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History of Ischia Harbour
(Southern Italy)
Stefano Carlino, Elena Cubellis, Ilia Delizia and Giuseppe Luongo
1 Introduction
On 17 September 1854, under the initiative of the Bourbon Ferdinand II (1830–
1859), King of the Two Sicilies, the opening of the new harbour of Ischia was
celebrated. It has since become a major maritime port and marina in the Bay of
Naples (Fig. 1).
The port constituted the fundamental marine transporation element connecting
the island and the mainland, providing easier access to the island and promoting
the progressive growth of the local economy. At the time, Ischia showed great
diversity between one zone and another, and much of the island was almost
inaccessible and sparsely inhabited. Noted for its active volcanism from the early
fourteenth century and persistent seismicity until 1883, ‘‘before 1853 this island
was almost impracticable, … to the detriment of many natural advantages that it
has over others, it had a wild appearance, to say the least’’ (Annali Civili del
Regno delle Due Sicilie—Annals of the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies 1855).
However, due to its morphological characteristics and nature of its settlements,
the northern side held out more attractions: the coastline was low and from here it
was easier to reach Ischia Castello, the administrative centre of the island. In
particular, occupying the site of the present-day harbour of Ischia was a lake close
to the coastline, surrounded by low rises generated by recent volcanic activity. On
the most southerly hill rose the house of chief Court Physician Francesco Buon-
ocore that had been built during 1735 on family-owned land at the back of the
central section of the lake nearly opposite today’s harbour entrance. It was a
S. Carlino (&) and E. Cubellis
Istituto Nazionale di Geofisica e Vulcanologia, Naples Italy
e-mail: stefano.carlino@ov.ingv.it
I. Delizia and G. Luongo
Università di Napoli Federico II, Naples Italy
V. Badescu and R. B. Cathcart (eds.), Macro-engineering Seawater in Unique
Environments, Environmental Science and Engineering,
DOI: 10.1007/978-3-642-14779-1_2, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg 2011
27
country villa which captured the spa waters bubbling up from underground and
had thus become a house of health and well-being for nobles and dignitaries
attached to the court of Naples who needed treatment.
The site had already been chosen by an earlier Bourbon king, Ferdinand IV, as a
‘‘royal delight’’ (1784), insofar as it was suitable for sating his passion for nature
and for fishing in the lake. Later, in 1854, it was to come within the town-planning
programmes of the northern side, carried forward by Ferdinand II, which led to the
establishment and rapid development of Villa de’Bagni, the original name of the
first settlement of Ischia Porto (Quaranta 1855). (The numbering of Ferdinand’s
royal titles is somewhat confusing. He was, in fact, Ferdinand IV of Naples and
became, at a later stage in his reign, Ferdinand I of the Two Sicilies.)
An ancient volcanic formation dating to the fourth century BC, the lake was
perfectly suited to being converted into a harbour. Known as the Lago del Bagno
or de’ Bagni due to the presence of hot springs on its perimeter, it was almost
circular and deep enough to provide keel clearance for small fishing vessels.
Moreover, it was separated from the sea by a small isthmus: a narrow sandy dune
on which marine vegetation was deposited during rough seas. Since time imme-
morial, the lake had been used for fish-farming, constituting one of the few sources
of revenue for the local administration.
The lacustrine basin, just like the rest of the island, was the product of volcanic
activity which generated an extraordinarily complex landscape in continuous
evolution (Figs. 2a, b, 3). This is due to the island’s geological history which has
Fig. 1 The Bay of Naples and the island of Ischia
28 S. Carlino et al.
been distinguished by alternating explosive and effusive eruptions which have
created a very variegated area, owing to the presence of many eruptive centres
being partly destroyed or covered by subsequent volcanic activity, of deep valleys
produced by erosion of pyroclastic top layers, of marine terraces and hills with
sub-vertical walls, which testify to volcanic and tectonic processes on the island,
especially active in the last 10,000 years, and with intense seismic activity
recorded historically in the past 800 years. The most recent major volcanic
eruption occurred in 1302, emitting a lava flow that affected the eastern side of
Ischia, partly invading the area east of the harbour (Fig. 2a) (Vezzoli 1988; Civetta
et al. 1991; Cubellis et al. 2004; Carlino et al. 2006; Luongo et al. 2006).
The main historical sources for information on the opening of the harbour, an
operation which was to change the lives of the islanders, the morphology of the
area, and the roles and hierarchy of the island’s settlements are the Annali Civili
del Regno delle Due Sicilie (1855), which supply technical and descriptive ele-
ments mixed with notes of praise and celebration for the king. The technicians
entrusted with the task of cutting the isthmus to join the lake with the sea had, in
the nearby Campi Flegrei, known historically as the Phlegraean Fields, the
example of the work of Lucius Cocceius Auctus in 37 BC, who cut the isthmuses
separating the Lucrine Lake from the sea and from Lake Avernus to build Portus
Iulius (Fig. 4a, b) for the Roman fleet.
A further important source is the constant flow of correspondence between
Camillo Quaranta, appointed commissioner for harbour works, and the king and
the various ministers of the Bourbon Royal House, varyingly involved in opera-
tions (Naples State Archive, Ministry of Public Works). Recent years have seen
some critical reviews of this source (Delizia 1987, Delizia and Delizia 2006;
Rispoli 2007). Archaeological reconstruction of the area (Buchner 1946; Rittmann
Fig. 3 The Ischia island as appears from the ferryboat which comes from Naples. On the right
side (north), the top of Mt. Epomeo. It is also marked the Ischia harbour zone and the Castello
lava dome (photo S. Carlino, 2008)
30 S. Carlino et al.
Fig. 4 Campi Flegrei Caldera - Avemus and Lucrine lakes and Mt. Nuovo tuff cone (1538) (a).
During Roman times the isthmus which separated the two lakes was removed in order to obtain a
channel for the passageway of the Roman fleet (Portus Iilius). The products of Mt. Nuovo
eruption covered a large part of Lucrine lake (b). The submerged archaeological ruins indicate
that the ground level of the Roman times is lower than the present-day one.this result is due to
subsidence and resurgence processes occurred in the last 2000 years (Castagnoli 1977; Morhange
et al. 2006; Pappalardo 2006)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 31
and Buchner 1948), together with volcanological studies, has sketched out a
reconstruction of the relations between prehistoric settlements and eruptions, as
well as variations in the coastline in the last 2000 years.
