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Advantages of the Vertical Farm
Abstract
The history of how we became an agrarian society and of farming’s increasingly destructive force on the world’s functional
ecosystems provides convincing proof that soil-based farming is not working and probably never did. Over 12,000 years of continuous
human activity of working the land is a long time to prove or disprove something, but such has been the case for in-soil cultivation.
By failure, I mean that without irrigation, agrochemicals, and modern farm machinery, raising crops for human consumption
could not go on indefinitely in the same place. It is simply not an ecological option. Selectively breeding a set of domesticated
plants with high-yielding reproductive structures but with no ability to survive on their own is bound to place extraordinary
demands on any soil, even nutrient-rich volcanic deposits. By contrast, monocultures are quite rare in nature, with some stands
of trees and wide swaths of tall grass prairies being the primary exceptions. Even here, thought, there is ample diversity
of both other plant species, vertebrates of many kinds, and a myriad of invertebrates and microbes living on and in the soil.
Biodiversity means there is competition among all the assemblages of plants and animals for resources. It also means that
there is effective recycling of nutrients at all four trophic levels. For that reason, competition on farmland, if allowed
to go unchecked (i.e., sans fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides), would greatly reduce yields. Sharing resources with
the rest of the wildlife is not an option for commercial farming, no matter how “ecological” the farmer claims to be. Therefore,
the sole purpose of agrochemicals is to reduce, or, better yet, completely eliminate the competition, favoring the crop of
choice, by killing off the insects and unwanted weeds. It should also be noted that over the past 50 years of implementing
this two-pronged chemical strategy, numerous weed-like plants have become more and more resistant to herbicides, while the
insect pests have become almost totally resistant to a wide variety of pesticides. It is natural selection at work, no matter
how clever we get in the laboratory.
... The cultivation inside CEA systems is independent from external conditions and can be installed close to urban or peri-urban areas in order to contribute to reduced food miles and CO 2 emissions sourcing from transportation [1]. According to Despommier [20], the implementation of these systems can benefit the growing urban population by producing fresh food and allows the ecosystem's restoration by liberating agricultural areas. He also mentions a number of advantages over conventional agriculture such as the ability to produce crops all year round and the use of hydroponics and aeroponics systems, which can save big amounts of fresh water. ...
... At the same time, the FAO states that the use of chemical fertilizers has increased by 40% since 2000 and the total of fertilizers used in 2018 was 188 million tons. Simultaneously, the world is facing challenges posed by climate change and the inability to exploit further arable land due to erosion or adverse weather conditions, while about 80% of the available arable land has already been utilized [6,20,157]. Despommier [158] characteristically stated that if farming techniques continue as they are, in 2050 arable land the size of Brazil (1 billion ha) will be necessary to meet global food demand. ...
... Especially in cases where the weather does not favor the cultivation or food is not produced locally, crops are imported from other countries, thus greatly increasing the miles they need to travel from farm till fork [157]. In addition to the fuels consumed in traditional farming methods for agricultural operations, food transport includes trucks, ships and airplanes, which consume large amounts of fuels both for food transportation and preservation via cooling methods [6,20]. Even for crops from large GH facilities, the distance requirements for food traveling could be several miles in order to reach urban centers [1]. ...
The rapidly growing population and increasing urbanization have created the need to produce more food and transport it safely to urban areas where the majority of global consumers live. Open-field agriculture and food distribution systems have a lot of food waste, and, in parallel, the largest percentage of available arable land is already occupied. In most cases, food produced by compatible agricultural methods needs to be frozen and travel several miles until it reaches the consumer, with high amounts of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions produced by this process, making it an unsustainable method with huge amounts of CO2 emissions related with fresh food products. This research contains an extensive literature review based on 165 international publications (from 2006–2022) describing and analyzing the efficiency and impact of controlled-environment agriculture (CEA) methods, and more precisely, greenhouses (GHs) and vertical farms (VFs), in the environmental footprint of food production and consumption. Based on various publications, we could draw the conclusion that VFs could highly influence a greener transition to the sustainability of urban consumption with reduced CO2 emissions sourcing from food transportation and limited post-harvest processes. However, there is a significant demand for further energy efficiency, specifically when it comes to artificial lighting operations inside VFs. A large-scale implementation of VFs that operate with renewable energy sources (RES) could lead to significant urban decarbonization by providing the opportunity for integrated energy–food nexus systems. Under this direction, VFs could optimize the way that cities interact with meeting the food and energy demand in densely urbanized areas.
... In some cases, controlled environment growers can capitalise on the fact that they can produce crops counter-cyclically, by selling crops when they would otherwise be out of season (Smit et al., 2001). This can be a market advantage provided that environmental control is not too costly as has been proven, profitably, for some leafy greens and herbs (Despommier, 2012). ...
... Locating food production in urban areas increases the potential to recycle water, nutrients and heat energy which are produced in much higher quantities in cities (Heard et al., 2017). Reviews of UA often discuss the potential to exploit the proximity of urban farms to points of production of organic waste, waste-water, rainfall runoff and waste heat to close the loop on energy, water and nutrients (Despommier, 2012;Specht et al., 2014;Thomaier et al., 2015). However, the degree to which is being achieved is variable. ...
