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Three Ways to Be Happy: Pleasure, Engagement, and Meaning-Findings from Australian and
US Samples
Author(s): Dianne A. Vella-Brodrick, Nansook Park and Christopher Peterson
Source:
Social Indicators Research,
Vol. 90, No. 2 (Jan., 2009), pp. 165-179
Published by: Springer
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/27734781 .
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Soc
Indie
Res
(2009)
90:165-179
DOI 10.1007/sl
1205-008-9251-6
Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning?Findings
from
Australian and
US
Samples
Dianne
A.
Vella-Brodrick Nansook Park
*
Christopher
Peterson
Accepted:
17
March 2008
/ Published online: 29 March
2008
?
Springer
Science+Business
Media B.V. 2008
Abstract This
study
examined the contributions of
orientations
to
happiness (pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning)
to
subjective
well-being.
A
sample
of
12,622
adults
from the
United States
completed
on-line
surveys
measuring
orientations
to
happiness,
positive
affect,
negative
affect,
and
life
satisfaction. A
sample
of 332
adults from
Australia also
completed
these
surveys
as
well
as a
measure
of
the
big
five factor
personality
traits.
Hierarchical
regressions generally supported
the
hypothesis
that the
three orientations
to
happiness predict subjective
well-being
(satisfaction
with
life,
positive
affect and
negative
affect)
beyond
sociodemographic
variables and
personality. Meaning
and
engagement
explained
the
greatest
variance
in all
three
components
of
subjective well-being.
Overall,
these
findings
support
the
importance
of
a
eudaimonic
approach
in
addition
to
the hedonic
approach
to
achieving happiness.
Moreover,
findings
were
relatively
consistent
in
both the
Australian and US
samples.
Keywords
Orientations
to
happiness Subjective well-being
Life satisfaction
Positive
and
negative
affect
Positive
psychology
Pleasure
Engagement
Meaning
Some
of these data
were
presented
at
the
8th Australian
Centre
on
Quality
of
Life
Conference,
Melbourne,
Australia.
D. A.
Vella-Brodrick
(El)
School
of
Psychology,
Psychiatry
and
Psychological
Medicine,
Monash
University,
Clayton,
VIC,
Australia
e-mail:
dianne.vella-brodrick@med.monash.edu.au
N. Park
Department
of
Psychology,
University
of
Rhode
Island,
Kingston,
RI,
USA
C.
Peterson
Department
of
Psychology,
University
of
Michigan,
Ann
Arbor, MI,
USA
?i
Springer
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166
D. A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
1
Introduction
Subjective
well-being?happiness?is
now
the
subject
of
many
scientific
investigations.
Personality
and
sociodemographic
variables
consistently
predict
subjective
well-being
(Diener
and
Lucas
1999;
Gannon and
Ranzijn
2005).
However,
despite
the combined
contributions of
personality
and
sociodemographic
factors,
over
half
of the
variance
in
subjective
well-being
remains
unexplained.
Consequently,
many
psychologists
have turned
their
attention
to
the mechanisms
underlying well-being including
contextual,
cognitive,
and
behavioural
aspects
(Lent
et
al.
2005).
The hedonic
perspective
espouses
the
importance
of
pleasurable
activities for
achieving
the
good
life. From
this
perspective
the
aim is
to
maximise
pleasure
and
decrease
pain.
Many
works have demonstrated the benefits
of
pleasure, positive
emotions,
and
positive
affect
on
a
range
of desirable
outcomes
such
as
health,
social
engagement,
and
success
(Davidson
et
al.
2003;
Fredrickson and Losada
2005;
Lyubomirsky
et
al.
2005;
Pressman
and
Cohen
2005).
Indeed the broaden-and-build
theory
of
positive
emotions,
which
has
received
empirical
support,
asserts
that
positive
emotions
are
fundamental
to
human
flourishing by
broadening
individuals
thought-action repertoires
and
building
up
useful
resources
which
help
to
maintain
well-being
(Fredrickson
2001).
Consequently
interven
tions aimed
at
increasing
pleasure experiences,
such
as
savouring
and
reminiscing (Bryant
et
al.
2005;
Bryant
and Veroff
2007),
counting
one's
blessings
and
considering
one's
best
possible
self
(Sheldon
and
Lyubomirsky
2006),
have
been
developed
and
tested.
For
example
Seligman
et
al.
(2005)
examined
the
efficacy
of five
positive psychology
inter
ventions
and
found
that the intervention
which
involved
writing
down
three
good things
that
happened
each
day
(a
form
of
savouring),
was
effective
in
producing
happiness
for
at
least
6
months
(which
was
the final
testing period).
While
it
is
acknowledged
that
pleasure
and
positive
affect
are
not
always advantageous (e.g., they
can
lead
to
addictions),
there
is
general
support
for
positive
emotions
being
conducive
to
well-being
and
a
range
of
positive
outcomes.
Another
factor which has been
receiving
attention
in
relation
to
well-being
is life
meaning.
While the value
of
life
meaning
for
well-being
has been
espoused
for
some
time
(e.g.,
Frankl
1963),
scholars
have
only
recently
focused
on
its
potential
as
a
predictor
of
subjective
well-being
(e.g.,
Fry
2000)
with
some
claiming
it
is
a
critical
component
of
psychological
well-being (Ryff
and
Singer
1998a).
Life
meaning
is
positively
correlated
with
good
mental
health
(Adams
et
al.
2000;
Zika and Chamberlain
1992)
and
negatively
correlated
with
psychopathology
(D?bats
et
al.
1993).
These
findings
support
Frankl's
assertion
that individuals need
to find
meaning
in their lives and
that
a
failure
to
attain
meaning
results in
psychological problems.