No less important for our analysis is the maps (Alisio and Valerio 1983) and
iconographic representations (Caputo 2000) produced either side of the great
conversion of the lake into a harbour. Towards the mid-nineteenth century, the
island’s geology and natural history were the subject of extensive scientific
inquiry, as ably illustrated in the geological maps of Fonseca (1847) and Fuchs
(1873).
The set of available data, studies and reports are analysed herein to reconstruct
the circumstances that led to the opening of Ischia Harbour, the macro-execution
phases and the resulting change in the island’s morphology. Our historical analysis
is followed by the description of the geology of the harbour, some considerations
on the current state of the island and on issues relating to the increase in volcanic
and seismic risk resulting from urban expansion and the increase in tourism since
the early twentieth century.
2 The Historical, Social and Cultural Context
The opening of Ischia Harbour occurred in a period that saw the considerable
reforming impetus of public works throughout the Bourbon kingdom in southern
Italy, especially in the region of Campania. This climate of reform started under
the Spanish viceroy in 1610 when the first major intervention was launched in the
region, the construction of a channel across the Campanian Plain north of Naples,
the so-called Regi Lagni (Fiengo 1988), whose aim was to avoid the recurrent
floods tormenting the local people and preventing urban growth since the pre-
Roman period.
As often happens in the history of great monarchies, in southern Italy both
during the Bourbon and French dominations (1737–1860), the sovereigns used to
prove their greatness and benevolence by carrying out public works on a ‘‘grand
scale’’, at the same time providing essential contributions for regional change and
improvement. Modern macro-engineering endeavours are equivalent to ‘‘grand
scale’’ in olden times. The city of Naples and its surrounding areas were protag-
onists of such modernizing change. This active involvement would ultimately lead
to the founding of the Naples school of engineering, thanks to a decree of 18th
November 1808, upon the initiative of Joachim Murat, which established the
Engineers Corps for Bridges and Roads. Thus, arose the imposing figure of the all-
directing State engineer, whose career was founded on a mostly meritocratic basis,
in the interests of more rational land use.
With the arrival of the Bourbon Ferdinand II in 1830, the city of Naples and its
surrounding areas experienced a period of considerable economic development,
which gave it a modern, advanced image. In this period the first gas-lights were
installed in the streets of Naples, roads and communication networks in general
32 S. Carlino et al.
were improved and built ex novo, and in 1839 the first railway line established in
Italy was built, connecting the city of Naples with the town of Portici situated on
the slopes of Vesuvius. Also the island of Ischia was included in this vast pro-
gramme of public works, some of which never progressed beyond the project
planning phase. However, it cannot be denied that the Bourbons did much for the
island (D’Ascia 1867): new highway networks were opened up, hugely improving
road communications over very rugged terrain; a new *4.8 km-long section of the
freshwater aqueduct was built, submarine telegraphic links were established
between Ischia and the mainland; the Portosalvo church was built and the harbour
was created, opening up new horizons for developing the island’s economy. The
presence of a safe port, whose natural morphology made it sheltered from the
westerly storms that create havoc in the Bay of Naples (Fig. 5), continues to be an
essential function. Since Bourbon times, it has made the island easily accessible
from the ports in Naples, Pozzuoli and Capo Miseno.
It was precisely in the early nineteenth century that systematic navigation in the
Tyrrhenian sea began with the aid of large steamships, designed in the late
eighteenth century in the USA, then in the UK and Italy. The invention of the
steamship was so well received in the Kingdom of the Two Sicilies that King
Ferdinand II, on the proposal of the Minister of Finance, decided to start up a
shipbuilding industry. The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies became the third largest
steamship producer in the world and the first in the Mediterranean.
Fig. 5 Typical low pressure over the Tyrrhenian Sea which produces NW and SW winds and
waves in the western and eastern sector respectively. The Bay of Naples is highlighted with a
square (wetteronline.de)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 33
However, the cultural climate of that time and region was not characterised
only by the spirit of innovation and industrial development: the late eighteenth
century saw the start of the first scientific studies which were to lead to the birth of
modern geology and for which the island of Ischia would play an important role in
interpreting geological phenomena. The publication of Principles of Geology
(1830) by Charles Lyell (1797–1875) who followed the Scottish James Hutton’s
(1726–1797), Theory of the Earth with Proofs and Illustrations (1795) gave a new
impetus to studying the Earth’s dynamics (Fischer and Garrison 2009). Lyell was
in Naples in October 1828, attracted by the minute description of the rocks of the
island of Ischia which the geologist Gian Battista Brocchi had made during his stay
in Naples between 1811 and 1812. For Lyell the volcanic areas and recently-
formed soils assumed considerable importance for his theory of gradualism,
because he felt that in the Earth’s history the causes which today slowly change the
Earth’s surface had always acted. The proof of this came from recent soils, where
major changes were still under way. Lyell headed for Ischia, where he found fossil
shells of marine origin on Mt. Epomeo as high as 600 m, with which he was able
to demonstrate, with the aid of the Neapolitan naturalist Oronzo Gabriele Costa
(1787–1867) who identified the fossils, that the island had recently undergone
substantial tectonic uplift.
The drive towards research in actual geology also came from the need to
identify and harness natural resources, especially energy resources needed to
develop the industries that were arising in the technologically more advanced
European countries. The positivist movement was to dominate much of European
scientific and literary culture in the nineteenth century. Empirical facts were
considered as underlying all real knowledge. In this social climate the Industrial
Revolution started: in the UK between 1780 and 1800 there were major changes in
the means of production, new sources of raw materials began to be exploited, new
markets were opened up, the human population increased rapidly, and deep-rooted
changes were occurring in the structure of settled society.
