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Sichuan Peppers and the Etymology of Fagara (Rutaceae)
1
DANIEL F. AUSTIN*
,2
AND RICHARD S. FELGER
3
2
Arizona-Sonora Desert Museum, 2021 N. Kinney Road, Tucson, AZ 85743, USA
3
Herbarium, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; email: rfelger@ag.arizona.edu
*Corresponding author; e-mail: daustin@desertmuseum.org
Sichuan Peppers and the Etymology of Fagara (Rutaceae). We present a synopsis of the history
and derivation of faraga from its Arabic origin through confusion with the Chinese fajiu.Fagara,
or Zanthoxylum, a medicinal spice, has a venerable history of human uses beginning in China,
spreading through West Asia to Europe, and finally reaching the New World.
Los Pimientos de Sichuan y la Etimología de Fagara (Rutaceas). Nosotros presentamos un
resumen de la historia y derivación de fagara a partir de su origen Arabe pasando por su
confusión con el nombre Chino, fajiu. Fagara, o Zanthoxylum, una especia medicinal que
tiene una venerable historia de usos humanos que comienzan en China, se propagan a travez
del Asia Occidente hacia Europa llegando finalmente al Nuevo Mundo.
Key Words: Arabic, languages, medicines, spices, trade, loan words, Zanthoxylum.
Introduction
In this paper we trace the etymology of the
fagara. This word, first used by Ibn Sina in the
1020s, is consistently associated with Zanthox-
ylum, a spice we now call Sichuan pepper.
Sichuan peppers (Zanthoxylum spp.) add a char-
acteristic tangy, aromatic taste to Chinese cuisine.
Although most associated with Sichuan foods, the
condiment is widely used throughout China
(Mulherin 1988). The flavor has been compared
to pepper (Piper nigrum Linnaeus), anise (Illicium
verum Hooker f.), and lemon (Citrus limon
[Linnaeus] Burman f.). Various species of Zan-
thoxylum have their own common names, includ-
ing anise pepper, brown pepper, Chinese pepper,
Japanese pepper, Nepal pepper, and so on. The
five-spice mixture, which includes Sichuan pepper
as a mandatory ingredient, is of ancient ubiqui-
tous application in China and still is found in
restaurants and stores (Bown 1995; Wertz 2007).
The Chinese name meaning Sichuan pepper
appeared in a medicinal book printed in ca. 25
B.C.E. (Hsu 1986). In spite of that longevity,
and despite Kaempfer (1712) and Linnaeus
(1753) having named these plants, little was
known about them. Westerners were not very
familiar with the region of Zanthoxylum production
until after the 1860s and 1870s, when Henry
Hance and Carl Maximowicz recorded the most
important Chinese species. The first record we have
found of Chinese names in the English literature
was Smith (1871). He called the spice “Pepper-
wort”and gave several local names, including 蜀椒
(Sichuan pepper). It was later that “Sichuan pepper”
became a frequently-used term for the condiment.
The name appeared in only two scientificpapersin
1985, but is used increasingly in both cooking and
scientific publications after that date, often spelled
“Szechuan pepper,”following the old transcription.
Perhaps the first mention of fagara,whatwenow
call Sichuan pepper, was made in the 1020s.
Translated into Latin, what was written is, “Fagara
quid est Granum simile cicer, habens granum sicut
mahaleb: & in concavitate eius est granum nigrum,
sicut scehedenegi...”(“Fagara, which is a grain
similar to cicer, has a seed resembling mahaleb,
and in its opening has a black grain, resembling
hemp [seed]”)(Avicenna1976). Ibn Sina, whose
name is anglicized to Avicenna, was comparing
Economic Botany, 62(4), 2008, pp. 567–573
© 2008, by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A.
