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Life cycle assessment of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites
The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment
Abstract
PurposeThe use of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer matrix composites is gaining momentum with the pressure to lightweight vehicles;
however energy intensity and cost remain major barriers to the wide-scale adoption of this material for automotive applications.
This study determines the relative life cycle benefits of two precursor types (conventional textile-type acrylic fibers and
renewable-based lignin), part manufacturing technologies (conventional SMC and P4), and a fiber recycling technology.
Materials and methodsA representative automotive part, i.e., a 30.8-kg steel floor pan having a 17% weight reduction potential with stringent crash
performance requirements, has been considered for the life cycle energy and emissions analysis. Four scenarios—combinations
of the precursor types and manufacturing technologies—are compared to the stamped steel baseline part.
Results and discussionThe analysis finds the lignin-based part made through P4 technology to offer the greatest life cycle energy and CO2 emissions benefits. Carbon fiber production is estimated to be about 14 times more energy-intensive than conventional steel
production; however, life cycle primary energy use is estimated to be quite similar to the conventional part, i.e., 18,500MJ/part,
especially when considering the uncertainty in LCI data that exist from using numerous sources in the literature.
ConclusionsThe sensitivity analysis concludes that with a 20% reduction in energy use in the conversion of lignin to carbon fiber and
no energy use incurred in lignin production since lignin is a by-product of ethanol and paper production, a 30% reduction
in life cycle energy use could be obtained. A similar level of life cycle energy savings could also be obtained with a higher
part weight reduction potential of 43%.
KeywordsAutomotive lightweighting–Carbon fiber polymer composites–Carbon fibers–Life cycle analysis
... FRP's lightweight nature makes it easy to transport and install, while its durability ensures a longer service life with minimal maintenance requirements. Compared to traditional materials like steel or concrete, the production of FRP significantly reduces energy consumption, which in turn helps to lower greenhouse gas emissions and mitigate its environmental impact [4]. ...
... This unique composition grants FRP exceptional structural properties, including a high strength-to-weight ratio and remarkable resistance to corrosion and environmental degradation. Unlike traditional materials such as steel or concrete, FRP requires lower energy inputs during production and emits significantly fewer greenhouse gases throughout its lifecycle, making it a sustainable alternative in construction [4]. Additionally, the durability of FRP reduces maintenance needs and prolongs the lifespan of structures, while its recyclability supports circular economy principles, as recycled FRP retains much of its original mechanical properties [5]. ...
... FRP wall systems provide excellent thermal insulation, reducing energy consumption for heating and cooling by up to 40% compared to traditional concrete walls [8]. In a lifecycle analysis of residential buildings, FRP walls achieved annual energy cost reductions of 20%, which offset their higher initial costs within decades [4]. ...
The global shift towards sustainable construction is fueled by concerns over climate change, environmental degradation, and the demand for energy-efficient practices. Green building practices emphasize innovative materials with minimal environmental impact, among which Fiber Reinforced Polymer (FRP) stands out as a promising alternative. Characterized by its lightweight, high strength, and resistance to environmental degradation, FRP offers significant advantages over conventional materials such as steel and concrete. Its lower energy requirements during production and adaptability to various designs make it an ideal material for sustainable construction, aligning with green building principles like longevity and reduced maintenance needs.Despite these benefits, FRP adoption faces challenges, including high initial costs and unresolved issues related to fire resistance and recycling. Further research and development are necessary to address these limitations. This paper aims to analyze the material properties, lifecycle benefits, and primary applications of FRP in sustainable construction, while identifying existing challenges and potential solutions. The paper aims to highlights the importance of FRP in reducing ecological footprints and enhancing economic efficiency, positioning it as a key material in advancing sustainable building practices.
... As the use of carbon fibers has expanded, environmental concerns have been voiced (Das, 2011;Witik et al., 2011). The manufacturing process is energy-intensive and relies on non-renewable petroleum feedstock resources, such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursors (Morgan, 2005). ...
... Polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursors currently dominate commercial carbon fiber production, accounting for >90 % of output, followed by petroleum pitch (Hexcel, 2024), both of which are fossil-based materials. Producing carbon fiber from these fossil-based precursors is reported to be costly and energy-intensive (Das, 2011;Yadav et al., 2023). Therefore, there is an increasing need to find cheaper or less energy-intensive alternative precursors to match the high-level performance of PAN-based fibers (Bisheh and Abdin, 2023). ...
... Typically, the conversion rate from PAN to carbon fiber is between 45 % and 50 %, meaning that 2-2.22 kg of PAN is needed to produce 1 kg of carbon fiber. Given the significant upstream environmental impact of PAN production (Das, 2011), variations in conversion rate can considerably amplify the energy demand and environmental footprint per kilogram of carbon fiber. ...
The demand for carbon fibers and carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) is rapidly growing due to their outstanding mechanical properties and potential to enhance sustainability, particularly for lightweighting applications. However, carbon fibers are typically produced from fossil-based feedstocks, involve energy-intensive processes, and have limited options for sustainable end-of-life management or circularity. Despite these challenges , the energy demand and lifecycle environmental implications of their production remain poorly understood. Here, we conduct a critical literature review and meta-analysis of carbon fiber manufacturing, revealing significant variations in reported energy demand, carbon footprint, and lifecycle inventory data. Our analysis makes two novel contributions. First, we identify key underlying factors driving these variations. Second, we highlight that carbon fiber, far from being a homogeneous product, has grades varying substantially in mechanical properties, end-use markets, energy intensity of manufacturing processes, and therefore environmental impacts-an aspect often underrepresented in life cycle assessments. We assert that current data are insufficient for reliably evaluating environmental impacts, posing a risk of misleading decision-making. Addressing this gap requires new lifecycle inventory datasets clearly incorporating carbon fiber heterogeneity and key influencing factors identified in this study. Additionally, we propose actionable recommendations, including a checklist, to advance sustainability in the carbon fiber sector.
... Innovations in IC engines, battery systems, and regenerative braking strategies have emerged as critical enablers for improving energy efficiency and reducing emissions [3,4]. Regulatory frameworks such as EURO (Europe) [5], Tier 3 (United States) [6][7][8][9], and Japan's Post-New Long-Term Standards play a pivotal role in driving the adoption of advanced technologies, including electrified powertrains and lightweight materials [10][11][12][13]. These regulations set stringent performance targets that necessitate continuous advancements in vehicle technologies to ensure compliance. ...
... These assumptions form the foundation for the vehicle models developed in this study. The data in Table 1 were sourced from government reports, including DOE vehicle performance targets, ICCT studies on electrification trends [8], and industry benchmarks [12,13]. These data ensure alignment with state-of-the-art knowledge in powertrain technologies. ...
... Electric motor costs are expected to decrease significantly over time, as shown in Figure 8. By 2050, the manufacturing cost of electric motors for small SUVs is projected to be 75-82% lower than in 2023, thanks to improvements in manufacturing processes, economies of scale, and material efficiency [11,12]. This trend is consistent across all electrified powertrains, although higher-performance models in the premium category tend to have slightly higher costs due to their more aggressive performance targets. ...
The U.S. Department of Energy’s Vehicle Technologies Office (DOE-VTO) is driving advancements in highway transportation by targeting energy efficiency, environmental sustainability, and cost reductions. This study investigates the fuel economy potential and cost implications of advanced powertrain technologies using comprehensive system simulations. Leveraging tools such as Autonomie and TechScape, developed by Argonne National Laboratory, this study evaluates multiple timeframes (2023–2050) and powertrain types, including conventional internal combustion engines, hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs), plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs), and battery electric vehicles (BEVs). Simulations conducted across standard regulatory driving cycles provide detailed insights into fuel economy improvements, cost trajectories, and total cost of ownership. The findings highlight key innovations in battery energy density, lightweighting, and powertrain optimization, demonstrating the growing viability of BEVs and their projected economic competitiveness with conventional vehicles by 2050. This work delivers actionable insights for policymakers and industry stakeholders, underscoring the transformative potential of vehicle electrification in achieving sustainable transportation goals.