In southern Italy, under Bourbon domination there was a period, albeit short-
lived, when great advances were made in science and especially in volcanology,
concluded immediately after the Conference of Italian Scientists, held in
Naples, in 1845 (Luongo 1989). For scientists, the theatre for volcanological
developments consisted of the active volcanoes of Vesuvius, Campi Flegrei and
Ischia, which represented a type of ‘‘golden triangle’’, with the metropolis of
Naples in the middle. The historical and social context in which Ischia harbour
was opened was thus a period of considerable cultural and scientific ferment,
infused by a spirit of technical and industrial innovation. However, the reasons
that led to the harbour at Ischia being opened were primarily linked to personal
choices made by King Ferdinand II, to his fondness for the site as a holiday
residence for the royal family. That said, the choice was also conditioned by
the far-sighted political vision which was the hallmark of the king’s main
undertakings: this was still virgin territory, susceptible to developmental
changes that would eventually leave the unmistakable mark of the Bourbon
monarchy.
34 S. Carlino et al.
2.1 First Settlements and Development of the Island
Once known by the name of Pithecusa, the island of Ischia was the site of the
earliest known Greek settlement in Italy. It was founded by Euboean Greeks from
Eretria and Chalcis in ca. 770 BC who established a flourishing trading post in the
present-day bay of San Montano, followed in the fourth century BC by a small
settlement on the north-eastern coast, now the site of the port of Ischia (Buchner
1971; Monti 1968, 1980). At a later date, a violent cataclysm is reported, which
not only drove away the first Greek peoples, but also changed the configuration of
the landscape: it brought about the depression of a coastal stretch with the for-
mation of the lake and the small volcanic edifices of Montagnone and Rotaro. We
hear of this event from the period’s great polymath, Pliny the Elder, who died at
Stabiae following the eruption of Vesuvius in 79 AD. In his Naturalis Historia
(23–79 AD), he writes that on the island of Ischia, then called Aenaria, the earth
swallowed up a now-forgotten unnamed town—oppidum haustum profondo—and
that after this catastrophe a lake was formed—alioque motu terrae stagnum
emersisse. Indeed, below the products of the eruption that led to the formation of
the Lago del Bagno the remains of sixth and fifth century BC pottery were found,
besides roof tiles from a Greek temple of the same era, now conserved in the
island’s museum (Buchner and Gialanella 1994; Buchner 2004).
Volcanic activity was such that the cultures that followed did not leave very
significant traces of their presence on the island. The ‘‘rediscovery’’ of Ischia only
occurred from the mid sixteenth century onward, when Giulio Iasolino (1538–
1622), a medical doctor from Calabria, professor of anatomy at Naples University,
started a systematic, painstaking study of all the hot springs on the island, which he
introduced into curative practice. The long task of analysing and recognising the
hot springs culminated in 1588 with the publication of De’ rimedi naturali che
sono nell’isola di Pithecusa, hoggi detta Ischia (On the natural remedies on the
island of Pithecusa, today called Ischia) (Iasolino 1588), a work of great impor-
tance and editorial success, which was to boost Ischia’s fame, thanks in part to the
useful map of sites included, engraved by the mapmaker from Viterbo, Mario
Cartaro, which was later used in the most important European atlases.
Interest in Ischia may also have grown due to the eruption of the nearby Campi
Flegrei in 1538, which made the more popular thermal baths of Pozzuoli and Baia
impracticable (Buchner 1958). From this time on, visitors to Ischia would be lured
and connected to the development of the bathing and spa treatment industry which
the pioneering construction of the Pio Monte della Misericordia establishment at
Casamicciola (1601–1603), on the Gurgitello springs, contributed to inaugurate,
develop and spread.
In the mid nineteenth century, there were already 12 spas/bathing establish-
ments on the island where ‘‘the infirm flock from every part of Europe to try out
the beneficial effects of these gifts that nature appears to have bestowed generously
on this island’’ (Annali Civili del Regno delle Due Sicilie 1855). The island’s
ancient rural vocation, chiefly linked to wine production, would gradually give
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 35
way to an economy based on spa and recreational tourism. As a result, there was
an influx of new monetary capital that increased hotel capacity. The island’s
economy would progressively grow, but the inhabitants would continually have to
come to terms with the forces of nature: in 1881 and 1883 the island was shaken by
two large earthquakes which devastated island’s northern sector, with the epi-
centres between the Casamicciola and Lacco Ameno municipalities. The earth-
quake of 28 July 1883 was especially destructive: it caused almost all the buildings
in Casamicciola to collapse, heavy damage in almost the whole island and led to a
death toll of 2,333 persons, many of whom were tourists. In the worst-hit
municipalities there ensued a period of economic recession and a population
decrease that would only begin to recover in the early twentieth century (Fig. 6)
(Cubellis and Luongo 1998; Cubellis et al. 2004; Luongo et al. 2006; Carlino et al.
2009).
After the Second World War, starting ca. 1950, the tourist flow would increase,
with a consequent chaotic, undisciplined boom in construction on the land, due to
the lack of authoritative land-use planning regulation. This led to an aggravation,
besides other things and events, of the volcanic and seismic risk to people and
infrastructure. Today the island has six lawful municipalities (Ischia: 18,253
inhabitants; Casamicciola: 7,374; Lacco Ameno: 4,273; Forio: 14,554; Serrara
Fontana: 3,060; Barano: 8,591, ISTAT data) making up a total population of
[56,000 persons. The island’s three main municipalities have boat and yacht
marinas. Only that of Ischia is a natural ship harbour.
Since the opening of Ischia Harbour in 1854, the island has undergone radical
economic, social and environmental changes. New shipping routes have permitted
a rapid increase in daily commuter flows to and from the island. However, now-
adays, more than four million tourist visitations impact the island every year, most
people visit during May to September. Natural human population increase, tourism
and urban region expansions have brought about an exponential increase in risk
Fig. 6 Population growth on the island from 1861 to present (ISTAT). After the 1883 earthquake
there was a slight population decrease in the northern and western sectors (Casamicciola and
Forio). A rapid increase has occurred in recent times (from Luongo et al. 2006)
36 S. Carlino et al.
correlated with seismic and volcanic activity. Besides, the island has been stricken
in recent times (1910, 2006, 2009) by floods that have caused serious damage and
dozens of victims, especially in the northern sector (Cubellis et al. 2008, 2009;
Luongo 2009; Carlino et al. 2010). Attention is thus also laid on all those macro-
management problems linked to the region’s vulnerability and the consequent
increase in risk (Alberico et al. 2008) which has now reached levels that are no
longer publicly acceptable, compromising the island’s basic vocation as a ‘‘place
of well-being’’ in which the adventurous, tired, sickly and healthy alike can enjoy
the unique and picturesque beauty of ‘‘civilized’’ volcanic landscapes. There have
been a few seawater pollution episodes caused by industrial activity and shipping
in the bay region nearby Ischia Harbour.
