature and natural landscapes (Tuan, 1968; Porker, 1974; Needham, 1986). The cognitive
and empirical topographical notion of Fengshui seems compatible with modern landscape
ecological perspectives. For instance, the notion of ecological sustainability which depends
on the combination of adaptability and change in ecological and human systems (Forman,
1989; Zonneveld, 1989; Wu and Loucks, 1995; Niemi et al., 1998; Reid et al., 2002) is
consistent with the central tenet of Fengshui theory that has a major bearing on the urban
planning and landscape management in Asia (Hong, 2001; Hong et al., 2001). Many items are
required to encapsulate ecological-environmental sustainability in risk impact assessment and
environmental resource management (Niemi et al., 1998). Protection of biological diversity
and ecological integrity to maintain ecological process and systems is important items as
other inter-disciplinary principles linked to socio-economical equity in landscape ecology
(Forman, 1995; Lyle, 1999).
Current perspectives for assessing ecosystem (landscape or habitat) health are concerned
strongly with quantitative measures of spatial structure and function of landscape elements
(patch, corridor, matrix etc.) and ecological processes among these elements (e.g. mosaics,
spatial arrangement of patches, water quality, material fluxes, etc.) (Forman, 1995; Niemi
et al., 1998). In contrast, traditional knowledge for ecological sustainability and environ-
mental capacity from Fengshui theory emphasizes the process-based perceptual experience
and holistic understanding of the natural land (scape) as well as its cultural implications
(Table 1). Thus, Fengshui theory views biophysical entities through the lens of empirical
cultural knowledge, so that holistically-meaningful sustainability is melded with cultural
historical aspects of the human environment. Fengshui theory is therefore an alternative tool
for environmental assessment and is emerging as a new paradigm for achieving a harmony
between humans and nature (Table 1).
With the rapid development of remote sensing and geographic information technologies,
spatial data on vegetation and land use patterns can be readily integrated over large areas.
The relationship between landscape change, disturbance regimes and historical legacies
can also be studied, for example, by comparing a time series of land use maps on various
scales and hierarchy (K¨uchler and Zonneveld, 1988; Zonneveld, 1989; Lyle, 1999; Wu and
Hobbs, 2002). These new techniques and multi-scale data can be used to evaluate the habitat
suitability of Fengshui theory in landscape and urban planning, and enhance its scientific
rigor.
In this paper we present the essential elements of Fengshui theory and its relation-
ship to some modern landscape ecological concepts and principles. We describe how this
traditional paradigm of landscape planning has influenced the urban development of the
Seoul metropolitan area, Korea. We also discuss how Fengshui theory can be integrated
with modern landscape ecological principles to better serve landscape and urban planning
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Urban Ecosyst
Table 1 Comparisons between Fengshui theory and landscape ecology in terms of landscape elements and their assessment and evaluation procedures
Element Principle of assessment and evaluation
Fengshui Landscape Fengshui Landscape ecology
Mountain Patch I. Assessment of connectivity, arrangement and shape
mountainous range in regional scale
Size, number, connectivity, shape-function
relationship, configuration, arrangement,
area-perimeter ratio, island biogeography,
area-species curve, etc.
II. Assessment of topographical or geographical feature in
local or village scale
•LOS-SLOSS/edge effect/habitat/peninsula ef-
fect/boundary roughness/fractal geometry/ core-
buffer-corridor/habitat sink-source, etc.
•Macro-climate for temperature and precipitation in re-
gional level, ecological network for large animals (e.g.,
game reserve)
•Micro-scale wind direction, biomass, vegetation
Water Corridor’ Matrix’
Network
III. Assessment of stream connectivity and shape, network-
ing with mountain to village for watershed, rice paddy
Width, connectivity/vertical-horizontal structure/
heterogeneity, quality/density, circuitry, connectivity
of corridor
IV. Assessment of suitable location •Energy flux and material transport system/
sink-source habitat/ driftfence effect/vegetation
structure/wind-break/grade-up of effectiveness of
movement and transport/ habitat quality/landscape
tolerance
•Flux (energy, material, organisms), water resource man-
agement
•Porous soil, biological habitat, Hydrological, biogeo-
chemical (nutrient) cycle, air circulation, humidity con-
trol
Direction’ Man Mosaics, Patch-
corridor-matrix
linkage
V. Arrangement for direction Landscape pattern, landscape diversity, isolation, lobe
and cove, adjacency etc.