Indeed research
indicates
that
lack of
meaning
is
not
only
associated
with ill-health but that
greater
meaning
in life
is
associated
with
positive
health.
Another
factor
which has also received
recent
attention
is flow
or
engagement.
In
particular,
the work of
Csikszentmihalyi
(1990)
has
shown
the
importance
of
experiencing
"flow"
states
for
achieving
the
good
life. Flow
is characterised
by being
fully
immersed
in
a
specific
activity.
It
is
typically
measured
by
summing
individual
ratings
of
(1)
concen
tration
(2)
involvement,
and
(3)
enjoyment
during
a
specific
activity.
Research
has
supported
the benefits
of flow
including
commitment,
achievement
and
persistence
in
a
diverse
range
of
pursuits
including
academic
and
sporting
(Csikszentmihalyi
et
al.
2005).
The
additional
insight
provided by
life
meaning
and
flow
research
has
fostered
a new
approach
to
the
traditional
hedonic
perspective
of
maximising
pleasure
and
life
satisfac
tion,
and
minimising
pain.
A
parallel
view
stating
that
well-being
involves
eudaimonic
?
Springer
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Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
167
qualities
such
as
personal
growth,
meaning
and
serving
a
higher
purpose
is
gaining
recognition
(Keyes
et
al.
2002).
Moreover
a
comprehensive
and
inclusive
approach
which
examines the
contributions
of
both
the
hedonic and eudaimonic
aspects
of
well-being
is
emerging.
Indeed
there is
a
viewpoint
that
by
engaging
in
eudaimonic
pursuits, subjective
well-being (happiness)
will
occur
as an
end
or
by
product
(Ryan
and
Deci
2001).
Based
on
this latter
perspective,
life
purpose
and
higher
order
meaning
are
believed
to
produce
happiness.
These
various schools
of
thought
on
the
process
of
attaining happiness
have illuminated
the
possibility
that there
may
be different
ways
of
achieving happiness
aside
from
the
pleasure
'route'.
Consequently,
scholars have
recently integrated
this information into
a
single
theoretical framework.
For
example,
Peterson
et
al.
(2005)
proposed
that
individuals
may
seek life satisfaction
via
three different
orientations;
(1)
pleasure,
(2)
engagement,
and
(3)
meaning.
The
pleasant
life involves
enjoyable
and
positive experiences.
The
good
(engaged)
life
emerges
when individuals
engage
in
activities that
fully
immerse them. The
meaningful
life results
when individuals
undertake activities that
contribute
to
the
greater
good,
such
as
parenting, developing friendships
or
community
services.
The
pleasure
and
meaning
orientations reflect the hedonic and eudaimonic
approaches
to
happiness,
respectively,
whereas the
engagement
orientation
transpired
from work
on
flow
states
by
Csikszentmihalyi
(1990).
Peterson
et
al.
(2005)
developed
the
Orientations
to
Happiness
Questionnaire
to
mea
sure
these three orientations
to
happiness.
Initial
psychometric
data
on
the
18 item
scale
supported
a
three-factor solution
representing
the
pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning
orientations.
Using
this
measure,
Peterson
et
al.,
conducted
an
empirical
investigation
into
the contributions
of
the three orientations
to
satisfaction with life.
One
of
the
primary
questions
they sought
to
investigate
was
whether
these
three orientations
to
happiness
were
equally important
to
satisfaction with life
or
whether
some were more
important
than
others.
A
further
point
of
enquiry
was
whether combinations of
these orientations
to
happiness
are more
significant
in
predicting
satisfaction
with
life than
are
independent
orientations. Their
study
included
a
sample
of 845
participants
who
completed
the
orientations
to
happiness
questionnaire
and the
satisfaction
with life
scale online. Results
indicated that
all
three
orientations
to
happiness predicted
satisfaction
with
life but that
engagement
and
meaning
were more
highly
correlated
with
satisfaction with
life
than
was
pleasure
(r
=
.30, .26,
and
.17,
respectively).
Further
support
for the
importance
of the
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
satisfaction
with life is
evident
from
a
study by
Peterson
et
al.
(2007)
on
character
strengths.
Using
a
large sample
of
US
adults
(N
=
12,439)
and
a
sample
of Swiss
adults
(AT
=
445),
they
found that character
strengths
most
highly
associated with satisfaction
with life
(humor,
zest,
curiosity,
perseverance,
and
religiousness)
also correlated with
all
three orientations
to
happiness,
and
especially
with
engagement
and
meaning.
Therefore,
it
appears
that
all
three orientations
to
happiness
are
important
but
that
engagement
and
meaning
are
most
significant.
An
issue raised
in
the
well-being
literature
is whether
the
predictors
of
happiness
are
consistent
across
a
range
of
different
nations and cultures. Cross
cultural
comparisons
generally
indicate
that
culture
can
influence
predictors
and levels
of
subjective
well-being
(Biswas-Diener
et
al.
2005;
Diener
et
al.
2003).
To
date,
cross-cultural
research
on
orientations
to
happiness
is
restricted
to
the
aforementioned
study
by
Peterson
et
al.
(2007)
which
compared
a
Swiss
sample
with
a
US
sample.
A
comparison
of
the
means
for
the
three
orientations
to
happiness
indicated
similar
ratings
for the
two
samples,
except
on
the
meaning
subscale
where
higher
means were
found for the US
sample
(3.58)
than
for
the
?
Springer
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168 D.
A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
Swiss
sample
(2.99).
Further studies
using
cross-cultural
samples
are
needed
to
address
this
issue
of
generalisability
more
fully.