... Few LCAs are available on production of LCF and LCF polymer composites. Environmental performance of carbon fibers produced from Kraft and organosolv lignin (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Hermansson et al., 2019) are published by some authors. However, these studies especially on OLCF production have only reported climate change impact ranging between 17 and 24 kg CO 2 /kg (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Obasa et al., 2022) and cumulative primary energy demand around 670 MJ/kg LCF respectively (Das, 2011). ...
... Environmental performance of carbon fibers produced from Kraft and organosolv lignin (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Hermansson et al., 2019) are published by some authors. However, these studies especially on OLCF production have only reported climate change impact ranging between 17 and 24 kg CO 2 /kg (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Obasa et al., 2022) and cumulative primary energy demand around 670 MJ/kg LCF respectively (Das, 2011). Only one study evaluated environmental performance of OLCF polymer composites (Das, 2011) but the focus was mainly on climate change and cumulative energy demand impact categories. ...
... Environmental performance of carbon fibers produced from Kraft and organosolv lignin (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Hermansson et al., 2019) are published by some authors. However, these studies especially on OLCF production have only reported climate change impact ranging between 17 and 24 kg CO 2 /kg (Das, 2011;Hermansson, 2020;Obasa et al., 2022) and cumulative primary energy demand around 670 MJ/kg LCF respectively (Das, 2011). Only one study evaluated environmental performance of OLCF polymer composites (Das, 2011) but the focus was mainly on climate change and cumulative energy demand impact categories. ...
... CFRPs are utilized in Type IV and V pressure vessels, such as those 54 used in stationary and mobile hydrogen storage tanks (e.g., for hydrogen fuel cell vehicles) (Benitez et al.,55 2021). 56 3/25 As the use of carbon fibers has expanded, environmental concerns have been voiced (Das, 2011;57 Witik et al., 2011). The manufacturing process is energy-intensive and relies on non-renewable petroleum 58 feedstock resources, such as polyacrylonitrile (PAN) precursors (Morgan, 2005). ...
... fossil-based materials. Producing carbon fiber from these fossil-based precursors is reported to be costly 163 and energy-intensive (Das, 2011;Yadav et al., 2023). Therefore, there is an increasing need to find cheaper 164 or less energy-intensive alternative precursors to match the high-level performance of PAN-based fibers 165 (Bisheh and Abdin, 2023 For instance, lignin, a by-product derived mainly from the bioethanol and paper industries during 173 cellulose extraction, is bio-sustainable and low-cost (Kun and Pukánszky, 2017). ...
The demand for carbon fibers and carbon fiber-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) is rapidly growing due to their outstanding mechanical properties and potential to enhance sustainability, particularly for lightweighting applications. However, carbon fibers are typically produced from fossil-based feedstocks, involve energy-intensive processes, and have limited options for sustainable end-of-life management or circularity. Despite these challenges, comprehensive analyses of energy demand and lifecycle environmental impacts of their production remain scarce. To fill this gap, we conduct a critical literature review and meta-analysis of carbon fiber manufacturing, revealing significant variations in reported energy demand, carbon footprint, and lifecycle inventory data. Our analysis makes two novel contributions. First, we identify key factors driving these variations. Second, we highlight that carbon fiber, far from being a homogeneous product, has grades varying substantially in mechanical properties, end-use markets, energy intensity of manufacturing processes, and therefore environmental impacts —an aspect often underrepresented in lifecycle assessments. We assert that current data are insufficient for reliably evaluating environmental impacts, posing a risk of misleading decision-making. Addressing this gap requires new lifecycle inventory datasets clearly incorporating carbon fiber heterogeneity and key influencing factors identified in this study. Additionally, we propose actionable recommendations to advance sustainability in the carbon fiber sector.
... GREENLIGHT and ECOXY's work on bio-based materials and recyclable composites inform LEVIS's cradle-to-cradle approach, targeting the recovery and reuse of materials to enhance sustainability. Das (2011) [9] conducted a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites, demonstrating their potential to reduce the weight of automotive components while also considering the environmental impacts of their production and disposal. Despite the higher energy consumption in manufacturing compared to traditional materials like steel and aluminum, the overall life-cycle benefits-particularly in terms of fuel savings and reduced emissions during vehicle operation-could justify their use in lightweight applications, especially when higher weight savings could be achieved. ...
... GREENLIGHT and ECOXY's work on bio-based materials and recyclable composites inform LEVIS's cradle-to-cradle approach, targeting the recovery and reuse of materials to enhance sustainability. Das (2011) [9] conducted a life-cycle assessment (LCA) of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites, demonstrating their potential to reduce the weight of automotive components while also considering the environmental impacts of their production and disposal. Despite the higher energy consumption in manufacturing compared to traditional materials like steel and aluminum, the overall life-cycle benefits-particularly in terms of fuel savings and reduced emissions during vehicle operation-could justify their use in lightweight applications, especially when higher weight savings could be achieved. ...
LEVIS is an innovation project funded by the EU Horizon 2020 program. Its main objective is to develop lightweight multi-material solutions based on bio-based materials and carbon fiber thermoplastic composites for electric vehicle components and demonstrating the technical, operational, and economic feasibility of applying eco-design and circular-economy principles into the design process. The project demonstrates the application of these materials in four case studies: a suspension control arm, a battery box, a battery module housing, and a cross-car beam. All demonstrators achieved a 20%-to-40% reduction in component weight, but environmental assessment results varied significantly, with emissions changes ranging from an increase for suspension control arms to a 65.5% decrease for battery modules. Efficient use of materials, particularly in the battery box using hybrid solutions and bonding technologies, showed notable emissions reduction. In contrast, replacing steel with CFRPs in suspension control arms led to increased emissions, suggesting that CFRPs are more effective for replacing high-polluting materials like aluminum. Recycled carbon fibers proved more beneficial for low-polluting materials like steel. The environmental performance of technologies depends on the expected use of EVs and the electricity grid mix, with better outcomes in coal-reliant grids. Finally, no single recycling method is universally superior; the optimal method depends on the specific technologies and the energy required for recycled materials.
... The conventional carbon fiber production process is critical in terms of the cost of the precursor, which accounts for 53% of the total process [Le et al., 2022], and does not guarantee the sustainability of the process itself, since polyacrylonitrile is a fossil polymer. Consequently, it becomes necessary to focus on the choice of raw material that will be In addition, they exhibit low density, making them a suitable candidate as a substitute for steel parts in chassis, in the context of weight reduction in cars, with a consequent saving in fuel consumption and thus environmental impact [Das, 2011]. ...
The automotive sector is one of the most environmentally impactful contexts,
not only in terms of the car production chain, but also in the use phase, which is still associated with the consumption of fossil fuels. The type of materials used also contributes to its overall impact. However, what happens when eco-design is followed in the automotive scenario, deconstructing traditional boundaries of design and production phases, and embracing the circular economy approach? Experimentation in bio-based materials and the recycling of high- performance materials is developing a broad strand of research. Therefore, investigating consumer perceptions of sustainability in the automotive industry is crucial. Although the demand for products with a low environmental impact lifecycle is steadily increasing, in the automotive context the research for sustainable solutions has to deal with other priority requirements, such as mechanical performance, fuel consumption, etc. The requirement of environmental sustainability often remains secondary. This contribution aims to present the research conducted by the Department of Applied Sciences and Technologies of the Polytechnic University of Turin (Italy), which explores new possibilities of recycling carbon fiber and glass fiber-based composite materials, which, for the same performance, can be reintroduced circularly in the production of new components, to contribute to the reduction of emissions by 2030. The ultimate goal is to design a systemic scenario based on the recycling of composite materials in the automotive industry, in which the user will be able to ‘drive sustainability’, expanding the boundaries of what the car product has identified until now.