1
Received 11 June 2008; accepted 20 July 2008;
published online 22 November 2008.
these foreign fagara fruits with those well known to
readers of his time—cicer (chick pea or garbanzo,
Cicer aretinum Linnaeus), mahaleb (mahaleb cher-
ry, Prunus mahaleb Linnaeus), and scehedenegi
(hemp, Cannabis sativa Linnaeus). All three have
long been cultivated or gathered for food or other
purposes in West Asia and northeastern Africa
(Davidson 1999; Zohary and Hopf 1993).
Comparison with pepper (Piper nigrum) in the
sequence of entries by Ibn Sina (fagara, felfel) and
the description of the follicles suggests that the
plants were Zanthoxylum. Indeed, most people
have equated fagara with Zanthoxylum, including
Burkill (1966), Devic (1876), Linnaeus (1753,
1759), Orta (1579), Quattrocchi (1999), Senning
(2006), and Watt (1889).
Several species are used to adulterate the commer-
cial product. There are 180–200 Zanthoxylum
species in both the Eastern and Western Hemi-
spheres (Hartley 2001;Kallunki2004). Compara-
tively few taxa are used as a spice in the Old World,
and those that are most common in commerce
are native to temperate Asia. The dominant species
of commerce are native in China, Japan, and
Korea (Facciola 1990;GRIN2008;Ohwi1965).
Zanthoxylum bungeanum Maximowicz (= Z. bungei
Planchon) is almost endemic to China (provinces:
Gansu, Hebei, Henan, Jiangsu, Liaoning, Ningxia,
Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan,
Xizang, Yunnan, Zhejiang), but is also in Bhutan.
Z. simulans Hance is endemic to China (Anhui,
Fujian, Gansu, Guizhou, Henan, Henan, Hubei,
Jiangxi, Qinghai, Shandong, Taiwan, Zhejiang)
(TROPICOS 2008; Zhang and Hartley 2008).
Although Chinese plants have been called Z.
piperitum de Candolle, the latest studies indicate
that this species is found only in Japan and maybe
Korea (Turland 2008; Zhang and Hartley 2008).
Of the 41 species in China, only Z. bungeanum is
noted as being used as a condiment by Zhang and
Hartley (2008). Other species of Zanthoxylum
are used, however, as in Hawaii (Staples and
Kristiansen 1999) and Nepal (Manandhar 2002).
Subsequent to Ibn Sina, Linnaeus used the
word fagara twice—when he created Schinus
fagara (Linnaeus 1753), and again in the generic
name Fagara (Linnaeus 1759). His Schinus fagara
is now Zanthoxylum fagara (Linnaeus) Sargent
(Fig. 1). Taxonomic disposition of Fagara has
varied, and it has been considered a separate
genus or used as a synonym or infrageneric taxon
of Zanthoxylum (e.g., Andrews 1952; Fish and
Waterman 1973; Fosberg 1958,1959; Hartley
1966; Porter 1976).
There have been various ideas about the deriva-
tion of Fagara. Some have claimed that the word
was of Arabic origin, while others thought that it
came from Chinese. Beyond simple statements,
none of these sources explores the reasons or
history behind their claims. Only Helen Correll
(Correll and Correll 1982) gave a hint at her
reason: she wrote that fagara meant “acursedtree.”
Austin (2004) avoided discussing the derivation of
the species name of Zanthoxylum fagara. Subse-
quently, questions from Felger sent us on a quest
to explore the problem. In the following, we trace
the appearance of fagara and explore its origin.
Arabic History
Ibn Sina (980–1037 C.E., usually anglicized as
Avicenna) was born in what is now Uzbekistan
(Naqib 2000). His Canon of Medicine was com-
pleted about 1025 and posthumously published in
Arabic (Ibn Sina 1593). This book was translated
Fig. 1. Zanthoxylum fagara (Linnaeus) Sargent.
Drawing by Penelope N. Honychurch-Billingham.
568 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62
into Latin near the end of the 12th century and
recently reprinted (Avicenna 1976). The text
became a standard reference in medicine at
European universities, being used until the end of
the 17th century. In its various reincarnations, the
text remains a critical early resource for data on
plant use and trade between the Orient and the
West Asia.