•Guideline for arrangement of architecture and artificial
structures
VI. Pattern, aspect and appearance of total landscape
:Jangpung-Deuksu, Baesan-Imsu •Patch-corridor-matrix shape/habitat
arrangement/disturbance dispersal/population
dynamics, etc.
•Holistic perception on land and nature base on the em-
pirical cognitive process
(Continued on next page)
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Table 1 (Continued)
Element Principle of assessment and evaluation
Fengshui Landscape Fengshui Landscape ecology
Comparison •Assessment process of suitable location (habitat) based
on Fengshui theory is following principles from I to VI
with step by step. Methods for assessment of those steps
are also decided by each procedure. The First four
procedures (I–IV) are applied to selection principle for
location. After those procedures, step V is concerned to
artificial structure itself for its suitable orientation and
arrangement.
•Various scientific methods are developed for evaluating
landscape quality and health. All landscape elements
are linked each other in the landscape system
(patch-corridor-matrix model by Forman 1995).
•Assessment items are separated by each elements and
landscape analysis should be executed by each
landscape element. Analysis methods for landscape
system were strongly affected by traditional
quantitative ecology of unit ecosystem. Differing to
Fengshui, assessment procedure of spatial analysis
could be applied each landscape element separately.
Process feedback is possible. Evaluation and
interpretation of landscape is objective.
•Man’s empirical experience on landscape is reflected on
the landscape management and sustainable land use
(Bibo, Apseung as restoration technology). Because
empirical expert for decision, evaluation and
interpretation of Fengshui is commonly subjective.
•Long-time consumed, weak generality lead to hide
expectation •Developing RS and GIS can be role of great tool for
holistic understanding of landscape
Cases •Capital ‘Seoul’ in Yi Dynasty (Fig. 2), Green-space
network plan (see Fig. 6), Cheonggyecheon Restoration
Project in urban Seoul (see Fig. 7), Wind way based on
Fengshui theory
•Nature-type stream restoration, watershed
management, deciding habitat suitability, eco-road,
eco-bridge, suburban development, urban water-space
for sinking urban heat, rooftop revegetation, biotope
construction, DMZ Biosphere reserve, Baekdudaegan
Project (Choi, 2004)
•In recent, Fengshui experts as well as landscape
ecologists are involved as planning counselor in the
various projects in national and local government (ex.
decision of new capital location) •Argument between development and conservation
policy could be remained although scientific solution
had done
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purposes. By examining the recent developments in urban planning in Seoul, we explore
how Fengshui theory can help develop an ecologically sustainable urban landscape of
Seoul.
Fengshui as a culturally oriented, Asian landscape planning paradigm
The cultural aspects of landscape change and management practices in East Asia
have much to do with Fengshui theory (Holzner et al., 1983; Forman, 1995).
Feng means “wind ” and Shui “water ”. They can be interpreted as real entities
in terms of mountain shapes, stream networks or drainage basins. The concept of Fengshui,
as a planning and design theory, emphasizes peoples’ safety, national security and the balance
of nature. Ancient oriental people determined optimal or quasi-optimal locations and spatial
patterns of landscapes, which were in tune with cultural traditions, religion, social structure,
economics, politics, and biophysical features, for purposes of man’s safety and prosperity
(Choi, 1991; Hong, 2001). According to Fengshui theory, ecologically sound conditions
with high energy (e.g., fertile soil, fresh air, clean water, wood) come from optimal spatial
arrangement and connectivity of these two elements.
Through visualization of topography and land evaluation (Table 2), locations with the op-
timal vitality (or living energy, energy flux) called (cf. Watanabe, 1990; Choi, 1991,
2000) can be identified. The maximization of Qi is dependent upon active flows of energy,
material, species, and information as well as the harmonious interplay between mountains
and streams the two elements of Fengshui. An analogy for finding the optimal vitality is
searching for land suitability in land evaluation (e.g., Zonneveld, 1995; Niemi et al., 1998).
The spatial arrangement and connectivity of mountains and streams can significantly influ-
ence the ecological functioning of landscapes. The functioning of degraded or unproductive
landscapes can be enhanced by adding new landscape elements (Table 1). Thus, the ideas
and methods in “Bibo Fengshui ” may be relevant to ecological restoration as well
as ecological urban planning which is concerned with landscape pattern, human activities,
and ecological integrity of urban systems.