The
present
study
extends Peterson
et
al.'s
(2005)
work
by comparing
data from
Australian and
US
samples
and
by
measuring
positive
and
negative
affect,
not
just
satis
faction with life.
To
date,
published
works
on
orientations
to
happiness
have
focused
only
on
satisfaction with life
as
the criterion
variable.
This
study
examines the
contributions
of
meaning,
engagement
and
pleasure
as
predictors
of
positive
affect,
negative
affect and
satisfaction
with life.
Furthermore
this
study
controls for
sociodemographic
variables,
and
in the
case
of the Australian
sample, personality
(based
on
the
big
five
factor
model).
An
assessment
of
subjective well-being
from both
affective and
cognitive perspectives
is
an
important
addition,
as
each
of
these
components
may
be
differentially
influenced
(Chamberlain 1988)
by
the orientations
to
happiness
variables.
More
specifically,
the
present
study
examines
whether the eudaimonic
factors of
engagement
and
meaning
contribute
to
subjective
well-being
(positive
affect,
negative
affect and
satisfaction
with
life)
beyond
the hedonic factor of
pleasure
and the control
variables.
It
is
hypothesized
that
the
eudaimonic factors
predict
subjective well-being
beyond pleasure
and the
control variables. This
finding
is
expected
to
be
relatively
con
sistent
for
both the Australian
and US
samples,
although meaning
is
expected
to
be
endorsed
more
highly
for
the
US
sample
than the
Australian
sample.
2
Method
2.1
Participants
Participants
from the
Australian
sample
were
332 adults from
the
general population
with
a
mean
age
of
37.27 and
a
standard deviation
of
13.23
(range
=
18-81).
Forty
percent
were
male while 60%
were
female. Over 50% of the
sample
had
a
tertiary
qualification
and
84%
were
employed.
Participants
from the
US
sample
were
18,326
participants,
of whom
28.5%
were
male
and
71.5%
were
female. The
most
frequently
selected
(27.3%)
age
category
was
45-54
years
and the
second
most
frequently
selected
(22%)
age
category
was
35-44
years
old,
while
the
majority
of
participants
were
between 25 and
64
years
old.
Seventy eight
percent
of the
sample
had
some
college
or
post-college
degree
and
72.6% of
the
sample
were
employed
(as
opposed
to
being
retired).
With
the selection of the listwise method for
the
regression analyses,
the data
set
was
reduced
to
approximately
12,622.
2.2
Measures
2.2.1
Orientations
to
Happiness
Questionnaire
(Peterson
et
al.
2005)
The
orientations
to
happiness
questionnaire
has
three
subscales,
pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning,
and
contains
six
items
per
subscale
(18
items
in
total).
Cronbach
alpha
coeffi
cients
were
reported by
Peterson
et
al.
(2005)
as
.82,
.72 and
.82 for the
pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning
subscales,
respectively.
Higher
scores
represent
higher
orienta
tions
to
happiness. Example
items include: life
is
too
short to
postpone
the
pleasures
it
can
provide"
(pleasure
subscale),
"I
seek
out
situations
that
challenge
my
skills
and
abilities"
(engagement
subscale),
and
"I
have
spent
a
lot
of time
thinking
about
what
life
means
and
how
I fit into its
big
picture"
(meaning
subscale).
^
Springer
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
169
2.2.2
Subjective
Well-being
2.2.2.1
Positive
and
Negative Affect
Schedule
(PANAS;
Watson
et
al.
1988)
This
scale
contains 10 items
measuring positive
affect and
10
items
measuring
negative
affect.
Respondents
are
required
to
indicate
the
extent
to
which
they
agree
with
each of the 20
adjectives.
Higher
scores
reflect
higher
levels
of the
respective
affective
state.
Therefore
negative
affect
scores are
expected
to
correlate
negatively
with
the orientations
to
hap
piness
questionnaire
scales. The
PANAS
possesses
satisfactory
convergent
validity
and has
been shown
to
be reliable
(Crawford
and
Henry
2004;
Watson
et
al.
1988).
2.2.2.2
Satisfaction
with
Life
Scale
(Diener
et
al.
1985)
The
satisfaction with life
scale
contains five items
and is
psychometrically
sound
(Diener
et
al.
1985;
Lucas
et
al.
1996).
Higher
scores
indicate
higher
levels of life
satisfaction.
2.2.2.3
International
Personality
Item Pool
(Goldberg
1999)
This Scale
was
Adminis
tered
to
the
Australian
Sample only.
This
scale
measures
the
big
five factors of
agreeableness,
extraversion,
conscientiousness,
emotional
stability,
and
openness
(intel
lect/imagination)
using
50
items.
The
corresponding
alpha
coefficients
have
been
reported
as
.82, .87,
.79,
.86
and .84
(Goldberg
1999).
Higher
scores
represent
higher
levels
of
the
respective personality
factor.
2.2.2.4
Sociodemographic
Questions
Participant
details such
as
age,
gender,
income,
education,
illness,
occupation,
number
of
dependents
and
relationship
status
were
collected
for
each
sample.
2.3
Procedure
Approval
was
gained
from the
Standing
Committee
on
Ethics
in
Research
Involving
Humans
at
Monash
University
for the collection of the Australian data. Posters and
questionnaire
kits
were
placed
in
public
locations around
Victoria,
Australia such
as
health
centres,
public
libraries,
recreational clubs
and
work sites. All
responses
were
anonymous
and could be
completed
at
a
time
and location that suited
participants.
Completed
ques
tionnaires
were
returned
using
addressed
envelopes supplied
to
the
participants.
A
response
rate
of
27%
was
obtained.