Ibn Sina first used fagara for a medicinal plant;
he wrote the word (fagara) (Ibn Sina
1593). The Arabic (ghayn) has no English
equivalent; it is approximately “gh,”but also has
been written as “g”in English transcriptions
(Adwe and Samano 1986). Thus, the word
has been interpreted fagara,faghara,
fághireh, faghureh, and faghira.
Arabic-speakers in the 1020s recognized three
classes of “peppers”—one was fagara (Zanthoxylum),
another (felfel,Piper nigrum), the third
(kabábah,Piper cubeba Linnaeus) (Ibn Sina 1593).
None of these medicinal spices grows in West Asia,
and the Arabic countries obtained all through trade
from farther east (e.g., Crawfurd 1868;Goitein
1954;IbnSina1593;Watt1889). Names of two
of these peppers are loan-words into Arabic from
the languages of their homelands. The Arabic felfel
is derived from Sanskrit pippali, and is etymologi-
cally related to Hebrew pilpel, Yiddish
fefer,Greekπεπερι peperi, and English pepper
(Oxford English Dictionary 2008). The kabábah
came from Hindu kabab chini (Chinese kabab) that
also gave rise to English cubeb.
Ibn Sina (Avicenna 1976) wrote that Fagara was
“... de asportatur de Sefale...”Watt (1889)translated
that phrase as “brought from Sakála,”and added
that the city was located in Hindustan. He
continued, “Sakála or Sangla was an ancient town
in the Punjab [in Pakistan], near the modern
Sanglawala Tiba or Sangla Hill. It is the Sangla of
Alexander, and was visited by the Chinese pilgrim
Hwen Thsang [Xuanzang 玄奘] in A.D. 630.”
Watt (1889) further recorded that Haji Zain el
Attar, who wrote in C.E. 1368, gave a similar
account of “Fághireh,”and said that the Persians
called the spice “Kabábeh-i-kushádeh (open-
mouthed cubebs).”Because of these records, Watt
(1889) thought that the Arabs “obtained the carpels
of Z. alatum and Z. acanthopodium first from
Northern India.”Burkill (1966)andSmith(1871)
made similar statements, but added no sources.
Among those claiming that fagara is from Arabic
are Barcia and de Echegaray (1887–1889), Devic
(1876), Quattrocchi (1999), Rodriguez-Navas
(1903), Senning (2006), and Smith (1871). It is
not clear whether they actually saw the text by Ibn
Sina (1593) or if they took their statements from
other publications.
The spoken word fagara is confusing
because of similar words in Arabic. There are at
least three sound-alike words in the language:
faqara (faqr), to pierce, bore, perforate;
faqāra, poor, needy; and faqir, mendicant
dervish, Sufimendicant (Wehr 1971).
Arif (2008)wrote,“In colloquial Arabic Fagara is
from Fogr, which is poor, poverty or a connotation
of ‘needy.’It is a mean word and more pejorative
than slang. The person described hence is a ‘mean’
or ‘horrible’person. The other meaning that comes
to mind is ‘slut.’” Several sources list faqara or faqr
as meaning “to pierce,”a concept and term that has
been loaned to several other languages (Ba‘lakakī
1972; Borhas n.d.; Leslau 1990; McGillivray and
Halliday 1916;Takács1999;Wehr1961). That
sense might be what Helen Correll in Correll and
Correll (1982) had in mind with the translation “a
cursed tree.”Anyone who has tried to examine
flowers and fruits of this genus will have been
pierced by the spines on the branches—and cursed
the plants. Still, these pejorative and alternate
meanings appear to have nothing to do with the
fruits traded into the Arab world from farther east.
The mix-up apparently arose because of
misunderstanding of the (ghayn), a sound that
is mistaken for the (qaaf) in some areas (Gamal
2008). Indeed, fagara and faqara are based on
distinct roots, i.e., fgr and fqr. In spite of the
sound-alike words, the spelling by Ibn Sina
(1593) eliminates alternate meanings.