As a spatial theory, principles of Fengshui are similar to the concepts of landscape mo-
saics and networks (Table 1). Mountains, streams, residential areas, and urban blocks are
all landscape elements. Cognitive maps of landscape patterns designed or planned following
Fengshui theory integrate biophysical, ecological, and cultural aspects (Fig. 1). The size,
shape, orientation, spatial arrangement, and connectivity of patches in a landscape matrix
may influence the climate, soil conditions, biodiversity, and ecosystem functioning. Natural
vegetation and river-stream networks protect villages against strong wind velocity and main-
tain moisture. These conditions, consequently, may increase tree growth, rice production,
and soil and water conservation. A place surrounded by mountains as in Fig. 1(I) represents
a compact and less fragmented landscape with complicated boundaries which is beneficial
for wildlife conservation. On the other hand, the fragmented landscape (Fig. 1(J)) has no
significant ecological benefits for biodiversity conservation. A landscape pattern (Fig. 1(K))
that has many lobes and coves (i.e. high roughness) may enhance source-sink interactions.
However, this type of landscapes can be easily exposed to outside disturbances because of
frequent and strong edge effects, and may change to a different type (Fig. 1(L)) without
landscape management (as is Bibo Fengshui).
Several types of landscapes based on the predominant spatial patterns between Feng
(wind) and Shui (water) can be identified to create “cognitive maps” (Choi, 1991; Han,
1998). A cognitive map can be created from analyzing many real pictures and paintings.
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Table 2 Suitability of landscape elements and geophysical attributes of a settlement and its ecological function in accordance with Fengshui theory
Land planning by Fengshui
Landscape elements
& geophysical
attributes
Functioning effects
related to ecological
principles Human impact on land Positive Negative Eco-technology
Shape
Biodiversity Perforation Sliding •gentle Rugged •steep Pseudo-mountain
Mountain Microclimate control dissection slope slope -plantation
(large area of temperature fragmentation
natural Large home-ranged animal
vegetation) corridor/habitat patches
Stream Transport/corridor Rectillinear Clean •gentle•Turbid •speedy Pseudo-stream
local climate/water supply channalization curved •strait -increasing curveness
cement -habitat creation
Road Transport Straitness/habitat Horizontally •Vertically •-unpaved
Corridor crossing/road kill curved direct -eco-bridge
increasing invasive plants -eco-road
Forest Productivity Perforation/dissection Sparse Dense Pseudo-mountain
(rural small Habitat patches for fragmentation -plantation/hedgerow
forest) small mammals attrition/loss -windbreak plantation
Topography Wind/climate/temperature Surrounded flat •Distorted slope •
Soil Productivity Acid/deposition Condensed •Wet •dry •
flora and fauna desertification soft •nutrient eroded
soil pollution/erosion
Shapeless
Air Temperature Air pollution Clear •dry Impure •wet Suitable land assessment by
Humidity fengshui method
-planned development after E.I.A
Direction Productivity’ distribution Unplanned development Sunny place Shadow place
and richness of species
Temperature Biodiversity High urban heat island Warm •Cold •rough
greenhouse effect thermal inversion temperature
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Fig. 1 Land evaluation by Fengshui principles (redraw from Choi, 1991). Geophysical and morphological
land attributes such as size, shape, connectivity, pattern, arrangement and direction of mountain landscapes
relating to land assessment. Left: positive suitability (A, C, E, G, I and K), Right: negative suitability (B, D,
F, H, J and L)
Figure 2 shows a real landscape painting of Seoul, and its landscape pattern corresponds to
Fig. 1(I) in Fengshui theory (i.e., the compact type). Such Fengshui-based landscape designs
are commonly found in urban areas with high mountains and embedded stream and road
networks in Korea. Also, many old cities in the Korean peninsula have formed in basins
to enhance national security against possible military attacks from foreign countries. These
man-dominated landscapes, especially urban landscapes, through the Korean peninsula as
the cultural corridor between China and Japan reflect the long-term integration of natural and
cultural history.
There are several types of landscape pattern which embody Fengshui principles (Table 1;
Choi, 1991; Han, 1998). Two major types of Fengshui-based landscapes are often found in
agricultural and forested landscapes in mountainous regions in Korea (Fig. 3). The first type
is the “parallel patterning” (‘Baesan-Imsu’ in Korean), and the second type is the
“convoluted patterning” (‘Jangpung-Deuksu’ in Korean). The parallel patterning
is characterized by parallel arrangements of mountains and streams, whereas the convoluted
patterning is often related to promoting military security and rice production (Hong, 2001).