3 The Lake of Bagno Before the Harbour’s Construction:
Descriptions and Representations
‘‘Only a sandbank, about 50 feet wide, separates it from the sea: it is a small
version of a Dead Sea, with the difference that the lacustrine basin three-quarters
of a mile in circumference is the bed of an ancient volcanic crater, formed by the
small promontory of lava of S. Pietro a Pantanello to the east by the volcanic hills
of Sant’ Alessandro to the west and north. This lake has been given the inap-
propriate name of Pantanello which means little marshy pond; it communicates
with the sea via a channel dug at the end of the sandbank. Hence the water is
continuously changed in the basin, which has a sandy bed and resembles a pond
full of exquisite fish, mussels and other crustaceans. At the centre of the lake rises
a lava rock on which there is a small hut for fishing tackle which is let, reaping
revenue for the town of Ischia. On the western shore of the lake there is an estate
endowed with almost everything that constitutes, in this place, a good rural
economy. The residence is small but clean. Suited to the needs of its owner it is
situated at the centre of the vegetable garden that extends across the lower part of
the estate, almost on the water’s edge’’ (Haller 1822). Thus Conrad Haller, a
French traveller to the Bay of Naples, described what would be the future harbour
of Ischia, a circular lake, the so-called Lago del Bagno, formed within an ancient
volcanic crater whose circumference measured 1.2 km, separated from the sea by a
sandbank 15–20 m wide and about 250 metres long. Albeit relatively small, about
115,000 m
2
, the stretch of brackish water was more similar to a lake than a marshy
pond (pantano), since it communicated with the sea thanks to a small man-made
channel, called Bocca Vecchia (old mouth), which allowed the continuous change
of water and, closed off by a lock, favoured the proliferation of fish and crusta-
ceans. The small lake was, thus, an ideal place for fishing, for the farming of
molluscs and crustaceans, but also for the hunting of coot and other waterfowl.
With the iconographic and cartographic representations of the Lago del Bagno
before its conversion into a harbour, the morphology of the site—and the
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 37
sentiment it inspired—can be fairly faithfully reconstructed. Such was the
enchantment of the site that the Bourbon kings, Ferdinand IV, and later Francis I
and Ferdinand II, succumbed to its appeal, so as to make it become a work of total
transformation which led to the creation of the royal residence on the island. It was
precisely with this in mind that Ferdinand IV commissioned the court artist, Philip
Hackert, in 1792, to paint a view of the area. Exhibited in the Palace of Caserta in
the Room of Ferdinand IV, the painting depicts the whole stretch of the lake
with the Aragonese Castle in the background and on the eastern shore the Bu-
onocore lodge, now residence of the Bourbons. The lodge became the property of
the royal household following a donation made by the descendants of Francesco
Buonocore, even though it would appear to have been an appropriation rather than
a spontaneous donation. Besides, Hackert’s painting depicts in the foreground
fishermen intent on casting their nets from small boats, a fairly profitable activity
for the local community (Fig. 7). In the central sector of the lake the small lava
rock described by Haller can be seen, with the storehouse for fishing tackle on top.
This block of lava represents the remainder of a magmatic body which had fuelled
the eruption, later solidified within the volcanic conduit and exposed after the
crater collapse.
The morphology of the crater prior to the opening of the harbour is masterfully
depicted in the topographic plan drawn by Carlo Vanvitelli around 1792 and in the
historic map of 1840 (Reale Ufficio Topografico di Napoli 1840, source IGMI).
The latter also supplies some land use features. At that time the whole area was
sparsely inhabited, except for the small village of Villa dei Bagni e della Casina
Fig. 7 View of Ischia lake, Philip Hackert (1792). Palazzo Reale Caserta (from De Seta 2005)
38 S. Carlino et al.
Reale. The lake was surrounded by woods and plots for growing fruit and vege-
tables. In both maps the small channel communicating with the sea can be
recognised, situated westward (Figs. 8, 9). This channel was opened in 1670 to
Fig. 8 An antique topographic map of the Lago del Bagno and neighbouring countryside. A
sandy isthmus separates the lake from the sea in the north. A little channel in the western side
allowed the water to circulate between the lake and the sea. In the southern sector of the lake a
small lava block crops out (Vanvitelli 1739–1821) (from Delizia and Delizia 2006)
Fig. 9 Topographic map of
the Royal Topographic Office
of Naples, scale 1:25,000,
1840 (IGMI source). On the
left sector of the lake (sea
side) the little channel for
water circulation (arrow), in
the eastern and southern sec-
tor the Villa dei Bagni set-
tlements and the Royal Lodge
(Casino Reale), respectively.
The whole area around the
future harbour was formed by
cultivated fields and woods
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 39
prevent the lakeside shores from becoming marshland due to the presence of hot-
water springs and the depositing of current-borne marine vegetation during storms
at sea (Quaranta 1855; Delizia 1987; Minervini 2004). Indeed, winter storms
carried beyond the narrow sand dune a large quantity of posidonia (sea-grass)
which rotted during the summer, producing a typical smell of sulphur. The channel
mouth was kept closed by a series of reed gates, which permitted a change of
water, while the retained fish quietly prospered in the lake.
Towards the mid nineteenth century the island became a site of extreme interest
for scholars of volcanology and seismology, in a cultural climate in which sci-
entific debate became lively. Of the products generated by this period of scientific
enquiry mention should be made of the production of the first geological map of
the island of Ischia, at a scale of 1:25,000, by Ferdinando Fonseca (1847), asso-
ciated to the French Geological Society (Fig. 10). It is not a real geological map in
the modern sense of such cartography, as it lacks some elements on the succession
of eruptive events on a stratigraphic and structural basis. Rather, it is an areal
subdivision of the most widespread lithotypes on the island. Fonseca distinguished
four types of outcrops: trachytes; tuff and incoherent volcanic material; sub-
Apenninic marl; quaternary shell aggregates.