... Energy-intensive; VOCs and toxic byproducts. [28,250] Use phase Lightweight; biodegradable/compostable. Durable but non-biodegradable; long-term environmental trade-offs [220,251] End of Life Recyclable/biodegradable; non-toxic degradation products. ...
The conversion of bio-waste into green nanocomposites offers an innovative and sustainable solution to global waste management challenges while advancing material science. Bio-waste, often seen as a disposal burden, can be transformed into high-performance, eco-friendly nanocomposites that significantly enhance environmental sustainability and resource efficiency. This review explores recent advancements in utilizing bio-waste as a raw material, focusing on its diverse origins, efficient preparation techniques, and broad applications. A wide range of bio-resources, from agricultural to industrial waste, has been studied, offering valuable insights into their properties and potential uses. The review also examines processing technologies for converting bio-waste into functional nanocomposites, showcasing their efficiency and innovation. Bio-waste-derived green nanocomposites have demonstrated remarkable potential in fields such as packaging, biomedical devices, environmental remediation, agriculture, electronics, and the automotive industry. Additionally, these materials exhibit a significantly lower environmental footprint compared to traditional materials, addressing key challenges like plastic pollution and environmental degradation. Despite these benefits, challenges remain in scaling up industrial production, including economic constraints, health and safety concerns, and technical limitations. This review identifies these barriers and proposes strategies to overcome them, supporting further development in the field. Ultimately, the study underscores the urgent need for continued research and innovation to unlock the full potential of bio-waste as a valuable resource. By promoting a circular economy and reducing reliance on non-renewable resources, bio-waste-derived nanocomposites pave the way for a greener, more sustainable future.
... With growing environmental concerns and regulations 16 , the need for sustainable and cost-efficient alternatives to CFRP and GFRP has been rising, as they are relatively costly and raise environmental concerns. The production of carbon fibers requires approximately 14-times more energy than the production of conventional steel, and producing fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) generates polluting emissions and hazardous by-products such as NO x [17][18][19] . Furthermore, suitable recycling technologies with both low cost and low global warming potential (GWP) are still lacking 20 . ...
Substituting fiber-reinforced plastics (FRP) with wood-based materials significantly increases the sustainability of fiber-metal laminates (FML). Therefore, the present work compares the three-point bending behavior of simple wood laminates with that of hybrid aluminum-wood laminates. Wood laminates consisting of four layers of 1-mm-thick birch veneers were adhesive-bonded with a single 1-mm-thick sheet of commercial aluminum alloy EN AW-6016-T4. Longitudinal, transverse, and bidirectional orientations of the wood fibers were considered. Prior to three-point bending, the laminates were exposed to different moistures and temperatures. The bending behavior was analyzed in terms of (i) the maximum bending force, (ii) the bending angle at maximum bending force, and (iii) the strains monitored on the side surface of the laminates during each bending test. The simulation software LS-DYNA was used to create a finite element (FE) model of the bending procedure, which considered the experimentally determined material properties. In general, the hybrid aluminum-wood laminates showed a larger bending angle at maximum bending force than simple wood laminates. The maximum bending force of the laminates gradually decreased with increasing moisture content. The FE model was able to predict the bending behavior at different moisture and temperature conditions.
... ReCiPe (Huijbregts et al., 2017), adapted to the European geographical scope, classifies environmental impacts into 18 midpoint indicators related to ecosystems, human health, and resources. CED, (Frischknecht et al., 2007), is particularly relevant due to the high energy consumption associated with CF production (Das, 2011), making it crucial for identifying energy usage across different technologies and pinpointing hotspots for improvement. Modeling was based on the ecoinvent 3.9.1 cut-off database (Wernet et al., 2016), and calculations carried out in Microsoft Excel. ...
The use of carbon fibers has expanded beyond aerospace to renewable energy and automotive sectors, driving demand for low-cost, eco-friendly alternatives to energy-intensive PAN-based production. This study Identified 28 Life cycle assessment (LCA) articles, encompassing 56 inventories for virgin and recycled carbon fibers. Following a screening process, 10 inventories representing distinct technologies were harmonized by aligning functional units, system boundaries, and background systems for meaningful comparison. Supercritical hydro-lysis, a promising alternative, showed the lowest environmental impact, while energy-autonomous pyrolysis exhibited negative greenhouse gas emissions but produced fibers with 80 % of virgin tensile strength. This study represents the first attempt to harmonize LCAs of emerging technologies, addressing incomparability issues in published research to enable meaningful comparisons. It evaluates the reproducibility of LCA studies and offers recommendations for improvement. Additionally, it provides insights into the environmental impacts of emerging carbon fiber production and recycling technologies.
... While CF offers an exceptional strength-to-weight ratio and durability, its production and disposal have severe negative implications. The negative environmental impact of the production of virgin CF contradicts its positive influence on resource saving (e.g., fuel saving in cars or airplanes) due to lightweight construction, with the amount of energy needed for the production of CF being estimated to be in the range of 195-459 MJ/kg CF [4][5][6][7][8]. Additionally, the creation of CRFP waste due to decommission of composite structures is expected to rise in the future. ...
The draping of textile semi-finished products for complex geometries is still prone to errors, e.g., wrinkles, gaps, and fiber undulations, leading to reduced mechanical properties of the composite. Reinforcing textiles made from carbon fiber (CF) rovings (i.e., endless continuous fibers) can be draped mainly based on their ability to deform under in-plane shearing. However, CF rovings are hardly stretchable in the fiber direction. These limited degrees of freedom make the production of complex shell-shaped geometries from standard CF-roving fabrics challenging. Contrary to continuous rovings, this paper investigates the processing of spun yarns made of recycled carbon fibers (rCFs), which are discontinuous staple fibers with defined lengths. rCFs are obtained from end-of-life composites or production waste, making them a sustainable alternative to virgin carbon fibers in the high-performance components of, e.g., automobiles, boats, or sporting goods. These staple fiber-spun yarns are considerably more stretchable, which is due to the ability of the individual fibers to slide against each other when deformed, resulting in improved formability of fabrics made from rCF yarns, enabling the draping of much more complex structures. This study aims to develop and characterize woven fabrics based on previous studies of rCF yarns for thermoset composites. In order to investigate staple fiber-spun yarns, a previous micro-scale modeling approach is extended. The formability of fabrics made from those rCF yarns is investigated through experimental forming tests and meso-scale simulations.
... In this alternative approach, an LCI was first compiled by integrating data on extraction energy, manufacturing energy, carbon footprint, and recyclability for key UAV materials. These values were cross-referenced with those in the previous section to ensure consistency while allowing for additional refinements [52][53][54]. The Monte Carlo simulation was then applied to model uncertainty in material impact by introducing statistical variability in energy consumption and emissions across 10,000 iterations. ...
The rapid expansion of drone applications across industries such as defense, healthcare, construction, agriculture, and surveillance has intensified the need for advanced materials that enhance performance while minimizing environmental impact. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of materials used in drone construction, categorizing them based on their application in key components such as frames, propellers, wings, and structural supports. An energy-centric life cycle assessment (LCA) examines the environmental footprint of drone materials, emphasizing energy use, emissions, and recyclability. The review highlights the trade-offs between mechanical performance and environmental impact, identifying materials that optimize structural efficiency while reducing environmental impact. Additionally, emerging sustainable alternatives such as bio-based composites and recycled carbon fibers are explored as potential solutions for next-generation UAV design. By addressing existing research gaps, this study aims to guide the development of environmentally responsible drone manufacturing technologies. The findings offer valuable insights into optimizing drone materials for enhanced environmental efficiency, supporting the transition toward more energy-efficient and eco-friendly UAVs.