... Modern, high-tech greenhouses and plant factories can have a very positive impact on the water use efficiency of crop production with some evidence of efficiencies of greater than 90% (Fig. 5 a) (Smit et al., 2001;Despommier, 2012;Aerofarms, 2018). Given that lettuce and leafy greens have a water content of 90-95%, water use efficiencies of close to 1 L per kg fresh weight produced for plant factories, reported by Graamans et al. (2018) and Kikuchi et al. (2018), are remarkable because this suggests that the crop is grown with near zero net water consumption. ...
The Food and Agriculture Organization estimates that more than 800 million people engage in urban agriculture producing more than 15% of the world's food. Recently, there has been a resurgence of interest in urban agriculture in many wealthy, developed cities, with new technology and agro-architecture being employed to grow food in cities at commercial scale. This has been accompanied by an increase in media coverage. Big claims are being made, including that urban agriculture can decrease greenhouse emissions, ‘climate proof’ farms, help solve food security for growing urban populations and provide chemical free food with no risk of pests and diseases. Many of these claims need to be rigorously tested to ensure that sound investments can be made in enterprises that are financially viable and capable of delivering on claims of social and environmental benefits. Around the world, traditional broadacre and horticulture farming have been underpinned by years of biological, chemical, physical, economic and social research. Urban agriculture needs similar support as the industry grows and develops around the world. There are opportunities to improve crop yields and quality by pairing advancements in environmental controls, phenomics and automation with breeding efforts to adapt traits for architecture, development and quality (taste and nutrition) allowing a more diverse set of crops to be grown in controlled-environment farms. Urban farms are uniquely placed to take advantage of urban waste energy, water and nutrients but innovations are needed to use these resources safely and economically. This review discusses the technological research and innovations necessary for urban agriculture to meet the nutritional requirements of growing urban populations.
... According to Despommier [10], vertical farms (type of urban horticulture) would initially cost a lot and subsequently, and the price would reduce as more people start to request for it as they begin see how it benefits man and the environment [10]. Urban green space architects are advancing the vertical farming technology with automatic system controls to minimize labor costs [48]. ...
... According to Despommier [10], vertical farms (type of urban horticulture) would initially cost a lot and subsequently, and the price would reduce as more people start to request for it as they begin see how it benefits man and the environment [10]. Urban green space architects are advancing the vertical farming technology with automatic system controls to minimize labor costs [48]. ...
Urban Horticulture is simply a way of using veggies, herbs, fruits, and flowers that will perform multiple functions, such as food, flavor, and ornamental appearance. Urban agriculture represents an opportunity to improve food supply, health conditions, local economy, social integration, and environmental sustainability. Edible landscaping offers an alternative to conventional landscapes producing vegetables, fruits, and herbs for home use. Edibles can be independently grown or blended with ornamentals into existing yards and gardens into aesthetically pleasing designs. Many edibles function in the landscape in just a perfect way, i.e., date palm is extensively used in the landscape as a major tree, rosemary that is used as a spice is suitable for low-growing perennial hedge, and purple basil is the perfect alternative for dark-leaved annuals for pots. The need for edible landscaping is gaining more interest due to the increasing population and spreading of urban communities worldwide. It functions many goals, leading us to explain the benefits and methods of applying edible ornamentals or, as preferred to be titled as edible landscaping. Finally, from an environmental perspective, urban horticulture can directly reduce the city footprint since it reduces the impact associated with food transport, but also by improving the resource efficiency of the urban ecosystem (e.g., when organic wastes are composted, or rainwater is collected), or mitigating the urban heat island effect through plant transpiration, resulting in a reduction of the city emissions of carbon dioxide.
... This is because environmentally controlled structures can be installed in a wide range of facilities and sizes, including high tunnels, greenhouses, growth chambers, warehouses, abandoned buildings, etc. [3][4][5]. The controlled environment crop production system mainly utilizes soilless cultivation techniques, saving up to 70-95% of the water used in conventional farming [5][6][7]. In addition, it can also optimize the use of nutrients. ...
The practice of cultivating crops in a controlled environment using a soilless culture method is seeing an increasing level of popularity. The aforementioned challenges include addressing climate change, combating pests and diseases, mitigating falling soil fertility, and ensuring constant production and quality. One of the potential crops that could be grown with such a method is soybean. Soybean cultivation in a controlled environment using soilless culture still needs more information, especially regarding nutrient solution management of certain soybean varieties. Thus, this study investigated the impact of nutrient concentrations and variety on soybean growth, yield, and chemical composition. This research was carried out in a plant growth chamber using expanded clay aggregate as a soilless substrate. The treatments were four nutrient concentrations: 0% (control), 50%, 100%, and 150%, and two different varieties: Martina and Johanna. The findings of this research revealed that there were significant differences in nutrient treatments on all parameters measured. Application of nutrient concentration at 50% resulted in the most profound root size for both varieties. Applying 100% nutrient concentration produced a higher 100-grain weight for the Johanna variety. Application of nutrient concentration at 150% resulted in the highest shoot weight and shoot:root ratio for both varieties, with varietal differences. Furthermore, applying nutrient concentration at 150% also produced the highest grain yield/pot, protein yield, and lipid yield for both varieties. Thus, the nutrient concentration between 100% and 150% gave a positive effect and can be applied for planting Martina and Johanna using this system.