In 1873, Fuchs proposed a geological map of the island of Ischia, again at the
scale of 1:25,000 (Fig. 11) (Fuchs 1873). There are two curiosities here. First, the
Fig. 10 First geological map of Ischia produced by Fonseca (1847), scale 1:25,000. The most
recent lava flow and lava and scoria cones are represented in red-brown. Inset with a close-up of
the Lago del Bagno zone
40 S. Carlino et al.
town called Ischia corresponds to the present-day Ischia Ponte close to the castle;
secondly, the map does not show the cut in the isthmus which occurred in 1854
with the opening of the harbour in Lago di Bagno. It may be deduced that the basis
for Fuchs’s map was the same as that used by Fonseca. Fuchs’s geological map
was published in Volume II of ‘‘Memories serving to describe the geological map
of Italy’’. This may be considered the first geological map published by the geo-
logical Royal Committee established by decree of Victor Emanuel II on 15th
December 1867 and according to standards laid down by the Royal Decree issued
15th June 1873.
For Fuchs, the considerations made by Fonseca only partly apply, in that he
distinguishes the temporal succession of the various outcropping products: in this
new map Fuchs believes that the Epomeo tuff is the most ancient outcrop, above
which rest layers of pumice, tuff and lava flows produced by the various eruptive
centres on the island. Fuchs distinguishes eight types of outcrops: Epomeo tuff;
flows, domes and cones of trachytes; products of a similar composition to marl;
scoria of trachyte and obsidian; the Arso layer; Arso scoria; recent fossiliferous
deposits. In both the geological maps of Fonseca and Fuchs, there is clear docu-
mentation of the sand bank that separated Lago del Bagno from the sea, the
volcanic edifices of Montagnone and Rotaro, the Arso lava flow eastward and the
morphology of the whole future harbour area.
Fig. 11 Geological map of the island produced by C. W. C. Fuchs, scale 1:25,000. The map is
dated after the harbour opening (1873). As highlighted in the square, the isthmus separating the
lake from the sea is still present. Thus it is likely that the topographic map utilized by Fuchs is the
same as that used by Fonseca (1847)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 41
4 The Opening of Ischia Harbour
Ferdinand II was personally very fond of the island of Ischia. Together with his
second wife, Maria Theresa, and their many offspring, he spent several months
there every year, relaxing by the Lago dei Bagni, in the Royal Lodge that
dominated its shoreline from the hill nearby (Minervini 2004). When the King
arrived, he said: ‘‘…of the lake we shall make a harbour, it will be the lifeblood
of Ischia’’. As often happened during the Bourbon period, the vacation macro-
project idea swiftly became reality. Its purpose was twofold: increase the con-
sensus for Bourbon initiatives to renew the kingdom and transfer their own
representative on the island from the castle to those delightful, unspoilt places.
This was the necessary step to carry out the ‘‘Royal Delights’’ project which the
same Ferdinand II completed with the conversion of the Buonocore residence
into a Royal Lodge, with the construction of the Church of Portosalvo and the
restoration of the royal space adjacent to the whole area of the future port
(Delizia 1990).
The Provincial Council of Naples turned down the planning application from
the Council Authority of Ischia to build the harbour, since the intervention was not
deemed useful and the island not susceptible to development (Rispoli 2007). On
13th March 1853 the far-sighted King Ferdinand II, convinced of the importance
of the work, overrode the decision and passed a decree to make the lake into a
harbour for Ischia. Although the initial estimate was 50,000 ducats, modifications
when the project was under way made the cost climb to over 126,000 ducats, a
considerable sum in those times. By 25th July of the same year the works had
already begun, and they were completed in only 14 months, a relatively short
period of construction time given the resources and technology at their disposal
(Annali Civili del Regno delle Due Sicilie 1855).
From the preliminary analysis of the lake’s characteristics, commissioned by
the king, we have the first information on the nature and economic quantity of the
works to be undertaken. The latter involved the removal of part of the sandbank
separating the lake from the sea to the north, with an entrance of *500 palms
(*130 m). A jetty was also to be constructed to protect the harbour mouth from
the strong NNW winter winds, about 700 palms long (*182 m) consisting of
about 541 cubic canne (*10,000 m
3
) of rock obtained from a cliff beyond the
small river mouth to the west, and the bed was to be dredged to allow access for
large vessels as well (Archivio di Stato di Napoli, Ministero dei Lavori Pubblici
1853–1854). The whole lake-bed was excavated, removing material about one
metre deep, amounting to 115,000 m
3
. To enable these operations, on 31st May
1854 the King commanded a small specialised fleet to be transferred, consisting of
two steam dredgers, a small steamship, and a four-boat tug to protect the harbour
entrance (Quaranta 1855; Carelli 1858; Rispoli 2007). In addition, an ancient
water/debris collection tank situated near the Buonocore residence that was
blocked would be emptied, so as to prevent storm-related flooding caused by
streams to the south invading the lake-bed, making safe navigation more difficult.
42 S. Carlino et al.
The macro-project for constructing the harbour was assigned to the Inspector of
Bridges and Roads Luigi Oberty and Lieutenant Domenico Milo of the Engi-
neering Corps, while the project’s director was Camillo Quaranta, a commissioner
of the Royal Navy. The latter left behind copious documents concerning the state
of the works, which point out the difficulties encountered in the work, the mishaps
and some technical details on intervention topologies (Delizia 1987). Before
embarking on the sand removal works, Quaranta first strengthened the lake shores
with walls supported on robust iron frames. He then built further embankments to
flank the short channel entrance opening to the sea and raised the quay for
moorings (Quaranta 1855; Minervini 2004). The cutting and removal of the sand
bank to open up the channel to the sea was completed 4 months later. The works in
progress are beautifully depicted in a painting by Francesco Mancini (1830–1903),
which shows the building site with the channel to the sea already open (Fig. 12).
King Ferdinand II was not ever present during these operations, but waited for the
work to be completed, on 31st July 1854, before entering for the very first time
aboard the Royal Steamship Il Delfino. It was a sort of technical test and verifi-
cation of the works prior to the official inauguration held on 17th September. The
news was reported in the Giornale delle Due Sicilie as an event of worldwide
importance and enthusiastically feted by the population of the whole island. The
inauguration occurred amidst the boom of discharging artillery, the lyrical notes of
several musical bands, the charitable sounds of the excited throng of pleased
islanders decked out in party costumes and about 200 ships and boats. The parade
Fig. 12 The gouache by F. Mancini (1853) reproducing the works during the opening of the
isthmus separating the Lago del Bagno from the sea (Private Coll.) (from Caputo 2000)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 43
of vessels was preceded by the Royal Launch, followed by the warships Tancredi,
Saetta, Delfino and Antilope. Thus began a new era for Ischia, in which the harbour
played a key role in changing both the island itself and relations between the island
and the mainland (Quaranta 1855; Mirabella 1913).