... It can also be seen from the graph that the term "life cycle" appears. An article titled "Life cycle assessment of carbon fiber-reinforced polymer composites" explored the relative lifecycle benefits of traditional textile based acrylic fibers and renewable lignin, traditional SMC and P4 manufacturing technologies, and fiber recycling technologies (Das 2011). It was ultimately determined that recycling carbon fibers helps reduce the total energy content of manufactured components by more than 45%. ...
The rapid application and development of high-performance carbon fiber composite material brought challenges for the recovery of composite waste. Recycling of carbon fiber composites has been particularly demanded. The bibliometric method combined with S-shaped curves and visualization tools VOSviewer and CiteSpace were applied to quantitatively analyze 5979 research papers related to carbon fiber recycling in the Web of Science database from 2000 to 2023. The bibliometric results show that the number of research papers related to carbon fiber recycling has increased from 23 in 2000 to 1247 in 2023. The S-shaped curve of post volume indicates that carbon fiber recovery has great potential for development in the next 20 years. In the global research on carbon fiber recycling technology, China ranks first in terms of publication volume, and the United States ranks second. Both are core countries in the international cooperation network. The evolution of keywords and hotspots indicates that the hotspots in the field of carbon fiber recycling are gradually moving towards “sustainable”, and “circular economy”. Based on patent analysis, the field of carbon fiber recycling is currently experiencing accelerated growth and will become a hot research topic in the future. There are various recycling technologies for carbon fiber composite materials, with pyrolysis as the mainstream. Mechanical recycling causes significant performance loss, while chemical methods are limited by cost. In the future, recycling technologies will focus on improving fiber performance and reducing environmental impact.
Graphical Abstract
... Fiber-reinforced polymer (FRP) composites are widely used in the aerospace industry and are considered to be an attractive alternative solution to conventional metals or unreinforced polymers [12,13]. More specifically, FRPs have many different advantages as their properties can be tailored to specific applications, are generally lighter, and have higher stiffness and specific strength properties [12,14]. FRPs are composed of a polymer matrix (e.g., polytetrafluoroethylene, polyetheretherketone (PEEK)) and a reinforcement (e.g., glass fibers, carbon fibers) [13,15]. ...
The aerospace industry aims for net-zero greenhouse gas emissions by 2050, requiring gas turbine engines to reduce CO2 emissions. This will impact engine material selection due to harsher operating conditions, limiting traditional metal/alloy use. While fibre-reinforced polymers (FRP) composites are commonly used in the aerospace industry, their use in gas turbine engines is often restricted by the lower operating temperatures of the polymer matrix. However, many studies have demonstrated the tribological potential of FRP in the fan section of the engines, but little attention has been given to the potential of orienting the fibers in the normal (i.e., out-of-plane) direction relative to the wear surface to leverage the anisotropic properties of FRP composites. This study aims to investigate the impact of fiber orientation on the tribological properties of carbon fiber/PEEK (CF-PEEK) at elevated temperatures. Three CF-PEEK samples with different fiber rientations were selected for the purpose of this study (parallel, anti-parallel and normal directions), as well as a fourth sample of pure PEEK. Tribological tests were conducted using a ball-on-disk tribometer at an elevated temperature of 200°C to evaluate wear and friction behavior. The worn surfaces and counterfaces were analyzed using confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), and energy dispersive X-ray Spectroscopy (EDS). The findings reveal that CF-PEEK with fibers oriented in the normal direction demonstrates significantly enhanced tribological performance at elevated temperatures, achieving a 95% reduction in the friction coefficient and a 92% decrease in the wear rate compared to pure PEEK. A wear mechanism has been proposed to explain the superior wear resistance of normally oriented fibers in CF-PEEK, linking it to the development of a fiber-based interface during the run-in phase and the formation of a uniform transfer film.
... Traditionally, synthetic fibers such as glass and carbon have been utilized as reinforcements for FRPC. The production of these fibers involves substantial energy consumption, leading to relevant CO 2 emissions (Das, 2011). In contrast, plant-based fibers require less energy for production and processing (Bos, 2004). ...
The incorporation of natural fibers into fiber-reinforced polymer composites (FRPC) has the potential to bolster their sustainability. A critical attribute of FRPC is the fiber volume content (FVC), a parameter that profoundly influences their thermo-mechanical characteristics. However, the determination of FVC in natural fiber composites (NFC) through manual analysis of light microscopy images is a labor-intensive process. In this work, it is demonstrated that the pixels from light microscopy images of NFC can be utilized to predict FVC using machine learning (ML) models. In this proof-of-concept investigation, it is shown that convolutional neural network-based models predict FVC with an accuracy required in polymer engineering applications, with a mean average error of 2.72% and an 𝑅2 coefficient of 0.85. Finally, it is shown that much simpler ML models, non-specialized in image recognition, besides being much easier and more efficient to optimize and train, can also deliver good accuracies required for FVC characterization, which not only contributes to the sustainability, but also facilitates the access of such models by researchers in regions with little computational resources. This study marks a substantial advancement in the area of automated characterization of NFC, and democratization of knowledge, offering a promising avenue for the enhancement of sustainable materials.
... Although current CF production involves significant CO 2 emissions, CF can have lower lifecycle greenhouse gas (GHG) impact than conventional materials [14]. It avoids energyintensive extraction of metal from ores. ...
... These composite leaf springs offer advantages such as reduced weight, improved ride comfort due to better damping characteristics, and increased durability with resistance to corrosion and fatigue. They also provide higher specific strength and stiffness compared to steel leaf springs (Das, 2011). Bumper: Automotive bumpers, critical for absorbing impact and protecting vehicle components during collisions, increasingly utilize composite materials. ...
Composite materials are pivotal in modern engineering for their ability to merge different materials, yielding superior properties. This review focuses on the critical role of composites in extreme conditions across various industries, including aerospace, hydrogen storage, automotive, and nuclear reactors. These environments demand materials that can endure high temperatures, mechanical stresses, radiation, and corrosive conditions. Composites excel with their high strength-to-weight ratio, thermal stability, and chemical resistance, making them ideal for such demanding applications. The aerospace industry benefits from composites' lightweight and robust properties, essential for supersonic and hypersonic aircraft. In hydrogen storage, composites offer safe and efficient high-pressure containment, outperforming traditional metals. Advancements in nanocomposites, metal matrix composites, and polymer matrix composites further enhance these materials' performance. For nuclear reactors, composites provide the necessary resilience to withstand extreme temperatures and radiation, enabling safer and more efficient reactor designs. This review explores the composition, mechanical, thermal, and chemical properties of these advanced composites, highlighting their potential to revolutionize high-performance applications in challenging environments.
... In recent decades, carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRP) have found widespread application in aerospace, automobile transportation, sports, and other industries due to their superior performance (Das et al. 2019;Das 2011;Chand 2000). Thermosetting resin matrices such as epoxy, phenolic, and other resins are commonly used in the formulation of CFRP. ...
Carbon fiber reinforced polymer composites (CFRP), a new class of lightweight, high-performance materials, have seen a steady increase in usage over the years. This trend has concomitantly led to emergent challenges, including the disposal of CFRP waste, environmental pollution, and associated ecological impacts. To investigate the effects of CFRP waste on the germination and early growth stages of crops, rye and corn were selected as experimental subjects. Different waste contents, particle sizes, and soil distribution conditions were systematically established. The effects of CFRP waste on seed germination rates, plant height, stem diameter, and both fresh and dry weights, along with an assessment of soil nutrient content were comprehensively investigated. The findings indicate that CFRP waste markedly impedes both the germination process and the seedling development in rye and corn. With the increase in waste particle size and content, the germination rate, plant height, stem diameter, fresh weight, and dry weight of plants were inhibited. The maximum seed germination rate and dry weight decreased by less than 7% and more than 60% respectively in different groups. Moreover, finer waste particles and their integrated distribution were found to be particularly detrimental to plant growth. While the waste’s presence did not significantly alter soil nutrient profiles. The findings of this study provide a scientific foundation for future policy formulation on the management and disposal of emerging industrial waste, while also establishing a reference framework to assess the environmental impact posed by other forms of composite waste.