In the parallel pattern, the high mountain protects against the winter wind and keeps the
temperature warm. Convoluted pattern has the fertile soil and water supply required for rice
production. A drainage basin in low terrains with fertile soil and abundant water supply
are ideal to be used as paddy fields. Sustained food and water are also essential wartime
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Fig. 2 Real painting of an urban landscape pattern in Seoul of the late of 18th Century. Landscape elements
such as river-stream-road network and small remnant forest patches dissected by resident area and crop field are
shown in largely connected mountain surroundings. This landscape pattern often appears in cities in modern
Korea. In this painting, the west part shows north face
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Fig. 3 Two major landscape
types often found in agricultural
and forested areas with many
mountains and streams in Asian
countries: Up; parallel pattern
(Baesan-Imsu, in Korean), Down;
convoluted pattern
(Jangpung-Deuksu, in Korea). M;
mountain (corresponding to
vegetation matrix), V; village and
town, S; stream corridor, C;
cultivated area. Redraw from
Hong (2001)
materials for long-term defense against attacks in isolated areas. Also, as mentioned above,
a place surrounded by mountains has complicated boundaries which may render positive
ecological benefits (e.g., high habitat diversity). The Seoul urban landscape, surrounded by
high mountains, shows primarily a convoluted pattern.
Modern landscape ecology provides both theoretical insights and pragmatic guidelines
for maintaining and restoring the structure and functioning of landscape mosaics. Fengshui
theory is also concerned with creating and managing Fengshui elements (Table 1), resem-
bling modern ecological restoration technology in some way. There are two main restoration
methods in Fengshui. The first method is to strengthen the landscape by adding materials
(or element supplementation, “Bibo ” in Korean). For example, adding mountain and
forest patches (e.g., windbreak forest may change the local climate and local biodiversity by
controlling wind and water systems. Adding streams enhances the landscape connectivity by
improving ecosystem function and network stability. Locating a pagoda is important in Bibo
Fengshui which was influenced by Buddhist civilization (Choi, 2000). The second method
is to modify or remove improper and unnecessary open spaces and other structural elements
in the landscape (i.e. element suppression management, “Apseung ” in Korean).
These two methods are complementary (Table 3), working together to enhance the bal-
ance or harmony between man and nature. However, because Korea is a small country with
limited natural resources, Bibo has been a more dominant component of Fengshui theory
than Apseung. Apseung is usually included as a complementary part in Bibo. This is a major
difference in practice of Fengshui between Korea and China. For many decades, Bibo Feng-
shui has been practiced at multiple scales: national land utilization at the macro-scale (e.g.,
Baekdudaegan Conservation Project; Choi, 2004), regional and urban planning at the meso-
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Table 3 Theoretical comparisons of the selection procedure for the suitable location of urban development in Korea
System of
Scale Ecological function Landscape ecology Fengshui urban planning
Macroscale •Source corridor for large animal
movement (ex. large home-range
mammals)
•Continent or regional context
(connectivities of major mountain ranges,
vegetation matrices, and river corridors,
coastline)
National wide distribution, scale and
connectivity of topographical
characters (ex. mountain range)
National land
utilization planning
•Ecosystem stability •Macroclimate
•Biodiversity
Mesoscale •Ecological characteristics of large
patches and other spatial elements
•Wind and water flow (energy, material)
•Landscape context
•Component, shape and pattern of landscape
elements (ex. aggregation, dispersion
pattern of mountain and watershed)
•Microclimate condition by local mountain
and river
•Orientation or arrangement of spatial
elements and landscape elements
(developed area, field forest)
Condition of wind flow and water
system according to regional-wide
distribution, scale and connectivity
of topographical characters (ex.
surrounding topography and
physical aspect of mountains and
river or streams)
Direction, arrangement of landscape
elements (urban scale)
Regional
planning/urban
planning
Microscale •Heat flux
•High productivity of plant materials,
crops etc.
•Local ecosystem function, health
•Structure or pattern of spatial elements
•Ecological process and function
•Orientation or arrangement of spatial
elements and landscape elements
(developed area, field, forest)
•Shape of spatial elements in the landscape
context
Direction, arrangement of landscape
elements
Shape of physiognomic
topography
Specific planning
Building planning
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scale (Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project in Seoul, see Fig. 7), and local environmental
and housing planning at the micro-scale.