The
US
sample
completed
the aforementioned
measures
on
the Authentic
Happiness
website
(www.authentichappiness.com)
between
September
2002 and
January
2006.
Although
this
survey
can
be
completed
by
individuals
from all
around
the
world,
only
participants
who
specified
that
they
resided
in
the US
were
selected for inclusion
in
this
study.
Participants
were
required
to
register
on
the website and
complete
a
range
of
questionnaires
and
sociodemographic questions.
3
Results
The
data
were
analysed using
the
SPSS
V14
statistical
package.
The
descriptive
statistics
for
orientations
to
happiness
and
subjective well-being
for
both
the
Australian
and US
samples
are
provided
in Table
1.
The
Australian
sample
reported
higher
levels
of
pleasure
and
meaning
in
comparison
to
their
engagement
scores.
The US
sample
reported
consistent
scores
on
pleasure
and
engagement
and
comparatively
high
scores
on
meaning.
The US
sample produced
the
?
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Table 1 Descriptive statistics and
bivariate
correlations for study variables
Pleasure
Engagement
Meaning SWL PA NA
Aust. (US) Aust. (US) Aust. (US) Aust. (US) Aust. (US) Aust. (US)
Pleasure - .31** (.27)*** .22** (.14)*** .06ns (.19)*** .26*** (.21)*** -.07ns (-.04)***
Engagement - .45*** (44)*** .28*** (.35)*** .39*** (.45)*** -.19*** (-.19)***
Meaning - .23*** (.38)*** .42*** (.44)*** .01ns (-.18)***
M 3.13(3.14) 2.89(3.11) 3.21(3.58)
24.52(21.84)
35.21(29.91) 17.29(15.20)
SD .89 (.86) .65 (.74) .88 (.93)
6.13(7.54)
6.85(8.31) 5.70(6.19)
N 322(12,622) 331(12,622)
329(12,622)
331(12,622) 325(11,573) 332(11,573)
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Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
171
Table
2
Change
statistics
for
variables
predicting
satisfaction
with
life,
positive
affect
and
negative
affect
(US
sample)
Model
Adjusted
R
Change
statistics
R
change
F
change
df
1
df2 S
ig.
F
change
SWL
Ia
2b
3C
4d
PA
Ia
2b
3C
4d
NA
Ia
2b
3C
4d
.051(a)
.003 .002
.195(b)
.038 .038
.369(c)
.136 .136
.445(d)
.198 .198
.174(a)
.030 .030
.303(b)
.092 .092
.480(c)
.231 .231
.548(d)
.300 .300
.145(a)
.021
.159(b)
.025
.225(c)
.051
.021
.025
.051
.247(d)
.061 .061
.003
.035
.098
.062
.030
.062
.139
.070
.021
.004
.026
.010
16.275 2
462.684
1
1,437.123
1
972.133
1
179.566 2
787.547
1
2,088.351
1
1,150.700
1
123.516
2
51.060
1
312.514
1
127.919
1
12,619
12,618
12,617
12,616
11,570
11,569
11,568
11,567
11,570
11,569
11,568
11,567
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
a
Predictors:
(constant),
gender,
age
b
Predictors:
(constant),
gender,
age,
pleasure
c
Predictors:
(constant),
gender,
age,
pleasure,
engagement
d
Predictors:
(constant),
gender,
age,
pleasure,
engagement,
meaning
highest
overall
scores
on
the orientations
to
happiness
measure
in
comparison
to
the
Australian
sample, particularly
in relation
to
engagement
and
meaning.
Nevertheless,
the
Australian
sample reported significantly higher
means
for satisfaction with
life
and
positive
affect
(p
<
.001).
So
while the US
sample
endorsed
higher
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
compared
to
the
Australian
sample,
this did
not
translate
into
higher
positive
affect
or
satisfaction with life
scores.
The US
sample
did, however,
report
significantly
lower
levels
(p
<
.001)
of
negative
affect than the Australian
sample.
Hierarchical
multiple regression
analyses
were
undertaken for each
of
the
three
sub
jective
well-being
outcome
variables
(satisfaction
with
life,
positive
affect and
negative
affect)
on
the
US
and Australian data
sets
independently.
Predictor variables
were
entered
in four
steps.
For
the
US
sample,
step
1
controlled
for
age
and
gender.
In
step
2,
the
pleasure
orientation
to
happiness
was
entered,
followed
by
the
engagement
orientation
to
happiness
at
step
3,
and the
meaning
orientation
to
happiness
at
step
4.
The
same
four
steps
were
entered for
the Australian
sample.
However,
the
big
five
personality
variables
were
also included
in
step
1
of each
of the three
regressions.
Tables
2 and
3
present
results from
the
hierarchical
regressions
for
the US
samples.
In
regards
to
satisfaction
with
life,
all
four
steps
of
the
regression
were
significant
and
explained
19.8%
(adjusted
R2)
of
variance
in
satisfaction
with
life
(see
Table
2).
Interestingly,
most
of
the
variance
was
contributed
by
the
addition
of
engagement
and
then
by
meaning,
with
pleasure contributing
the
least
variance
to
satisfaction
with
life,
even
though
it
was
the first
orientation
to
happiness
variable
to
be
entered
into
the
regression.
?
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172
D. A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
Table
3
Summary
of
hierarchical
multiple
regression
analysis
for
variables
predicting
satisfaction with
life,
positive
affect and
negative
affect
(US
sample)
Model
4
Unstandardized
coefficients
B
Standard
error
Standardized coefficients
Beta
Sig.