... Notably, the energy consumption for carbon fiber production is not negligible, potentially attributed to using acrylonitrile in the precursor production step. 117 PVC accounts for 4.15% of the CC impact, mainly attributed to the energy requirements in various steps of PVC production, including polymerization, filtration, drying, etc. 118 Aluminum is used in the sand-casting process, which is one of the processes for end plate production. The aluminum, employed to ensure uniform pressure distribution, contributes 4.28% to CC impact, and it is mainly attributed to the fuel, electricity, and chemical usage in various processes, including bauxite mining, alumina refining, etc. 119,120 Other minor contributions stem from various flows. ...
... Among different reinforcement methods, carbon fiber-reinforced polymers composites (CFRPs) and recycled carbon fiber reinforced polymers (rCFRPs) have shown promising performance. While CFRPs demonstrate exceptional properties, they are primarily limited to limited applications, such as aerospace, owing to economic and environmental concerns [20,21] required for the fabrication of virgin carbon fiber (183-286 MJ/kg) results in a high price of 25$/kg [22,23]. Additionally, considering that landfill disposal is the primary solution for dealing with CFRPs waste and the following environmental concerns with this disposal method, numerous legislations restricting CFRPs landfill disposal have been established [24]. ...
This paper focuses on the 3D printing of Polyphenylene Sulfide (PPS) reinforced with 5 and 10 wt% recycled carbon fiber (rCF), alongside its neat counterparts, using material extrusion additive manufacturing. Moreover, the addition of 10% rCF significantly improved crashworthiness by over 60% compared to engineered PPS plastic. Young’s modulus and impact strength were enhanced by 78 and 64%, respectively, compared to the neat sample. The temperature at which half of the sample’s weight degrades increased by 50 °C compared to the unreinforced PPS. Additionally, the printed parts displayed excellent chemical resistance, with fluid uptake of less than 1% and a mere 10% reduction in tensile strength after one week of immersion in automobile chemicals. These findings suggest that the developed PPS/10rCF has the potential to be a noteworthy candidate in ‘under-the-hood’ applications. This advanced manufacturing of functional materials, based on reclaimed carbon fiber, underscores the diverse capabilities of recycled materials in producing high-value products across various sectors, including transportation, appliances, electronics, energy storage devices, and building construction.
Graphical abstract
... In the production of carbon fibers, the use of renewable feedstock constitutes one of the most important challenges (Růžek et al., 2023). This is because the production of carbon fibers creates a large amount of greenhouse gas emissions; estimations show that it produces 15 times more CO 2 on a weight basis than traditional steel and about 60 times more than natural fibers (Das, 2011;Navaratnam et al., 2023). It is also much more energy-intensive (i.e., 230 MJ/kg) than steel (i.e., 50 MJ/kg) and fiberglass (i.e., 54 MJ/kg) production (Joshi et al., 2004;Shuaib & Mativenga, 2016). ...
... As a result, the manufacturing of virgin carbon fibre involves high costs of production (20-40 £/kg in the UK [47] and high levels of greenhouse gas emissions (approximately 31 kg CO 2 eq. per kg) [48]. Therefore, recovering carbon fibre from FRP waste could be encouraging to reduce the environmental load and cost of production [49]. ...
The paper presents a review of End-of-Life scenarios (EoL) (disposal, incineration, chemical, thermal and mechanical recycling) compared to the production stage of Fibre-Reinforced Polymers (FRPs) of composites regarding global warming potential. Innovative FRP manufacturing technologies (vacuum infusion, ultraviolet curved pultrusion, hot stamping, three-dimensional printing and automatic tape placement) commonly used in the shipbuilding industry were environmentally assessed. The materials, energy flows and waste discharged to the environment over the whole life cycle were collected, identified and quantified based on Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) analysis in the frame of the Fibre4Yards project. The results of LCA calculations show that waste management (the EoL scenario) contributes 5 to 39% of the total carbon footprint for FRP technologies. The highest contribution of the EoL scenario was found for technologies where polypropylene was applied, i.e., 33 and 38% of the total CO2 emissions. Our analysis of the literature and information from industrial partners confirm that the standard and most common waste scenario for FRP materials and compounds is still incineration and landfilling.
... To quantify the environmental impact caused by a product or service, Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is used. A wide number of researchers have applied this technique, using it to analyse products from wind turbines (Martinez et al., 2009; to polymer composites (Das, 2011). Several home appliances have also been environmentally analysed: TV sets (Hischier & Baudin, 2010), air conditioners (Grignon-Massé et al., 2011), cooker hoods (Bevilacqua et al., 2010) and refrigerators (Ma et al., 2012). ...
This paper studies the influence of the mechanical design of five different induction hob generations (G1 to G5), which are currently installed in several million homes, on the evolution of their environmental impact. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) has been applied using SimaPro 7.3.3 and EcoInvent v2.2 database. Samples of each design were obtained to generate a life cycle inventory. These induction hobs have been developed and produced in Zaragoza (Spain). The functional unit has been defined as all of the components influenced by the mechanical design of a cooktop with four induction hobs and a width of 60 cm, including every component except the electronic boards and the use phase, as they are not affected by the mechanical design. The limits of the LCA model include the production of the raw materials and energy, the manufacture and production processes, the distribution and the end of life. This study has revealed that the differences in mechanical design highly affect the environmental impact, especially in the environmental categories of abiotic depletion and human toxicity due to the consumption of copper, steel and plastics. The manufacturing phase highly affects human toxicity, mainly due to the variation in PPS use. There is a decreasing tendency in the environmental impact from the first (G1) to the last generation (G5), as G5 causes the lowest burden in 8 out of 11 analysed categories. The different generations analysed in this paper show that the compact designs of induction hobs help to decrease the environmental impact, especially thanks to the reduction in wiringlengths. It is also important to enhance the wiring separation at the end-of-life phase, avoiding designs that hinder recycling processes. Compact designs and reduced wiring lengths help to reduce the environmental impact. The consumption of copper, steel, aluminium and polymers creates considerable impact, although the end-of-life phase reduces the burden created by metals, thanks to recycling. Manufacturing processes such as injection moulding also produce a noteworthy impact, especially in ozone layer depletion due to the inclusion of solvents in EcoInvent's injection moulding dataset. The impact caused by the distribution phase for this product is almost negligible in most categories.