... "Farming has disrupted more natural processes than any other activity-it is the most damaging process on the planet," says Despommier [13]. Many forests and natural lands worldwide have been sacrificed to become farmlands for the commercial production of crops. ...
During the 21st century, food security has become a significant concern due to the growing population and the Earth's diminishing resources. The Kingdom of Bahrain is one of the numerous countries that has been affected by urbanization, where the urban expansion was at the price of agricultural land. The paper introduces a rational for Vertical Farms that are sustainable solutions for 21 st-century urbanization. It brings multiple benefits to Bahrain and its community in terms of food security, education, awareness, and health. It also supports its food security strategy and its 2030 vision. The study discusses the proposed project location in terms of the project's needs as an urban vertical farm that aims to serve locals & residents of Bahrain by improving the quality and quantity of locally grown fruits and vegetables in an indoor controlled environment. The paper discussed various analyzed case studies of comparable type projects to understand better the project's purposes, spaces, technological needs, and other significant features. Then, introducing and discussing a decision support framework for a set of criteria that responds to the primary sustainability pillars have been established to identify the best potential site to assure project success.
... As a result, neither high concentration solid fertilizers nor toxic pesticides are used in the process, which ensures pollution-free agricultural products. (Despommier, 2012). ...
Sustainable cities are increasingly requiring local food systems. On the contrary, food self-sufficiency rate in many cities is continuously decreasing. In recent years, the concept of vertical farming (VF) has begun to show its advantages in providing a promising hope for alleviating this contradiction. However, there are few studies on the potential of VF on a city scale. This paper aims to assess the economic feasibility of an urban family vertical farming (UFVF) in Shanghai newly-built residential by modeling typical family planting mode, and using the evaluation software of vertical farms (VFer) software for calculation. Meanwhile, the influence of UFVF on the self-sufficiency rate of vegetables and fruits of households and the whole city is investigated. The results demonstrate that the UFVF contributes to increasing the self-sufficiency rate of vegetables and fruits by 20.68 % and 2.54 %, respectively, which could be important to enhance the resilience of local food system. Additionally, the return on investment of UFVF could achieve approximately 30 %. The proposed techno-economic model can assist to better predicting the small-scale VF on the urban scale, which provides a basis for decision-making on development of sustainable urban agriculture.
The surging global population and urbanization trends present new challenges to food production systems and energy, especially in resource-limited urban environments. Vertical farming on façades (VFOF) is an innovative strategy to address this challenge by growing crops on building skins, efficiently using urban space, increasing food self-sufficiency, and reducing the environmental impact of carbon emissions. This article is a comprehensive review of VFOF and closely related topics based on 166 journal articles. It covers the latest research advances in design, technology, social impact, and environmental benefits. In addition to enhancing the autonomy of urban food supply and improving residents’ quality of life, VFOF also has the potential to optimize the thermal performance of buildings and promote energy conservation by having some of the qualities of vertical greening systems (VGS). The planting system design and technical support factors for different façade locations are explained in detail. The symbiotic relationship between VFOF and architecture is examined to enhance sustainability. The popularity of VFOF is increasing in terms of social acceptance, and the government, together with the private sector and communities, play a vital role in promoting its development. In addition, this review also collates the cases of VFOF implementation in recent years. Research shows that the implementation of VFOF has many advantages, especially when considering future urban challenges under climate change scenarios and the need to provide solutions to achieve carbon neutral buildings and cities. Still, high initial investment, operating costs, technical complexity, security issue, policy and regulatory constraints, and public acceptance are all challenges to overcome. Further research should be carried out in the above fields.
The growing populations in urban areas and the decrease in available land are major constraints to sustainable crop production in and around cities. All over the world, many people do not get enough food and proper nourishment. Urban horticulture which is the production of vegetables, herbs, medicinal and ornamental plants around cities may serve as a solution. Worldwide, temperatures vary in different seasons and urban growers face challenges in sustaining production due to poor yield and crop losses. Therefore, urban horticultural growers may need to employ new techniques and tools to improve their practices. However, many of these recent developments require capital, access to specific information, knowledge, and resources to improve their skills on production, processing, and marketing of their produce. This paper reviews the recent developments in urbanization and urban horticulture, the types of urban horticulture as well as tools and techniques in urban horticulture. The focus of this paper is on recent developments in vertical farming systems (hydroponics, aeroponics, and aquaponics) including organic vertical farming research. Also listed in this study are solutions that urban horticulture provides such as provision of food security and, poverty alleviation. Some of the concerns, challenges, and benefits in urban vertical farming systems would also be explored.
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