SWL
Age
Gender
Pleasure
Engagement
Meaning
PA
Age
Gender
Pleasure
Engagement
Meaning
NA
Age
Gender
Pleasure
Engagement
Meaning
-.219
.539
.742
2.166
2.251
.709
-.153
1.223
3.018
2.630
-.461
-.368
-.092
-1.012
-.756
.040
.134
.075
.095
.072
.043
.143
.080
.102
.078
.037
.123
.069
.088
.067
-.045
.032
.084
.211
.278
.134
-.008
.127
.268
.295
-.117
-.027
.013
-.121
-.114
-5.466
4.030
9.851
22.684
31.179
16.577
-1.069
15.262
29.497
33.922
-12.518
-2.991
-1.326
-11.471
-11.310
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.000
.285
.000
.000
.000
.000
.003
.185
.000
.000
Age,
gender
and all three
orientations
to
happiness
predictors
were
significant
in the
final
model
(see
Table
3).
Findings
for
positive
affect
were
similar
to
satisfaction
with life. As
presented
in
Table
2,
each
step
of the
regression
was
significant
and
explained
30%
(adjusted
R2)
of
the
variance
in
positive
affect.
Again
engagement
was
the
highest predictor
(13.9%),
with
meaning
next
(7%),
and then
pleasure
(6.2%).
As
indicated
in
Table
3,
all variables
except
gender
were
significant
predictors
of
positive
affect
in
the final
model.
All four
steps
of the
regression
were
significant
in
predicting
negative
affect.
However,
only
6.1%
(adjusted
R2)
of
the
variance
in
negative
affect
was
explained.
The final model
(see
Table
3)
indicated that relative
to
all the other variables
entered
into
the
regression,
pleasure
was
not
a
significant
predictor
of
negative
affect.
In
fact,
once
engagement
and
meaning
were
entered into the
regression
at
steps
3
and
4,
pleasure
did
not
remain
sig
nificant.
Age,
gender,
engagement
and
meaning
were
significant predictors
of
negative
affect
in
the
final
model.
The
results for the
Australian
sample
are
presented
in
Tables
4
and 5.
Turning
first
to
satisfaction with
life,
apart
from the first
step
which included
age,
gender
and
personality
as
control
variables,
only
the third
step
of the
regression
which
involved
the
addition
of
engagement
was
significant.
Therefore
the
pleasure
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
were
not
significant
predictors
of satisfaction
with
life.
Overall
the model accounted
for
19.9%
(adjusted
R2)
of
the
variance
in
satisfaction
with life.
The
unique
contribution
of
adding
engagement
at
step
2
was
1.8%.
Based
on
the coefficients
in the
final model
(see
Table
5),
all
personality
variables
except
openness
were
significant.
Engagement
was
the
?}
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Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
173
Table
4
Change
statistics
for variables
predicting
satisfaction with
life,
positive
affect
and
negative
affect
(Australian
sample)
Model
4
R
R2
Adjusted
R2
Change
statistics
R2
change
F
change
df
1
df2
Sig.
F
change
SWL
Ia
.451(a)
.204 .185 .204
11.174
7
306
.000
2b
.455(b)
.207 .186 .003 1.233
1
305 .268
3C
.474(c)
.224 .202 .018 6.933
1
304 .009
4d
.474(d)
.225
.199 .000 .125
1
303 .724
PA
Ia
.577(a)
.333
.317 .333
21.657
7
304 .000
2b
.594(b)
.353
.336 .020 9.448
1
303 .002
3C
.616(c)
.379 .361
.026 12.688
1
302 .000
4d
.627(d)
.393
.373
.014 7.051
1
301
.008
NA
Ia
.583(a)
.339
.324
.339 22.455
7
306 .000
2b
.592(b)
.351 .334
.011
5.279
1
305
.022
3C
.592(c)
.351 .332 .000 .106
1
304
.745
4d
.607(d)
.369 .348 .018 8.530
1
303 .004
b
Predictors:
(constant)
age,
gender,
big
five
personality
variables
Predictors:
(constant)
age,
gender,
big
five
personality
variables,
pleasure
TOT
c
Predictors:
(constant) age,
gender,
big
five
personality
variables,
pleasure
TOT,
engage
TOT
d
Predictors:
(constant)
age,
gender, big
five
personality
variables,
pleasure
TOT,
engage
TOT,
meaning
TOT
only
orientation
to
happiness
variable which
provided
unique
variance
to
satisfaction with
life
beyond
the control variables.
Regarding
the results
of the hierarchical
regression
examining
positive
affect
as
the
outcome
variable,
all three
steps
involving
the orientations
to
happiness
variables
signifi
cantly
predicted
positive
affect
beyond
the
sociodemographic
and
personality
variables
(see
Table
4).
Overall,
this model
accounted for
37.3%
(adjusted
R2)
of
the variance
in
positive
affect. The
unique
contribution
of
adding
the
pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
variables
at
steps
2,
3 and
4
were
2%,
2.6% and
1.4%,
respec
tively.
The
final
model,
indicated that
once
again
all
personality
variables
except
for
openness
were
significant,
as
were
age,
engagement
and
meaning.
Pleasure
was
not
a
significant predictor
of
positive
affect.
In
the hierarchical
regression predicting
negative
affect,
steps
1,
2 and
4
were
signifi
cant.
Overall,
this model accounted
for
34.8%
(adjusted
R2)
of the variance
in
negative
affect. The
unique
contribution
of
adding
pleasure
at
step
2
was
1.1% and
meaning
at
step
4
was
1.8%.
In
step
4,
extroversion,
agreeableness,
pleasure
and
meaning
significantly
predicted
negative
affect.