p>Fiber Reinforced Polymers are an innovation of common local retrofit schemes, but Carbon FRP – the leading FRP – poses significant environmental concerns. Thus, Basalt FRP (BFRP) is proposed as a sustainable alternative due to its desirable mechanical properties and environmental friendliness. Using ANSYS Finite Element Models based on Sim et al. (2005), RC beams with varying BFRP length and number of layers were analyzed for flexural strengthening. Parametric study results show a general increase in flexural strengthening effect corresponding to BFRP width, length, thickness, and number of layers that plateaus at specific thresholds: 60% of the beam’s clear span for BFRP length
2.5 mm for thickness, and 3 layers, each treated independently of each other. Modelling of eight (8) beam specimens with varied shear span-to-effective depth ratios and compressive strengths suggests the model’s applicability to slender RC beams with various compressive strengths.</p
Carbon fibre-reinforced polymers (CFRPs) are used in many applications in the global energy transition, including for lightweighting aircraft and vehicles and in wind turbine blades, shipping containers and gas storage vessels1, 2, 3–4. Given the high cost and energy-intensive manufacture of CFRPs5, 6–7, recycling strategies are needed that recover intact carbon fibres and the epoxy-amine resin components. Here we show that acetic acid efficiently depolymerizes both aliphatic and aromatic epoxy-amine thermosets used in CFRPs to recoverable monomers, yielding pristine carbon fibres. Deconstruction of materials from multiple sectors demonstrates the broad applicability of this approach, providing clean fibres from 2 h reactions. The optimal conditions were scaled to 80.0 g of post-consumer CFRPs, and demonstrative composites were fabricated from the recycled carbon fibres, which were recycled two more times, maintaining their strength throughout. Process modelling and techno-economic analysis, with feedstock cost informed by wind turbine blade waste generation⁸, indicates this method is cost effective, with a minimum selling price of US$1.50 per kg for recycled carbon fibres whereas life cycle assessment shows process greenhouse gas emissions around 99% lower than virgin carbon fibre production. Overall, this approach could enable recycling of industrial CFRPs as it provides clean, mechanically viable recycled carbon fibres and recoverable resin monomers from the thermoset.
Fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composite structures produced via additive manufacturing (AM) offer excellent specific strength for applications such as aeronautics and automobiles. However, the AM-made FRP composites have experienced limited deployment as their structural integrity can be influenced by printing parameters and process-induced defects. These defects can cause nonlinear mechanical responses when under bending-type deformation, causing premature failure due to accumulated microfracture. In this study, flexural and mode I fracture responses of 3D-printed fiber-reinforced plastic (FRP) composites were analyzed using three-point bending (3PB) and double cantilever beam (DCB) tests on samples reinforced with continuous carbon fiber (CCF) and continuous glass fiber (HSHTG) samples. The highest flexural modulus and strength are reported as 29.5 GPa and 457.1 MPa for CCF samples and 12.7 GPa and 268.8 MPa for HSHTG samples. The mode I fracture toughness (G IC ) of the 3D-printed composites reinforced with continuous carbon and glass fiber were characterized with samples of varying laminae sequences. The crack initiation G IC s for CCF and HSHTG samples are reported as 1015 and 1100 J/m ² . It was observed that the crack propagation G IC fluctuated throughout the crack propagation processes, and the damping induced by nonuniform interfacial discontinuities was evident. G IC s were also observed to vary with the laminae sequences. Fracture responses in 3PB and DCB tests were compared, and failure modes associated with reinforcing strategies were identified using microscopic and fracture analysis. It is concluded that the combined effects of complex flexural loading and the AM-specific characteristic anisotropy result in self-arrested crack propagation and fluctuating G IC . The results of this study give insights into determining key processing parameters in laminated FRP structures made of layer-by-layer AM processes, considering the effects of their characteristic geometrical discontinuities on the respective failure mechanisms.
This study investigates the dual functionality of Tannic Acid (TA), a bio‐derived polyphenol, as a surface modifier for ultra‐high molecular weight polyethylene (UHMWPE) fibers and as a hardener for diglycidyl ether of bisphenol A (DGEBA) epoxy resin, aimed at enhancing composite laminate performance and sustainability. The surface characteristics of UHMWPE fibers were investigated by Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy and scanning electron microscopy. The TA‐modified fibers exhibited functional groups that enhanced their polarity and improved their compatibility with the epoxy matrix. Furthermore, thermogravimetric analysis revealed an increase in thermal degradation onset from 336°C to 357°C after TA treatment. The hand lay‐up method was used to manufacture composite UHMWPE laminates impregnated with TA‐hardened resins at different TA concentrations. Cone calorimetry results revealed improved fire resistance for TA‐loaded composites, with a 44% reduction in peak heat release rate (PHRR) respect to the control sample, as well as a better fire performance index. Composite laminates manufactured with TA‐modified fibers and TA‐hardened resin demonstrated up to 45% improvement in tensile strength.
Highlights
Tannic acid (TA) proves to be a sustainable alternative to petroleum‐based hardeners.
TA enhances UHMWPE fibers' thermal stability and adhesion to epoxy.
TA‐modified fibers show an increase in thermal degradation onset.
TA‐hardening of epoxy improves fire resistance, reducing PHRR by 44%.
Composite laminates with TA show a 45% increase in tensile strength.
This article explores the environmental sustainability of recycling decommissioned wind turbine blades to produce polyacrylonitrile fiber. By comparing greenhouse gas emissions across various scales of production in different regions, including the US and Europe, the study highlights how cleaner energy grids, such as those in France, can substantially reduce the carbon footprint. The carbonization and graphitization stages, identified as highly energy-intensive, underscore the need for energy-efficient techniques and alternative energy sources. The study reveals significant reductions in greenhouse gas emissions with scalable production, demonstrating US production emissions reduced to 3.89 kg CO2 equiv/kg fiber and European production to 3.28 kg CO2 equiv/kg fiber from a lab scale of at least one order of magnitude higher. The findings emphasize the importance of sustainable raw materials, green chemistry, and renewable energy in enhancing the sustainability of carbon fiber production and promoting a circular economy in wind energy.
Epoxy resin composites with the addition of 20–50 wt% of ash from municipal waste incineration were obtained. The curing kinetics of the composites (DSC) was determined, and the activation energy was calculated using the Kissinger and Ozawa method. In addition, flexural properties, and impact strength, as well as the structure of the composites (XRD, optical microscopy) were investigated. Brittles of the composites increased with increasing the filler content. The addition of ash also affected the kinetics of the resin cross-linking reaction. A change in the activation energy, degree of conversion and cross-linking time was observed.
To enhance the structural characteristics of recycled composites, this paper demonstrates a process that incorporates additively manufactured continuous fiber preforms in a geometry that is compression molded with recyclates. The continuous fiber preform is designed to serve as the primary structural reinforcement whereas the recycled material serves as a secondary reinforcement in the composite part. Continuous fiber preforms were manufactured with 60% by volume of carbon fiber‐reinforced Poly Ether Ketone Ketone (PEKK) using Additive Fusion Technology (AFT) with account for reshaping during the molding process and ensure the continuous fiber is located where required. The performance of the upcycled composite pin bracket was evaluated by analyzing the onset of failure and the ultimate load under tensile loading of the bracket. The results demonstrated the potential of this upcycling method to enhance the structural characteristics of recycled composite materials and compensate for the loss of structural characteristics associated with fiber attrition.
Highlights
Continuous carbon fiber PEEK composite preforms were additively manufactured.
Preforms (17% by weight) were integrated into the recycled composite part.
The upcycled part showed significantly increased structural performance.
Ultimate failure load improved by 57%–61% in the upcycled composite part.
Onset failure load improved by 100% in the upcycled composite part.
Lignin as a green alternative to PAN for sustainable carbon fiber production.
With the application of composite laminates in many industries, the drilling of laminates has been a usual machining operation for assembling by bolted or riveted joints. In this work, the effects of drilling operation on the forming structure, fatigue performance, failure and fretting behaviors of SPR joints in dissimilar composites and titanium sheets were investigated systematically. As a result, the forming feature of the joints was changed and the fatigue limit was enhanced effectively by the drilling operation. The delamination and matrix damage occurred in the CFRP laminate under fatigue loading, and the pre-holed joints were damage more seriously. The fretting behavior existed in the contact interface, which played a crucial role on the fatigue failure modes of rivet pull-out, rivet fracture and sheet fracture. A large amount of wear debris was generated between the fracture surfaces, which contributed to initiate secondary cracks and promote crack propagation, ultimately accelerating fatigue failure. Due to drilling operation, the contact angle between the loading direction and contact region was decreased compared with the regular joints and the wear behaviors were affected apparently, so that the failure mode changed from sheet fracture in regular joints to rivet fracture in pre-holed joints at relative lower loads.