Works to improve the structure of the harbour continued for about 2 years. At
the end of the protective breakwater on 15th December 1856 a fifth-order light-
house was first lit. For ships arriving from the northeast, Ischia Harbour lighthouse,
together with the smaller warning light from the nearby island of Procida, repre-
sented an important reference point for coastal navigation in the channel that
separated the two islands from the Italian mainland. Southward, instead, Ischia
lighthouse with that of Capri, about 21 miles to the south, would be very useful for
large vessels sailing to and from the islands of Sicily and Malta. Works to redesign
the harbour area were completed with the construction of the church of Santa Maria
di Portosalvo in 1856, crowning the programme of Ferdinand II of the Royal
Delights of Ischia in the last few years of his reign (Rispoli 2007; Delizia 2007a, b).
Ischia Harbour, therefore, played a fundamental part in opening the island
towards the sea and the mainland, allowing new trading and cultural links, further
increasing spa and recreational tourism, supplying a new structure to the island in
which the harbour became the pivot for the island’s social and demographic
growth (Fazio 1896).
From 1943 to 1945 the harbour played a role of vital importance as an Allied
naval base in the Mediterranean Sea Basin, taking its cue from what was hap-
pening on the mainland in the regions of Campania and Lazio, a few miles away
from the island (Silvestri 2004). In the years after the Second World War the
Fig. 13 Ischia Harbour in the 1950s with the old cableway (postcard of the island)
44 S. Carlino et al.
Harbour of Ischia still retained all its splendour (Fig. 13) (Taddeo 1954). However,
the post-war subsequent economic boom and increase in tourism were to change
the area progressively, resulting from excessive population pressure. This was to
lead to a gradual covering/sealing of the transformed natural landscape by the
distinctly man-made landscape. However, the volcanic structure of this region is
still predominant; its natural evolution must be taken into account when assessing
the island’s future economic and population development scenarios. Ischia Har-
bour is deep enough today to navigationally accommodate rather large motorized
and sail-driven ships.
5 Recent Geological Studies of Ischia
The island of Ischia, located at the margin of the Bay of Naples, has an area of
47 km
2
with 34 km of coastline. It is formed by volcanic rocks (pyroclastic flow
and fall, lava domes and lava flows) from eruptive centres largely destroyed or
covered by subsequent activity. The oldest volcanic activity dates back about
150 ka BP while the most recent eruption occurred in 1301–1302 (Fig. 14).
In recent times geophysical, geological and volcanological studies have been
performed to gain insights into the volcano-tectonic dynamic of the Campanian
volcanic district, also including the island of Ischia (Cubellis and Luongo 1998;
Judenherc and Zollo 2004; Carlino et al. 2006; Berrino et al. 2008; Paoletti et al.
2009; Sbrana et al. 2009; Vezzoli et al. 2009; de Vita et al. 2010). Many of these
studies agree with the hypothesis, first proposed by Rittmann (1930), that volcano-
tectonic processes of the island are linked to the occurrence of a shallow magmatic
intrusion (about 2 km deep) beneath its central sector. This intrusion probably took
place after the large ignimbrite eruption which occurred about 55 ka ago, with
emission of 20–45 km
3
of pyroclastic flow, pumice flow and ash-fall deposits,
called Mt. Epomeo Green Tuff (MEGT). This eruption produced a sub-circular
caldera collapse, about 10 km 9 7 km wide, which underwent a process of
resurgence, starting about 33 ka ago (Vezzoli 1988), and formed the uplifted
structure of Mt. Epomeo (787 m above sea-level). The edges of the uplifted Mt.
Epomeo block are marked by a system of faults and fractures (Vezzoli 1988;Fusi
et al. 1990; Orsi et al. 1991; Luongo et al. 1995; Cubellis and Luongo 1998;
Tibaldi and Vezzoli 1998, 2004; Carlino et al. 2006; Sbrana et al. 2009). The
average uplift of *800 m, deduced by the present-day height of marine deposits
on Mt. Epomeo, occurred as a discontinuous process, until 5 ka BP, at an average
velocity of about 3.3 cm year
-1
. During the last 10 ka the geological history of the
island was also punctuated by the occurrence of large-scale avalanching processes,
producing the dismantlement of the southern slope of Mt. Epomeo between 8 and
5 ka (Vezzoli 1988; Tibaldi and Vezzoli 2004; Luongo et al. 1995; Carlino and
Cubellis 2005; Carlino et al. 2006, 2008; Luongo et al. 2008, 2009).
The seafloor around the island shows an articulate morphology due to volcanic,
tectonic and erosional marine geomorphologic processes. Many shallow banks,
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 45
which are the result of submarine volcanic activity, are located around the island at
shallow depth. The southern part of the sea-bottom is riven by different canyons,
the largest of which lies on the main tectonic alignments of the area. The conti-
nental shelf is well developed in the northern part of the island with a slight
descending slope, while the southern part has a marked shelf break very close to
the coastline. Another remarkable feature of the sea-bottom around the island is
the presence of large debris deposits resulting from the avalanching processes
which involved the slope of Mount Epomeo (Chiocci and De Alteriis 2006). The
largest of these underwater debris deposits is located in the southern part of the
island where a typical ‘‘hummocky topography’’ is observed at a depth of 600
Fig. 14 Geological map of the island with the main tectonic features. Two relevant structures are
drawn: the Green Tuff caldera and the resurgent area of Mt. Epomeo (modified after Vezzoli et al.
2009)
46 S. Carlino et al.
to 100 m below sea-level, while only minor landslides have involved the conti-
nental shelf in near the entrance to Ischia Harbour (Fig. 15).