Older literature used the word fagara to refer to
Zanthoxylum fruits (Ibn Sina 1593), but it has
other meanings. Watt (1889) wrote that “faghara”
meant “open-mouthed.”There is indeed a phrase
“open-mouthed”in Arabic, fagara afam
(Ba‘lakakī1972; Lewin 1974). The spelling of
fagara is the same as that written by Ibn Sina in
the 1020s and must be the basis of the name used
since that time for the spice made from Zanthox-
ylum. Moreover, the description is perfect for the
fruits of that genus that are indeed “open”and
gaping (Fig. 2, esp. 2b).
Chinese History
Three early documents included the word
Zanthoxylum (Hsu 1986). The first was the 神農
569AUSTIN AND FELGER: THE ETYMOLOGY OF FAGARA2008]
本草經(Shen nong ben cao jing, Pinyin) [ca. 25
B.C.E.], which listed both 山椒(shan jiao,
Mandarin; saan ziu, Cantonese; mountain pep-
per) and 蜀椒(shu jiao,Mandarin;suk jiu,
Cantonese; Sichuan pepper). Next was the 本草
經集注(Ben cao jing ji zhu) [536 CE] that
recorded 椒目(jiao mu, Mandarin; chiao mu,
Cantonese; pepper eyes). More than a millenni-
um later, the 本草綱目(Ben cao gang mu) [1590]
referred to 花椒(hua jiao, Mandarin; faa ziu,
Cantonese; flower pepper). Probably the first
Westerner to record an Oriental name for this
pepper was Kaempfer (1712). Both Kaempfer and
Thunberg and Wallich (1784) wrote the name as
sansio (山椒sansho, Japanese; mountain pepper).
Linnaeus (1753) recorded that his student Pehr
Osbeck had found Z. trifoliatum (now Eleuther-
ococcus trifoliatus [Linnaeus] S.Y. Hu) in China.
Later, Osbeck (1757) added only that Z. trifolia-
tum grew near the shore. Linnaeus (1753) also
cited Kaempfer (1712)whenherecognized
Schinus fagara and quoted him as writing its
Japanese name sansio (mountain pepper). In this
citation, Linnaeus confused the Old World
Japanese plants Kaempfer was talking about with
the New World Z. fagara (Little 1979).
Smith (1871) recorded several Chinese names for
Zanthoxylum, including 花椒(flower pepper), 川椒
(chuan jiao,Mandarin;chyun jiu,Cantonese;stream
pepper), and 蜀椒(Sichuan pepper) for what he
called Z. alatum Roxburgh (now Z. armatum de
Candolle). Subsequent publications have noted that
the modern Chinese name of the Rutaceae is 花椒
属(flower pepper 属=shu = family). Peng (2000)
listed 山生椒(mountain 生=sheng =togrow
pepper) for Z. piperitum and 刺花椒(刺=ci,thorn
flower pepper) for Z. simulans, two Sichuan peppers
of commerce. Several other species have 花椒
(flower pepper) as the basic element of common
names, but with modifiers. Furthermore, the
Chinese character 花has alternate meanings.
Among these are some 22 distinct interpretations,
but each depends on the word it modifies (Chinese
language 1998–2004;Mathews1944). The mean-
ing of 花in the name 花椒is consistently “flower.”
Thus, the other possible interpretations are not
applicable to these plants.
Katzer (2005) noted that some Chinese dialects
render 花椒as fajiu and that this gave rise to
fagara through inaccurate transcription.Indeed,
花椒is faa ziu in Jyutping (standardized Roman-
ization of Cantonese), and fá jiu, fa zeu, and fa
ziau in other transcriptions (Chinese language
1998–2004). Moreover, the occurrence of the
name “faghira”(interpreted as “Abyssinian cu-
beb”) in a list of the spices shipped in 1135 from
Aden, Yemen, to Cairo, Egypt, might support
that interpretation (Goitein 1954). That trade
also probably accounts for the wood of “faghira”
found from the 13th century in Quseir, Upper
Egypt (Guo 2004). These were trade items from
China.