Recent advancements in the utilization of naturally derived nanocellulose and nanochitin/chitosan have opened new avenues for self‐cleaning and purification applications to address environmental challenges. This review highlights the unique structural properties of bio‐based nanofibers, which are typically rich in hydroxyl groups that enhance their functionality in various industrial sectors. Through appropriate chemical modification, they can perform specific functions facilitated by carboxylic acids or amine groups. We explored the mechanisms by which these materials facilitate oil/water separation, ultrafiltration, and self‐cleaning processes, including the incorporation of inorganic nanoparticles, such as TiO 2 , to improve hydrophilicity and oleophobicity. Furthermore, this review discusses innovative fabrication techniques, such as spray‐assisted layer‐by‐layer assembly, which enhance the performance of nanofiber‐based coatings. We examined the potential of these materials for diverse applications, including food packaging, wastewater treatment, and personal protective equipment, emphasizing their role in promoting sustainable industrial practices. As the global emphasis on eco‐friendly solutions intensifies, continued research and development of nanocellulose and nanochitin is expected to drive significant advancements in materials science, paving the way for greener technologies.
This chapter analyses the energy-intensive process of carbon fibre manufacturing and how process parameters affect fibre properties, emissions, and energy use. These relationships are assessed by examining fibre properties, emitted gases, and energy consumption under varying processing conditions on a continuous production line. The work shows that carbon fibre production time can be reduced by up to 33% while maintaining mechanical properties, leading to up to 30% less energy use and a cleaner process. However, this efficiency gain is limited to specific time and temperature ranges, beyond which yield and material properties decline. The findings are subsequently scaled to commercial quantities, highlighting potential improvements in energy efficiency, environmental impact, and cost through process optimization.
The widespread adoption of carbon fibre across industries is still limited due to the high cost of raw materials and the energy required during production. Additionally, the environmental impact of the manufacturing process can diminish the potential benefits of weight reduction and material savings in the final products. This chapter introduces a dynamic, modular Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) model specifically designed for carbon fibre production. The model aims to speed up the assessment of carbon fibre production and facilitates the exploration of different scenarios, such as using alternative precursor materials, varying carbon fibre grades, or adjusting production parameters. The chapter further details the model, describes its application environment, and demonstrates its use with data from a pilot-scale carbonization line.
Despite carbon fibre’s potential for lightweighting, the materials high cost and environmental impact may limit its broader adoption. The need to incinerate emissions during production adds to both the environmental impact and cost, and detailed data on these emissions is scarce due to the confidentiality of commercial manufacture. This chapter provides a detailed analysis of the gases emitted during carbon fibre production using a state-of-the-art research facility and Fourier transform infrared gas analysis. By converting a polyacrylonitrile precursor into carbon fibres, this work identifies and quantifies key exhaust gases (HCN, NH3, CO, and CH4) and correlates them with changes in the fibres’ elemental composition, revealing the underlying chemical mechanisms.
The need to develop high-performing materials coupled with effective component recovery into service at the end-of-life (EOL) is essential to reduce waste generation and achieve a circular economy. Less-performing materials may promote indiscriminate disposal of components made from them at the end of their life, thereby increasing the cost of manufacturing. It can also make the environment less friendly. This study assesses the applicability of carbon fibre composites for product development in the aerospace and transportation sectors. A literature review on carbon fibre applications in the transportation and aerospace sectors was conducted. The study also presents a process design for processing carbon fibre with a potential for energy saving. The findings indicate that carbon fibre boasts of a high strength-to-weight ratio and thus suitable for transportation and aviation applications. However, its processing is energy-intensive and has no effective recycling options. This study also provides theoretical and empirical findings drawn from the literature on the feasibility of fibre composites for component development in the aerospace and transportation industries. The results and findings of this study can promote manufacturing sustainability and the concept of circular economy with improvement in the performance and useful life of components developed from carbon fibre. It can also assist the manufacturing industries in making effective decisions relating to component recovery.
Greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET) excel model has been developed by Argonne National Labs for estimating the full fuel-cycle energy and emission impacts of various transportation fuels and vehicle technologies. It calculates fuel-cycle energy use in Btu/mi and emissions in g/mi for various transportation fuels and vehicle technologies. For energy use, GREET includes total energy use (all energy sources), fossil energy use (petroleum, natural gas, and coal), and petroleum use. For emissions, the model includes three major greenhouse gases (CO2, CH4, and N2O), and five criteria pollutants (VOC, CO, NOx, particulate matter with a diameter of ≤ 10 micrometers, and SOx). A stochastic simulation tool was developed to simplify setting up and executing a stochastic simulation for any Excel model. This tool was applied to the GREET model and compared the performance of the sampling techniques for selected output variables with different number of samples. This is an abstract of a paper presented at the AIChE Annual Meeting (San Francisco, CA 11/12-17/2008).
Carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) have successfully been used in aerospace applications to replace heavier materials, because of their light weight, high strength and high rigidity. Although we strongly need the same benefits in automotive applications, the high price and the difficulty of the recycling process have inhibited its widespread use in the automotive industry, in particular mass-produced passenger cars. However, in the last few years, much work has been done in developing lower-cost CFRP. We thus used life cycle assessment (LCA) and calculated how much the environmental burden of conventional steel cars changed when we replaced steel with CFRP whose performance was proper for mass-produced passenger cars, and in addition when we recycled CFRP. Replacing steel with CFRP in bodies, chassis and equipment, we considered three cases: (1) Use of only CF/EP (Its matrix is epoxy, which is thermosetting.), (2) Use of CF/EP and CF/PP (Its matrix is polypropylene, which is thermoplastic.), (3) (2) and recycled CF/PP. For the assessment, a gasoline passenger car, with a total weight of 1380 kg, and with a useful lifetime of 91720 km, was chosen as the functional unit. The reference flow was a car that fulfilled the functional unit. The system boundary included four stages: material production, vehicle production, use, and end-of-life. The impact category was energy consumption. As a result, the energy consumption reduced by 17%, 21%, 25% in the case of (1), (2), and (3) respectively. Therefore we conclude that CFRP is good for reducing environmental burdens of passenger cars, and in addition that the flexible use of CFRP, in accordance with performance that car parts demand, and recycling process are very important. INTRODUCTION Progress of fuel efficiency is strongly needed to reduce environmental burdens in the transport sector. Lightening vehicles is a very important technology that can contribute to easing the burden. In recent years, carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) have attracted a lot of attention as light materials. As shown in Figure 1, CFRP have such a high specific strength and specific rigidity that we have been using them for airplanes, rockets, etc. Although we strongly need the same benefits in automotive applications, the high price and the difficulty of the recycling process have inhibited its widespread use in the automotive industry, in particular in mass-produced passenger cars. However, in the last few years, the amount of CFRP production has been increasing and much work has been done in developing lower-cost CFRP, which has lead to the improved probability of using CFRP for mass-produced cars. The energy-saving effect of CFRP during the life cycle, however, might be small because CFRP need large energy resources when they are produced. We, thus, used the life cycle assessment (LCA) and calculated how much the environmental burden of conventional steel cars changed when we replaced steel with CFRP whose performance was proper for mass-produced passenger cars. In addition, we use the new energy intensity of CFRP that was recalculated last year [1]. In this LCA, our database of energy intensity was so imperfect that the impact assessment was very difficult. Thus we only carried out an inventory analysis (LCI).