Recent land use change and urban planning in Seoul, Korea
The urban land use of Seoul has been expanding outward since the industrialization in the
17th Century. During the period of Japanese colonization in the 1920’s, new transport systems
(e.g., railways) were part of the results of, and further facilitated by, urban expansion and
land development. The population of Seoul was about 100,000 in 1394 when Seoul was
established as a capital city in Chosun Dynasty, and increased to 1,400,000 in 1958 after the
Korea War. During the high economic growth period in Korea in the early 1980’s, housing
projects boomed in the southern part of Han River. Except for certain steep slopes of the
mountainous areas of southern Seoul, all lowlands and plains, including crop fields, were
converted to developed areas—mostly residential (Fig. 4). In the past several decades, the
Seoul metropolitan region has expanded from 268 km2in 1958 to 606 Km2today, with new
developments rapidly encroaching the northern part of the Han River. Now Seoul is one of the
mega-cities of the world with a population of about 12 million people. The high concentration
of urban human population has been a major driver for the rampant expansion of urban areas
in Seoul and throughout Korea.
Land transformation has often led to sociologic, economic and ecological changes (Lepart
and Debussche, 1992; Forman, 1995; Zipperer et al., 2000). Rapid urbanization in metropoli-
tan regions has resulted in the shrinkage of green space, habitat fragmentation, impervious
surfaces, deteriorating water quality, and introduction of exotic species for economic and aes-
thetic purposes. In short, urbanization has frequently led to the reduction in native biodiversity
and dysfunction of natural ecosystems. At the same time, urbanization also brings about a
suite of socio-economic and cultural changes, including human consciousness (Nassauer,
1995). Using land use and land cover change maps, created using LANDSAT TM imagery
taken from 1988 to 1997, we quantified how landscape pattern has changed and how these
changes are related to the human dimension. Based on data from Seoul Metropolitan Gov-
ernment (1997), between 1988 and 1997 developed areas increased from 50.33 to 60.38%,
while forested areas decreased from 42.54 to 28.18%. Biotope mapping and field survey in the
Seoul metropolitan area were carried out in order to determine the status of green spaces and
assist in ecological urban planning for sustainability (Seoul Development Institute, 2000). In
this project, many small green spaces that were not identifiable in LANDSAT TM imagery
were added to the updated urban landscape planning database. Seoul Development Institute
shows that in 1999 developed areas were 59.5%, agricultural and grassland areas were 7.6%,
and forested areas were 26.4% of the total land area. Compared to the 1997 data, the total
forested area further decreased. The total area of natural vegetation with relatively high native
biodiversity also decreased because much of it was converted to residential areas and erosion
control plantations.
It is evident that the area of green space in the urban landscape decreased as the developed
area increased. Many forest remnants have been repeatedly fragmented into smaller and
smaller patches, most of which eventually were completely lost to other land use types.
Except for historical monuments such as palaces, large natural green spaces in the centers
of towns either disappeared or have been severely modified into man-made parks. Several
reasons are responsible for the environmental problems associated with rapid urbanization
in Seoul. They include: the lack of policies that regulate the urban population influx, the
failure in implementing the restriction law for high density building construction, the lack
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Fig. 4 Expansion of urban areas of Seoul since 1958 (Seoul Development Institute, 1994). Urban areas have
expanded toward the northern part (old commercial and resident area) of the Han River since 1950, after
the Korean War. Population increase in Seoul, which has accompanied the economic development since the
1970’s, is a major driving force of land transformation in the southern area of the River and establishment of
new satellite cities (towns)
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of urban landscape management strategy that emphasizes the natural ecosystem components
and their functioning in the urban environment, and the unplanned exploitation of lowland
areas, removing remnant green-spaces, and paving stream banks. This came about from the
lack of knowledge and recognition of ecological urban landscape planning in Seoul after the
Korean War.
Rapid housing developments have encroached into neighboring forested and cultivated
lands, creating a number of satellite cities that are mainly composed of housing clusters
surrounded by conserved natural areas (Fig. 5). Such “edge cities” in percolation theory have
caused large-scale landscape fragmentation in Korea as well as in other parts of the world
(Zipperer et al., 2000). Nevertheless, according to Seoul Metropolitan Government (1995),
the future Seoul metropolitan area will be planned to have a multi-satellite town structure with
a number of nuclei. In this case, many socioeconomic and environmental problems can and
will readily spread into other adjacent cities (Fig. 5). To minimize the negative environmental
impacts of this plan, several strategic steps and procedures based on holistic urban landscape
ecological planning principles must be followed.