The beta
weights
for
pleasure
and
meaning
were
both
positive
suggesting
that
increased
pleasure
and
meaning
were
associated
with
increased
negative
affect,
although
the
bivariate
correlation
between
meaning
and
negative
affect
(.01),
and
pleasure
and
negative
affect
(?.07)
were
not
significant.
In
sum,
all
three
orientations
to
happiness
significantly predicted
various
aspects
of
subjective
well-being particularly
for
the
US
sample. Meaning
and
engagement
made the
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174
D.
A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
Table
5
Summary
of
hierarchical
multiple regression analysis
for
variables
predicting
satisfaction with
life,
positive
affect and
negative
affect
(Australian
sample)
Unstandardized
coefficients
B
Standard
error
Standardized coefficients
Beta
Sig.
SWL
Gender
-.160
.684
Age
-.024
.025
Extroversion
.107 .053
Conscientious .145
.073
Openness
-.065
.061
Emotional
stability
.193
.046
Agreeableness
.150
.061
Pleasure TOT
-.124 .068
Engage
TOT
.235
.100
Meaning
TOT
.026
.074
PA
Gender
.475
.679
Age
.050
.025
Extroversion .120
.053
Conscientious
.241
.072
Openness
.023
.061
Emotional
stability
.147
.046
Agreeableness
.142 .061
Pleasure TOT .126
.067
Engage
TOT .245
.099
Meaning
TOT
.194
.073
NA
Gender
-.420
.574
Age
-.008
.021
Extroversion -.026 .045
Conscientious -.105
.061
Openness
-.077
.051
Emotional
stability
-.368
.039
Agreeableness
-.129 .052
Pleasure TOT .113
.057
Engage
TOT
-.059 .084
Meaning
TOT .180
.062
.013
.052
.128
.110
.064
.253
.156
.108
.150
.022
.034
.097
.129
.164
.020
.172
.133
.098
.140
.149
.036
.017
.034
.086
.081
-.517
-.144
.106
.040
.167
-.234
-.953
2.018
1.994
-1.068
4.168
2.448
-1.836
2.346
.353
.699
1.984
2.290
3.341
.382
3.188
2.339
1.878
2.461
2.655
-.730
-.351
-.594
-1.715
-1.506
-9.443
-2.503
1.988
-.698
2.921
.815
.341
.044
.047
.286
.000
.015
.067
.020
.724
.485
.048
.023
.001
.703
.002
.020
.061
.014
.008
.466
.725
.553
.087
.133
.000
.013
.048
.486
.004
greatest
contributions
while
pleasure
made the
least,
particularly
in
light
of
the
sequence
of
entry
of
the
orientations
to
happiness
variables
in
the
regressions.
As
expected
when
personality
was
taken
into
account
in the
case
of
the
Australian
sample,
a
greater percentage
of the
overall
variance
in
subjective
well-being
was
explained
(when
compared
to
the
US
sample
which
did
not
include
personality).
To
reduce
the
likelihood
that this difference
was
due
to
the different
samples,
a
hierarchical
regression
using
the Australian data
with
the
personality
variables
removed
was
undertaken and
?
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Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
175
compared
with
the
results
of the Australian
sample
which included
personality.
The
per
centage
of
variance
explained
(adjusted R2)
in
satisfaction
with
life,
positive
affect and
negative
affect
for models without
personality
(versus
models
with
personality)
were
substantially
less
7.9%
(19.9%),
26.5%
(37.3%),
5.7%
(34.8%),
respectively,
supporting
the
proposition
that
personality
is
a
substantial
predictor
of
subjective
well-being
and
also
shares
some
variance
with the orientations
to
happiness
variables.
To determine
the effects of
the
markedly
different
sample
sizes
between the
US and
Australian
samples,
3%
of the US data
was
randomly
selected
using
SPSS
"Select Cases"
option.
This
amounted
to
384
cases
for
SWL and 360
for
each of
positive
affect and
negative
affect. Three
percent
of the
data
was
selected
as
it
approximated
the
Australian
sample
size.
All the
analyses
were
re-run
using
the reduced data
set
and
results
were
compared
with the
complete
data
set.
The
analyses
produced
consistent results in relation
to
the
predictive
ability
of
the three orientations
to
happiness
across
the
two
US
data
sets.
The
only
difference
was
for NA
whereby
the full data
set
found both
engagement
and
meaning
to
be
significant predictors
of
NA,
whereas
the
reduced data
set
found
only
meaning
to
be
a
significant predictor.
Overall this
comparison
across
the
two
US data
sets
demonstrated
relatively
stable results.
4
Discussion
As
hypothesised,
engagement
and
meaning significantly predicted
SWL,
positive
affect
and
negative
affect
beyond
that
of
pleasure
and
the
demographic
variables for the
US
sample.
For the Australian
sample,
engagement
predicted
satisfaction with
life,
engage
ment
and
meaning predicted
positive
affect,
and
meaning predicted negative
affect
beyond
the control variables and
pleasure.
Therefore
engagement
and
meaning
are
important
predictors
of
subjective well-being
and
provide unique
variance
in
subjective well-being
that is
not
explained
by
other
variables
which have
been
previously
shown
to
be
related
to
subjective
well-being
(i.e.,
demographics, personality,
and
pleasure).
Pleasure,
although
a
significant predictor
of
satisfaction
with
life
and
positive
affect for
the
US
sample,
was
not
significant
for
the Australian
sample
other than for
negative
affect
(and
it
had
a
negative
beta
weight).
The
finding
that
pleasure
had
a
negative
beta
weight
when
predicting negative
affect
can
be
explained.
Positive and
negative
emotions have
been
shown
to
be
independent
constructs
(e.g.,
Diener and Emmons
1984)
and
individuals
can
experience
elevated levels
of both
emotions
over
a
period
of
time.