5.1 The Recent Sub-surface Dynamic
The sequential time history of eruptions in the island can be obtained from 150 ka
BP up to the last great eruption in AD 1301–1302 with lava flow in the eastern
sector. Instead, the data on the earthquakes are usually reliable only from the
thirteenth century onwards. From that time, many earthquakes devastated the
northern part of the island; the strongest, and latest, major earthquake occurred in
1883 (Imax = XI MCS degree), producing severe damage and 2,333 victims.
Afterwards, a low level of seismicity was observed on Ischia (Cubellis and Luongo
1998; Cubellis et al. 2004; Luongo et al. 2006; Carlino et al. 2009).
Presently, a diffuse hydrothermal system, with fumaroles and hot-springs with
maximum surface temperatures of *100C, is recognizable around the resurgent
block of Mt. Epomeo, while submerged archaeological ruins near the existing
coastline, and levelling data since the early twentieth century testify to a general
subsidence of the island (Luongo et al. 1987; Pingue et al. 2005; Manzo et al. 2006;
De Martino et al. 2007). A low subsidence rate (few millimetres/year) can be
Fig. 15 Digital Terrain Model (DTM) of emerged and submerged area of Ischia volcanic field.
The different slope of the scarps in the northern and southern sector is evident. The red zones
represent the main debris avalanche deposits whose source has been identified on the island. To
the right the island of Procida (modified after de Alteriis et al. 2006)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 47
linked to the stasis phase of the shallow magma body dynamic below the surface
of the island.
5.1.1 The Geology of Ischia Harbour
The crater of Ischia Harbour was formed several centuries BC. The volcanic
products in the eastern sector (San Pietro Hill) overlie a palaeosol developed on
top of an older trachyte containing pottery remains from the fifth century BC and
roof tiles of the sixth to fifth centuries BC (Buchner 1986; Vezzoli et al. 2009)
(Fig. 16). The Ischia Harbour crater was formed by a phreatomagmatic eruption,
during which the explosive energy increased, followed by a magmatic phase with a
strombolian activity (Fig. 17a, b). A small positive gravity Bouguer anomaly
(Maino and Tribalto 1971), close to the harbour, highlights the presence of a
shallow dense mass which can be interpreted as due to the solidified lava lake
formed during the last phase of the eruption (Fig. 18). This interpretation is
supported by the presence of a rock block emerging from the lake surface.
What remains of the Ischia Harbour eruptive centre is a sub-circular crater
*400 m across in diameter, located along a NE–SW eruptive fissure. The related
products are composed, from bottom to top, of stratified tuffs, black scoriae,
Fig. 16 Geological map of Ischia harbour (modified after Vezzoli et al. 2009)
48 S. Carlino et al.
spatters and spatter-fed lavas. The basal unit shows cross laminations and abundant
lithic content, which suggests a pyroclastic surge origin due to phreatomagmatic
explosions. During the eruption, fire-fountains probably generated the scoriae and
spatter deposits located along N–S and NE–SW-striking fracture within the Ischia
Harbour crater. The internal and external slopes of San Pietro hill, to the east, and
the Spiaggia degli Inglesi marine cliff, to the west, are mantled by stratified tuffs,
scoriae, and spatter deposits. The external slopes are characterised by the presence
of, spatter bombs welded together and flowed, ballistic lithic blocks and accre-
tionary lava balls (Vezzoli et al. 2009) (Fig. 16).
Fig. 17 Sketch of the formation of a crater like Ischia Harbour (maar-type). This is formed after
small phreatic eruptions during which the magma comes into contact with water and increases its
explosivity (a). After the eruption a moderate collapse of the crater occurs, while the lava which
has feed the eruption solidifies forming a dike; the volcanic depression is refilled by the water (b)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 49
On the west side of the harbour, the oldest unit comprises volcanogenetic
sediments composed of stratified, fossiliferous sand and ashy silt. The fossil
content indicates a palaeo-bathymetry between 50 and 80 m below sea level,
dating from 9,800 to about 6,400 years ago (Barra et al. 1992; Vezzoli et al. 2009).
At present, these sediments are uplifted up to 50 m, testifying to a minimum uplift
of about 100 m during the last 10 ka.
The most recent coastline variation of the harbour area is exemplified by the
presence of archaeological ruins on the land close to the crater. These finds are also
located along the coastline in the eastern sector of the island (Castello d’Ischia), in
the north-western and western part (Lacco Ameno and Forio) and in the southern
as well (Sant’Angelo). The finds have been dated between the fourth century BC
and second AD, and consist of Greek and Roman walls, and the remains of thermal
baths and pools (Buchner 1965). They provide evidence for the general subsidence
of the island since they are commonly located 1.5–2 m below the present sea level;
thus an inversion of the ground movements occurred, later than the Roman period;
Friedlander (1938) using a tide-gauge measured a subsidence velocity of
3.4 mm year
-1
. Taking into account this value and the depth of the ruins two
hypothesis are possible on the subsidence: in the first the subsidence started in the
first century AD, but its velocity during the last 2000 years was far less than that
observed by Friedlander; alternatively, in the second the subsidence started a long
time later than the Roman period.
Nowadays two tide-gauges, which belong to a wider network for sea-level
monitoring in the Bay of Naples, operate on the island, at Ischia and Forio har-
bours. The data are also utilised for slow ground deformation monitoring related to
the dynamic of Neapolitan volcanoes (Capuano et al. 2004).
Fig. 18 The positive Bou-
guer anomaly inferred from
the gravimetric survey of the
island, interpreted as the
occurrence of a shallow
magmatic body very close to
the harbour area (modified
after Maino and Tribalto
1971)
50 S. Carlino et al.
6 The Island of Ischia: Development and Natural Risks
Since 1854, when the harbour was opened up, the island has undergone far-
reaching changes in terms of its economy, society and land use. The Harbour at
Ischia has become a major tourist destination besides the main point of access to
the island: its shores have been radically changed by human intervention and by
a development policy chiefly focusing on increasing the building meterage
(Luongo et al. 2006) (Figs. 19a, b, 20). In the Ischia municipality the resident
population has more than doubled since the early 1800s (ISTAT 1861–2001) and
the relative urban expansion has failed to take account of the knowledge acquired
of natural phenomena occurring on the island and especially their possible effects
upon the region (Luongo et al. 2006). After all, the island has an active volcanic
dynamic, and is affected by seismicity, chiefly in the northern sector, and has a
high predisposition to landslides and floods on land (Luongo 2009; Carlino et al.