Geographic Range of Sichuan Peppers
There are Zanthoxylum native in Southern
Asia, but none grow in West Asia (Chaudhary
2001; Davis 1967; Zohary and Feibrun-Dothan
1972). There are also species in northeastern
Africa, particularly Ethiopia and Sudan (Andrews
1952; Boulos 1995; Gilbert 1989). The species in
Southern Asia and Africa are not those that have
been commonly used for spices and medicine.
For example, Hassan-Ud-Din and Ghazanfar
(1980) recorded that Pakistanis used Z. armatum
“... twigs... as tooth brushes and the stems [are]
made into walking sticks.”
Watt (1889) noted that Indians were not fond
of applying the fruits of Zanthoxylum to season
Fig. 2. aand b. Fruits of Zanthoxylum americanum.
Photographs by Daniel Moerman; all rights reserved.
570 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL 62
food. He says, “The carpels are occasionally
employed as a condiment.”Earlier Roxburgh
(1832) had recorded only medicinal uses for the
plants. Thus, historically, it was the Chinese who
made the most use of the fruits as a condiment.
Conclusions
When Linnaeus (1753) created the binomial
Schinus fagara, it was his first use of fagara. There
is little doubt that he took fagara from Arabic. At
the time he was writing, Latin translations of Ibn
Sina’s book had been available for centuries. It
seems likely that Linnaeus did not know the
meaning of fagara but was aware that Ibn Sina
had applied it to medicinal plants. Therefore,
Linnaeus Latinized it to fagara, as it was in the
Latin translation of the 1500s (Avicenna 1976).
Trade of “pepper”of various kinds between
Europe and the East is well-documented along
the spice routes through the Arabic world, and
fagara would have simply been another of those.
The data show that at least two “peppers”in West
Asia obtained names as loan words sometime
before Ibn Sina (1593) was writing their names in
Arabic in the 1020s. Felfel came from Sanskrit
pippali,kabábah from Hindu kabab.
Fagara is more problematical. While Z. arma-
tum is considered native in northern Pakistan and
nearby regions of China and other countries (one
name is Nepal pepper), it is largely used as a
medicine and rarely as a condiment. Fagara,
probably like the other species, was imported
from farther east into the Arabian countries, then
was mentioned by Ibn Sina in the 1020s and
other Arabs into the 1300s.
The word fagara might be from Chinese fajiu,
but it has an applicable meaning in Arabic: “open-
mouthed.”Whether the application of fagara to
Zanthoxylum spp. was influenced by Chinese is not
clear. Perhaps the similarity of the words fagara
and fajiu made the Arabic traders mistakenly think
that the Chinese had used a word with the same
meaning they knew from home.
Various factors make it possible that fagara as a
name for Zanthoxylum in Arabic was influenced
by Chinese fajiu. These factors are 1) the fact that
two other peppers obtained in trade took their
names as loan words, 2) the similarity of fagara
with Cantonese fajiu, and 3) the fact that the
plants to which Ibn Sina and other early Arabic
authors applied fagara were imported from the
East. While fagara is an early Arabic word, its
ancient human history is intimately tied up with
the Chinese plants and their name.
Acknowledgments
Ihsan Al-Shehbaz, Jacquelyn Kallunki, and
Ching-I Peng kindly reviewed a draft of this
manuscript. Adel Gamal provided comments on
regional Arabic pronunciation of words and their
relationships and made further suggestions on the
manuscript. Dorothea Bedigian was kind enough to
contact an Arabic-speaking colleague; Arif provided
the uses of fagara in the Sudanese Arabic. Alejandro
Velasco-Levy translated the abstract into Spanish.
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