Overall, however,
pleasure
did
not
play
as
significant
a
role
in
predicting
subjective well-being
as
meaning
and
engagement.
This
was
particularly
evident for the
prediction
of
negative
affect in
the
US
sample, whereby
at
step
2
in the
regression,
pleasure
was
significant
but
when
engagement
and
meaning
were
added
at
steps
3 and
4,
pleasure
did
not
remain
significant.
Furthermore,
the
entry
of
engagement
and
meaning
after
pleasure
was
undertaken
to
determine
if
engagement
and
meaning
could
contribute
to
the
prediction
of
subjective
well
being
once
the
variance
in
pleasure
had been accounted
for.
Engagement
was
a
significant
predictor
of
positive
affect
(Australian
and
US),
satis
faction with life
(Australian
and
US)
and
negative
affect
(US).
This
rather
robust
finding
aligns
with
the
concept
of flow
presented by
Csikszentmihalyi
et
al.
(2005)
which
emphasises
the
importance
of
concentration,
involvement
and
enjoyment,
to
numerous
positive
outcomes.
This
finding
may
however,
have
been
exaggerated
as a
result
of
using
the
PANAS
as
a
measure
of
affect,
as
this
scale
contains
high
activation
descriptors
(such
as
attentive,
interested,
alert
and
enthusiastic)
and excludes
low
activation
descriptors
such
?
Springer
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176
D. A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
as
being
calm,
content
and relaxed.
Hence,
it
is
likely
that the aforementioned
high
acti
vation
forms of
affect
will
be
correlated with
activated
states
such
as
flow.
Nevertheless,
engagement
was
correlated
with
satisfaction with
life,
not
just
positive
and
negative
affect,
suggesting
some
validation
of this
finding.
Peterson
et
al.
(2005)
found that both
meaning
and
engagement
were
significant
and
primary
predictors
of
satisfaction
with life.
Moreover,
the
study by
Peterson
et
al.
(2007)
which examined character
strengths
most
highly
associated with satisfaction with life
(humour,
zest,
curiosity,
perseverance,
and
religiousness)
found these
strengths
to
also be
most
highly
correlated
with
engagement
and
meaning
in
comparison
to
pleasure.
Meaning
was an
important
predictor
of all
three
components
of
subjective well-being
for the
US
sample
and
of
positive
affect and
negative
affect for the Australian
sample.
In
the
main,
this
finding
is consistent
with
previous
research
findings
indicating
that
meaning
and
well-being
are
positively
correlated
(e.g.,
Zika and
Chamberlain
1992).
For the
Australian
sample
the
beta
weight
for
meaning predicting negative
affect
was
negative.
That
is,
higher
levels
of
meaning
were
associated
with
higher
levels
of
negative
affect.
Some
authors
(e.g.,
Ryff
and
Singer
1998b)
have
noted that the
process
of
finding
life
meaning
can
invoke mixed
feelings
and
can
include
life
challenge
and
growth,
hence the
association between
meaning
and
both
positive
affect and
negative
affect
are
not
so sur
prising.
Furthermore these
findings
support
Chamberlain's
(1988)
view
that
it is
important
to
assess
all three
components
of
subjective well-being.
In the
current
study meaning
differentially
predicted
the three
components
of
subjective well-being
for the Australian
sample.
It
will
be worthwhile
ascertaining
if
future
research
also finds that satisfaction
with
life,
positive
affect,
and
negative
affect
are
differentially
predicted
by
the
three
OTH
and
whether the
predictive
patterns
are
similar.
Once this information is
obtained,
possible
explanations
for these
differences
can
be
generated.
Collectively
these
findings
support
the notion of
a
full
life
including pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning, particularly
for the US
sample.
However,
a
life with
engagement
or
meaning
may
produce
the
greatest
amount
of
happiness,
and
in
the
case
of
meaning,
it
may
concurrently produce
high
levels
of
negative
affect
resulting
in
a
wide
range
of
emotional
experiences.
Pleasure
was
most
significant
for the
US
sample
in
contributing
to
satisfaction
with life
and
positive
affect,
although
even
for
this
sample
it
was
not
as
strong
a
predictor
as
meaning
and
engagement.
In the Australian
sample
which
controlled
for
personality,
it is
possible
that
some
of the variance
in
pleasure
was
absorbed
by personality
factors
such
as
extraversion.
The
bivariate
correlations between
pleasure
and
each of
the
personality
measures
support
this
proposition.
Out of the
personality
variables,
extraver
sion which
was
the
most
significant
factor
to
correlate
with the orientations
to
happiness
variables,
and
was
most
highly
correlated with
pleasure
(r
=
.423,
p
<
.001).
This
study's
findings
emphasise
the
importance
of
including
engagement
and
meaning
to
the
stereotypical
western
perspective
of
maximising pleasure.
Many
scholars such
as
Frankl
(1963),
Ryan
and Deci
(2001),
and
Ryff
and
Singer
(1998a)
espoused
the need
to
include
existential
and eudaimonic
factors
when
examining predictors
of
lasting happiness.
Although,
the different
control variables
and
sample
sizes for
the Australian
and US
samples
prevent
direct
comparisons
from
being
made,
some
of
the
main differences
between
the
two
samples
will be
cautiously
noted.
The
US
sample
generally
endorsed
all
three orientations
to
happiness
for
subjective
well-being
whereas
the
Australian
sample
endorsed
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
most
highly,
particularly
in
relation
to
positive
affect.
Although
Australians
are
not
regarded
as
highly religious,
they
value
their environment
and find
solace
in
a
deeper
personal
meaning
that
is
not
affiliated
with
an
institution
(Mackay
2004).
