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Dual Coding Theory and Education
Abstract and Figures
Dual coding theory (DCT) explains human behavior and experience in terms of dynamic associative processes that operate on a rich network of modality-specific verbal and nonverbal (or imagery) representations. We first describe the underlying premises of the theory and then show how the basic DCT mechanisms can be used to model diverse educational phenomena. The research demonstrates that concreteness, imagery, and verbal associative processes play major roles in various educational domains: the representation and comprehension of knowledge, learning and memory of school material, effective instruction, individual differences, achievement motivation and test anxiety, and the learning of motor skills. DCT also has important implications for the science and practice of educational psychology — specifically, for educational research and teacher education. We show not only that DCT provides a unified explanation for diverse topics in education, but also that its mechanistic framework accommodates theories cast in terms of strategies and other high-level psychological processes. Although much additional research needs to be done, the concrete models that DCT offers for the behavior and experience of students, teachers, and educational psychologists further our understanding of educational phenomena and strengthen related pedagogical practices.
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... One rational explication for the benefits of etymology can be found in Dual Coding theory (10). As Boers, Eyckmans, and Stengers (11) stated: "the etymological information is likely to call up a mental image of a concrete scene which can then be stored in memory alongside the verbal form, and which can subsequently provide an extra pathway for recall". ...
... As Boers, Eyckmans, and Stengers (11) stated: "the etymological information is likely to call up a mental image of a concrete scene which can then be stored in memory alongside the verbal form, and which can subsequently provide an extra pathway for recall". Although morphological studies (10)(11)(12) have been carried out in the context of Iranian EFL learners to show the significance of teaching and learning through etymology, there have been a limited number of English language schools and institutes to employ etymological-based books, syllabus, or approaches in concept of vocabulary learning and teaching. Furthermore, nowadays, in the technologically advanced societies, traditional vocabulary enquiries are tedious, especially for EFL learners who are brought up in the digital era (13). ...
Background: Vocabulary learning is of paramount importance in language learning. Thus, effective ways of teaching new words are sought after by language teachers. This study aimed to investigate the effectiveness of three techniques of vocabulary teaching on learning and retention. Methods: Initially, 80 upper intermediate female learners of Iran Oxford institute in Tehran participated in this one sample time series quasi-experimental study. Based on the Oxford Online English-Vocabulary Level Test, 37 learners were qualified. In Summer 2021, they took part in the first phase and received the routine treatment. The same students took part in the first experimental group and received the non-etymological-based online game, although only 33 students turned up. In the last stage, the number of participants reduced to 30; therefore, the data analyses were done with 30 students. After each stage, a posttest and a delayed posttest (taken from Building English Vocabulary with Etymology from Latin) were administered. One way ANOVA and Scheffe's Test were run to compare the groups. Results: The results indicated that the etymological game group outperformed (M=13.16, SD=1.17) the non-etymological (M=12.00, SD=2.33, P=0.04) and control groups (M=11.10, SD=1.53, P<0.001). Moreover, the difference between the non-etymological group and the control group was significant (P=0.048). In the delayed posttest, a significant difference was detected between the etymological game group and the control group (P<0.001). Besides, the etymological game group gained a significantly higher mean score mean score (M=12.40, SD=1.83) than the non-etymological game group (M=9.93, SD=1.99) (P<0.001). However, the non-etymological game group did not significantly outperform the control group (P=0.915). Conclusion: The results of post-and delayed post-tests indicated that the etymological game group had the best result followed by non-etymological game group.
... These components can function somewhat independently and simultaneously but have limited capacity. This is the basis of the dual code theory described below, TOWARD A SCIENCE OF ADULT LEARNING 19 which suggests that we can process visual and auditory information simultaneously (Clark & Paivio, 1991). ...
... The dual channel principle suggests that technology-mediated instruction should have both visual and related auditory information that can be processed concurrently to improve learning (Mayer, 2014). This is based on dual coding theory which explains our ability to encode information from different senses about the same experience at the same time using the episodic buffer (Clark & Paivio, 1991). ...