2010).
In this context, the remarkable recent urbanisation on the island and the lack of
planning that accentuates the vulnerability of the region has produced an expo-
nential increase in geological risk. Previous visible eruptions, felt earthquakes and
uncontrolled freshwater flooding on the island of Ischia have produced a wealth of
literature on such catastrophic natural hazard events. In general, these events are
recorded in such disparate fashion, as in newspapers, in reports of property
boundary and damage disputes, historical and sociological analysis, poetry and
artistic works and some published scientific analysis (Cubellis and Luongo 1998,
and references therein).
Eruptions, earthquakes and tsunamis have been recorded in myths, legends,
demonstrated by archaeological finds, described in historical documents and the
results of recent scientific and engineering surveys. Documented descriptions of
Fig. 19 Ischia Harbour today (a); the considerable urbanization of the area is evident. The old
channel for the circulation of the water can still be made out, though it has turned into a cement
structure (b) (from Google Earth)
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 51
historical eruptive events are only available for the last eruption of 1301–1302,
while there are records for eruptive events in the early centuries AD. More
comprehensive accounts are available about historical seismicity. Information and
documentation have been available since the 1228 earthquake. However, more
detailed, useful interpretations of earthquakes concern events from the end of the
eighteenth century. There is an almost inexhaustible literature related to the 1881
and 1883 earthquakes, pointing out the relationship between seismicity and the
volcanic history of the island. These two seismic events occurred during an intense
period of production of geological maps and fieldwork study on the island’s
physical characteristics. The effects of the earthquakes were classified using the
former scale of intensity, and different mechanisms of the seismic source were
suggested (Luongo et al. 1987; Cubellis and Luongo 1998; Luongo et al. 2006).
The earliest information on hydrogeological disasters on the island dates back
to the sixteenth century when major floods affected the island during extreme local
weather conditions. An archetypal phenomenon was the 1910 flood which caused
serious property damage and remarkable changes in morphology of the areas
directly affected by the sudden inundations. In recent times (for example, AD 2006
and 2009) floods scourged the island again, producing debris flows which dev-
astated its northern sector, resulting in human injuries, some few fatalities and
remarkably heavy damage to the island’s infrastructure.
Analysis of catastrophic events on the island occurring during historical times
shows, in synthesis, that its northern sector was the region affected by the heaviest
earthquake and flood damage. This condition is caused by the region’s tectonics
and morphology, as highlighted by the integrated analysis of structural data and
seismicity.
Although in recent times our knowledge of the island’s geological phenomena
has improved, and special attention has been laid on the effects of their most
Fig. 20 A comparison
between settlements around
Ischia Harbour in 1840 and
2001. A huge increase in
built-up areas has occurred,
with a consequent increase in
exposure and volcanic and
seismic risk
52 S. Carlino et al.
intense manifestations and related risks, regrettably among the unwary commu-
nities exposed to environmental risk few people have adopted the culture of
preventive action. In light of this fact, the level of attention to extreme geological
phenomena apparently only grows in concomitance with catastrophic events, while
political decision-makers limit themselves to intervening only in the emergency
phase, without any long-term programming of responsible land-use management
policies to ensure the future reduction of geological risk. This situation becomes
hard to macro-manage when, faced with the recurrence of entirely natural phe-
nomena capable of instigating very significant damage to property and inducing
tragic loss of human life, there is still the dogged continuation of illegal building,
which has during the early twenty first century produced a level of risk to residents
and visitors that is no longer really acceptable by a truly modern society.
7 Conclusions
The opening of Ischia Harbour in 1854 was undoubtedly an intervention which
radically changed the hierarchical relations between the island and the mainland. It
is also a fine example of the art of nineteenth century macro-engineering (Rispoli
2007). It was an operation which, in terms of techniques and execution times, was
certainly ahead of its time. Although the reasons that drove King Ferdinand II to
open up the pre-existing Bagno Lake, to make it the island’s main port, were
chiefly personal, what lay behind the choice was the spirit of renewal in regional
policies, which was one of the hallmarks of the Bourbon government. At that time
the island was already well known for treatments with its thermal waters, espe-
cially in Casamicciola, where since the late sixteenth century many visitors had
gone to enjoy their therapeutic effects. However, the lack of safe harbours
throughout the island made access difficult, especially in winter months when the
frequency of sea storms increases considerably. With the opening-up of Ischia
Harbour, the situation radically changed: maritime traffic and the flow of visitors
shifted towards the eastern side of the island which thus became easily accessible,
also for large steamships. The new centre of life on Ischia would become endowed
with further improvement works, especially on the road network, which—together
with the very presence of the harbour—was to generate a population increase in
the comune of Ischia, rather than elsewhere on the island, and lead to new urban
settlements.
The natural features of the harbour, obtained from an ancient crater lake, are
certainly singular. However, its so well-defined shape has prevented its expansion
(Rispoli 2007), which would seem necessary to handle the substantial increase in
maritime traffic. Hence the morphology of the ancient lake poses a constraint to
expanding today’s port. Today, its navigational depth is \10 m. Maritime traffic
can only be regularised on Ischia through a strategy to improve the efficiency of
port services and passenger vessels. During the peak tourist season more than 20
large vessels dock and sail daily, handling about 15,000 passengers, and over 35
History of Ischia Harbour (Southern Italy) 53
fast-ferry watercraft handling 8,000 passengers, making a total flow of 23,000
passengers per day. It is some surprise that, in 1853, the Provincial Council of
Naples failed to approve the construction of the new harbour of Ischia, which it
considered a site ‘‘unsusceptible to development’’. Clearly, for such regions
endowed with natural, untamed landscape and cultural attractions, interventions
resulting in better accessibility and fruition produce not only an increase in tourist
traffic, but also proliferation in the resident human population. Moreover, as the
island economy’s organisational centre, the Harbour brings about the transition
from settlement of the coastal zone to that of the inland zone. The trade taking
place in the market-harbour promotes a deep-rooted conversion of production,
from a closed, internalized intra-consumption economy to an inter-regional trade
economy (Vella and Barbera 2001). In this sense, Ischia Harbour represented not
only a window looking to Italy’s mainland but also a key factor in the island’s
social and cultural aggregation.
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