The goal is to create a landscape with high ecological functional integrity and connectivity
among nuclear cities, appropriate spacing among cities to reduce possibilities of resource-
related conflicts, and effective transportation systems networking all the cities. To achieve
this goal, a green-space network approach is necessary. Fragmented and dissected forest
patches and other remnant green spaces can be connected or restored through vegetated cor-
Fig. 5 Changes in the spatial
structure of the Seoul
Metropolitan Area (Seoul
Metropolitan Government, 1995)
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Fig. 6 Seoul Green Network Plan for major green-spaces and its potential network in Seoul (Seoul Metropoli-
tan Government, 1997)
ridors or native plantations (Fig. 6). In addition, the total coverage of green-spaces needs
to be increased by revegetation of rooftops, roadsides, and stream banks. Thus, we have
suggested the construction of a green space network that connects mountain ranges, water-
sheds, riparian forests, and isolated forest patches through streams (e.g., Cheonggyecheon
(Stream) restoration, http://www.metro.seoul.kr/kor2000/chungaehome/en/seoul/main.htm)
associated with the Han River, to help enhance the ecological sustainability of Seoul in years
to come (Fig. 7).
Discussion and conclusions
Human perception, cognition, and value systems are important factors that shape the land-
scapes (McHarg, 1969; Naveh and Lieberman, 1994; Nassauer, 1995; Wu and Hobbs, 2002).
Cultural influences are pervasive in both human and natural landscapes at local, regional,
and even larger scales (see Table 3). Socioeconomic factors influence human consciousness
and appreciation of the landscape. As culture, economy, and politics all change with time,
the driving forces of landscape change also change. Although the landscape pattern of Seoul
historically has been shaped by time-honored Fengshui, recent changes in cultural traditions
with modernization and Western influences have modified, and sometimes been integrated
into, the old yet rapidly developing landscapes.
Strictly speaking, Fengshui theory is not a scientific theory; rather, it is a set of empir-
ical principles that integrate cultural and religious beliefs with biophysical idiosyncrasies
and regularities (March, 1968; Needham, 1986). While some elements of Fengshui theory
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Fig. 7 Cheonggyecheon (Stream) restoration project in urban Seoul (2004). This large restoration project is
representative restoration of Qi (living energy or energy flux) in Fengshui principle. Up: current situation of
area of the stream (2004 year), Down: Designed picture of the same place after completion of the project.
Picture source from http://www.metro.seoul.kr/kor2000/chungaehome/en/seoul/main.htm
apparently correspond to those in modern landscape ecological theory, they need to be tested
and refined through rigorous scientific studies (see Table 1). On the other hand, given the
importance of the respect and understanding of cultural traditions, landscape ecology is not
complete without incorporating cultural traditions and heritages in Asia they are well repre-
sented in an integrated way in Fengshui. This implies that, although general principles for
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landscape and urban design and planning are possible, implementations of these principles in
any given geographic location must consider social, cultural, and biophysical peculiarities.
Fengshui theory has long been used for land-use policy and landscape restoration in East
Asian countries (Choi, 1991; Whang, 1991). While this theory originated in China, it has
diversified in several ways as it has been used in different geographic and cultural settings. In
particular, Korea, geographically positioned as a ‘cultural corridor’ among Asian countries,
has applied and adapted this theory in highly populated areas for a long time. There is
little doubt that this traditional paradigm will continue to influence landscape and urban
planning in China, Korea, and other Asian countries with similar cultural heritage. Thus, it is
important to enhance its scientific rigor and integrate it into an Asian perspective of landscape
ecology. While there have been many reviews discussing the divide and unification between
the European and North American schools of landscape ecology (Lyle, 1999; Wu and Hobbs,
2002), other regional perspectives, such as Fengshui theory, that have influenced landscape
design and planning in Asia for centuries, should also be considered if landscape ecology is
to become truly transdisciplinary and applicable to different parts of the world.
Acknowledgments We thank the Seoul Development Institute, Seoul for giving related references. Our
special thanks are due to Ms. Kim Hyun-Ok for GIS mapping and to Shin Ji-Hae at Seoul Development
Institute for help with tables and figures during early draft of the manuscript. Special thanks also are due to
Cheonggyecheon Restoration Project Team, Seoul Metropolitan Government for providing photographs.
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