Carbon fiber reinforced plastics (CFRP) have recently attracted much attention as light materials in the automotive industry, in particular in mass-produced passenger cars. However, the large energy consumption, the difficulty of the recycling process, and the high cost have inhibited its widespread use in general industrial field. So, we have to decrease the energy intensity of production to the level of steel and reduce the initial cost in order to use CFRP for mass-produced passenger cars. Up to now, CFRP that we have discussed has been for aircrafts, so it has been very advanced and its energy intensity has been much larger than that of steel. So, in this study, we calculated energy intensity of CFRP whose specification was for mass-produced cars by use of energy intensity of carbon fiber (CF) that was newly calculated some years ago. After calculating, it was still much larger than that of steel when only virgin CF was used, though it decreased dramatically when we rightly chose fiber fraction and a kind of matrix resin. 3R (reduce, reuse, and recycle) technology, thus, was very important. We found that the effective combination of the 3R could decrease the energy intensity of CFRP to the level of steel parts.
A variety of composite wastes were pyrolysed in a bench-scale, static-bed reactor at 350–800 °C. The samples under investigation included composites of polyesters, phenolic and epoxy resins, and polypropylene, reinforced with glass and/or carbon fibre. Both the product mass balance and gas composition were dependent on the polymer matrix, pyrolysis temperature and, at the higher temperatures studied, the decomposition of thermally unstable fillers present in several samples, most notably calcium carbonate. The waste samples were also pyrolysed in a thermo-gravimetric analyser and the Arrhenius kinetic parameters of the main decomposition reactions were calculated using a non-isothermal method. The thermograms are discussed in relation to the results of the bench-scale work and related to the decomposition behaviour of individual sample components.
Processes that produce only ethanol from lignocellulosics display poor economics. This is generally overcome by constructing large facilities having satisfactory economies of scale, thus making financing onerous and hindering the development of suitable technologies. Lignol Innovations has developed a biorefining technology that employs an ethanol-based organosolv step to separate lignin, hemicellulose components, and extractives from the cellulosic fraction of woody biomass. The resultant cellulosic fraction is highly susceptible to enzymatic hydrolysis, generating very high yields of glucose (>90% in 12-24 h) with typical enzyme loadings of 10-20 FPU (filter paper units)/g. This glucose is readily converted to ethanol, or possibly other sugar platform chemicals, either by sequential or simultaneous saccharification and fermentation. The liquor from the organosolv step is processed by well-established unit operations to recover lignin, furfural, xylose, acetic acid, and a lipophylic extractives fraction. The process ethanol is recovered and recycled back to the process. The resulting recycled process water is of a very high quality, low BOD5, and suitable for overall system process closure. Significant benefits can be attained in greenhouse gas (GHG) emission reductions, as per the Kyoto Protocol. Revenues from the multiple products, particularly the lignin, ethanol and xylose fractions, ensure excellent economics for the process even in plants as small as 100 mtpd (metric tonnes per day) dry woody biomass input a scale suitable for processing wood residues produced by a single large sawmill.
The detailed heat and material balances which are presented in this book were developed from process flow diagrams of 108 industrial processes, with technical input from consultants and manufacturers, and on-site verification studies. Data such as process temperature, pressure, fuel requirements, thermal efficiency and radiation, and convection losses are determined for varying industrial operations spanning the food products, textile, lumber and wood, paper, chemical, petroleum, rubber and plastics, glass, metals, machinery, transportation equipment, and instrument manufacturing industries.
The Department of Energy Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles has shown that, by lowering overall weight, the use of carbon fiber composites could dramatically decrease domestic vehicle fuel consumption. For the automotive industry to benefit from carbon fiber technology, fiber production will need to be substantially increased and fiber price decreased to $7/kg. To achieve this cost objective, alternate precursors to pitch and polyacrylonitrile (PAN) are being investigated as possible carbon fiber feedstocks. Additionally, sufficient fiber to provide 10 to 100 kg for each of the 13 million cars and light trucks produced annually in the U.S. will require an increase of 5 to 50-fold in worldwide carbon fiber production. High-volume, renewable or recycled materials, including lignin, cellulosic fibers, routinely recycled petrochemical fibers, and blends of these components, appear attractive because the cost of these materials is inherently both low and insensitive to changes in petroleum price. Current studies have shown that a number of recycled and renewable polymers can be incorporated into melt-spun fibers attractive as carbon fiber feedstocks. Highly extrudable lignin blends have attractive yields and can be readily carbonized and graphitized. Examination of the physical structure and properties of carbonized and graphitized fibers indicates the feasibility of use in transportation composite applications.
Because of their high strength-to-weight ratios, carbon-fiber-reinforced polymer-matrix composite (PMC) materials are being
evaluated for use in the automotive industry. The major barriers to their widespread use are their relatively high cost and
the uncertainty about whether they can be recycled. A process to recover carbon fibers from obsolete PMC materials has been
developed at Argonne National Laboratory. The process was tested using PMC samples made with different thermoset or thermoplastic
substrates. For most mixtures of PMCs, the process can be energy self-sufficient using the polymer substrate as an energy
source. An evaluation of the recovered samples found that the fibers appear to have retained good properties and characteristics
and are suitable for short fiber applications. This paper describes the process and the characteristics and properties of
the recovered fibers.
Lignin samples, sub-product in the Kraft process of cellulose from eucalyptus wood, were burnt in a laboratory scale furnace at different residence temperatures and with distinct fuel-rich atmospheres. The yields of CO, CO(2), eight light hydrocarbons (methane, ethylene, ethane, propylene, acetylene, butane, etc.) and 60 semi-volatile+volatile compounds (benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, styrene, indene, naphthalene, dibenzofuran, phenanthrene, chrysene, etc.) were determined, with nominal reactor temperatures between 800 and 1100 degrees C and residence times of the volatiles evolved and formed between 4 and 7 s. The collection of the gases and volatiles evolved was carried out with a Tedlar bag and by XAD-4 resin respectively, comparing the data obtained in both cases. The emission factor (mg/kg) of the CO was between 2500 and 90000, and under the poor-oxygen atmosphere, the emission factors of many by-toxic products were greater than 100 mg/kg. A pyrolysis run was also performed, obtaining emission factors between 30 and 3000 mg/kg, facilitating its identification. The behaviour of different compounds in the combustion runs was discussed considering three groups in accordance with their stability vs. oxygen, and two groups vs. temperature.
ND) LCA of passenger vehicles lightened by recyclable carbon fiber reinforced plastics Automotive composites consortium focal project 4 GREET 1.8b: The greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET) model. Center for Transportation Research
- T T Odai
- R Hukui
- Takahashi
T, Odai T, Hukui R, Takahashi J (ND) LCA of passenger vehicles lightened by recyclable carbon fiber reinforced plastics. http://sunshine.naoe.t.u-tokyo.ac.jp. Accessed 9 September 2008 US Department of Energy (DOE) (2008) Automotive composites consortium focal project 4. Automotive Lightweighting Materials: FY 2007 Progress Report, Washington, DC Wang MQ (2008) GREET 1.8b: The greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET) model. Center for Transportation Research, Argonne National Laboratory, Argonne, IL, Mar. 17
Results review: Technical cost model development for structural composite underbody. Presen-tation made to the ACC Composite Underbody Program
- Associates
- Inc
Associates, Inc. (Ibis) (2007). Results review: Technical cost model development for structural composite underbody. Presen-tation made to the ACC Composite Underbody Program, Waltham, Massachusetts, Nov. 25
GREET 1.8b: The greenhouse gases, regulated emissions, and energy use in transportation (GREET) model. Center for Transportation Research
- Mq Wang
An approach to treatment of recycling in LCA. Paper presented at the 4th Australian LCA Conference
- A Koltun
The new face of CAFÉ. Ward’s Autoworld February
- T Murphy
SimaPro 7.1.7 LCA software. Pre Consultants, The Netherlands
- Simapro
Carbon-reinforced composite recycling: process and business development
- R E Allred