Therefore,
the
higher
contributions
of
engagement
and
?
Springer
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Three
Ways
to
Be
Happy:
Pleasure,
Engagement,
and
Meaning
177
meaning,
relative
to
pleasure
for
the Australian
sample
are not
surprising.
It should
however,
be noted that the
mean
for the
Australian
sample
was
lower than that of the US
sample
(3.21?Australian
vs.
3.58?US).
As
expected,
the
US
sample strongly
endorsed
a
meaningful
life?this
was
also
evident
in
Peterson
et
al.'s
2007
study
in
comparison
to
their
Swiss
sample.
It
is
also
possible
that
the lack
of
controlling
for the
big
five
personality
variables
for
the
US
sample
may
have enabled
the
orientations
to
happiness
variables
to
absorb
some
of
the
variance that
may
have
otherwise been absorbed
by
personality
such
as
extraversion,
emotional
stability,
conscientiousness,
and
agreeableness.
These
personality
variables
were
all
significant
predictors
of the
various
subjective well-being
outcomes
for
the Australian
sample.
However,
although personality
variables
were
found
to
be
signifi
cant
predictors
of
subjective
well-being
for the
Australian
sample,
so too
were
many
of the
OTH variables
despite being
entered into
the
equation
after
all
the variance
in
personality
had been accounted
for.
Therefore
the Australian
data
supports
the
important
and
unique
contributions that
OTH
variables
make towards
subjective
well-being
which
extend
beyond
the contributions
of
personality.
This
finding
also
supports
the
view that
OTH
and
personality
are
sufficiently
distinct
constructs.
Another
point
concerns
the
use
and
interchange
of
terms
such
as
positive
affect,
positive
emotions
and
pleasure
both in the
previous
literature and
throughout
this
paper.
It
could be
argued
that
the
use
of
the
pleasure
orientation
as a
predictor
of
positive
affect
is
prob
lematic
as
they
are
essentially
the
same
construct.
However,
this
depends
on
the
measures
employed
in
the
study.
The
pleasure
orientation
to
happiness
includes
items
such
as
"Life
is
too
short
to
postpone
the
pleasures
it
can
provide",
"O love
to
do
things
that
excite
my
senses"
and "For
me
the
good
life
is the
pleasurable
life",
whereas
positive
affect
involved
an
assessment
of
how
accurate
certain
descriptors
such
as
interested,
proud,
alert
and
inspired
were
of
an
individual
in
general
(the
"general"
timeframe
was
selected
for the
current
study). Interestingly
considerable
overlap
between the
two constructs
was
not
evident
(.26
and .21
for
the
Australian
and US
samples, respectively)
and therefore the
premise
that the
two constructs
are
substantially
overlapping
was
not
supported
in
the
current
study.
Likewise the
three
OTH
and
the
subjective well-being
measures
were
also
not
highly
correlated. The
highest
correlation
attained resulted
in
only
20% shared variance
(between
engagement
and
PA).
This
supports
the notion
that
the variables
in
question
are
relatively
independent.
There
are some
limitations
to
the
current
study
that
warrant
consideration.
First,
due
to
the
cross
sectional
design
of the
study,
causal
relationships
cannot
be
ascertained.
Second,
the
sample
included
a
large proportion
of
highly
educated individuals who
may
be
more
likely
to
value the
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
than the
average
person
and
in
comparison
to
the
pleasure
orientation
to
happiness.
Third,
the
measure
of
positive
affect used
in
the
current
study,
the
PANAS,
does
not
include low activation
descriptors
and
hence,
the full
range
of
affect,
as
espoused by
the
circumplex
model
of
affect
(Russell 1980)
was
not
assessed.
Finally,
the
Orientations
to
Happiness
scale
employed
for
the
current
study
is
a
measure
of
endorsement
of
the
various orientations
to
happiness
and does
not
necessarily
reflect
participants'
actual
behavior.
The
orientations
to
happiness
framework
is
a
relatively
new
area
of
research
hence,
considerable
work
is
needed
in
the
field.
Future studies should control for
the
big
five
personality
variables. Also
it would be
interesting
to
explore
if the
big
five
personality
variables
moderate
orientations
to
happiness
as a
predictor
of
well-being
by examining
personality
and
orientations
to
happiness
interaction
terms
as
predictors.
Future research
could
also
compare
how
orientations
to
happiness
influence
subjective
well-being
and
psychological
well-being differently.
^
Springer
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
178
D.
A.
Vella-Brodrick
et
al.
In
conclusion,
the
engagement
and
meaning
orientations
to
happiness
provide
additional
variance
in
subjective well-being beyond
pleasure,
personality
and
demographics.
While it
is known that
pleasure,
engagement
and
meaning
are
important
to
well-being,
this
study
provides
new
insight
as
it has
examined
the
relative contributions of each of
these
orientations
to
happiness. Engagement
and
meaning
contributed
more
variance
in
sub
jective well-being
than did
pleasure. Collectively
these
findings
offer
increasing
insight
into
ways
of
achieving happiness
and
support
the
development
of interventions
aimed
at
fostering subjective
well-being
through
a
range
of hedonic and eudaimonic
avenues.
Such
findings
offer
hope
to
those
who
are not
genetically
destined
to
have
high
levels of trait
positive
affect
or
who do
not
lead
highly 'pleasurable' lifestyles
as
they
indicate other
avenues
involving
engagement
and
meaning
may
also be related
to
subjective
well-being.
Acknowledgement
Thanks
to
Dr
Vella-Brodrick's 2006 PSY3062
happiness
research students
for
assistance
with
the
Australian
data
collection.
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