Nearly half of undergraduates are adult learners aged 24 and over (Cahalan et al., 2020), with the majority of online learners being beyond the age of traditional college students (Snyder et al., 2019). However, adult learners are four times less likely to graduate with a degree (Miller, 2019) and in workplace settings, training performance declines with age (Kubeck et al., 1996). Traditional adult learning theories focus less on the underlying cognitive processes and more on personal growth and development (Merriam, 2017). In this paper, the essential cognitive differences between adults and traditional-aged college students are described with a specific focus on memory and learning. Combining the learning sciences, adult learning research, and the learning engineering process into a new science of adult learning can help us to better understand the unique learning needs of adult
learners, potentially improving their outcomes.
... Previous studies have found that the cognitive processing speed and efficiency for concrete concepts is better than those for abstract concepts in cognitive tasks such as lexical judgment tasks (Ding, Liu & Yang, 2017), recognition tasks (Klaver et al., 2005) and memory tasks (van Schie et al., 2005). Dual coding theory suggests that for conceptual information processing, encoding occurs through verbal and nonverbal (sensory-motor) systems (Paivio, 1991). Concrete concepts are advantageous because they activate both systems, whereas abstract concepts evoke only the verbal system. ...
Despite the issuance of standardized garbage classification signage, the rate of garbage classification in China remains low. We conducted a pair of laboratory experiments to explore the cognitive processing differences between abstract (including recyclables, hazardous garbage, and food signs) and concrete (including paper, plastic, glass, metal, textiles, batteries, household chemicals, tubes, and food signs) classification signs. We tested a nudging strategy to enhance garbage classification behavior. In Experiment 1, we divided garbage classification signs into two conditions: an abstract condition (comprising abstract signs) and a concrete condition (comprising concrete signs). The Go/No Go task was used to simulate garbage classification behavior. Participants were instructed to press a key when the garbage stimulus matched the classification signs (Go condition) and to refrain from pressing the key when there was a mismatch (No Go condition). The results showed that responses under the concrete condition were expedited compared to those under the abstract condition. This suggests that concrete signage requires less cognitive exertion, thereby enhancing the efficiency of waste classification. In Experiment 2, we optimized the existing bin signage, which predominantly featured abstract signs (traditional condition), and transformed it into a bin signage that emphasized concrete classification signs. These concrete signs were strategically positioned on the upper part of the bins to draw attention (nudging condition). The results suggested that the nudging condition required fewer cognitive resources than the traditional condition, which in turn increased the efficiency of processing garbage classification. This study not only validates the effects of concreteness in garbage classification but also provides effective nudge strategies to complement existing garbage classification management policy tools in a realistic Chinese context.
... A multisensory approach is natural and beneficial to the learning process for most learners. Many scholars refer to auditory and visual processing while underrepresenting kinesthetic learning, which contradicts the promotion of pedagogies where learners make an effort, i.e. effortful learning (Brown 2014;Weinstein, Madan, and Sumeracki 2018;Clark and Paivio 1991;Kahneman 2012). In teaching with movements, learners make sense of what they are learning without having to articulate everything verbally. ...
Aikido, a Japanese martial art, typically transforms interactions where interlocutors may feel unsafe into safe interactions for all involved. To explore how the physical and psychological safety of aikido can benefit intercultural communication training, we conducted a benchmark study and triangulated the study’s findings. First, we collected information about the principles of aikido through semi-structured interviews with 20 aikido experts worldwide. A qualitative content analysis revealed three significant groups of aikido principles: tranquillity (i), connection (ii) and ecology (iii). They form the basis for an interaction model. Second, we triangulated the interview findings with biobehavioural studies. Understanding the body’s self- and co-regulation processes explains how aikido can produce physical, physiological and mental changes that inhibit defensive reactions and positively influence behaviour. We conclude that aikido’s interaction, transferability, and regulation properties offer the opportunity to use aikido as an embodied pedagogy in intercultural communication training.
... While this strategy may seem like another way of saying "learning styles," the difference is dual coding requires learners to study and learn content for both representations (Sumeracki, 2019). Clark and Paivio's (1991) dual coding theory "consists of hypothetical networks of verbal and nonverbal representations and descriptions of the mediating patterns of activation (i.e., states of the network) that intervene between stimulus and response events" (p. 157). ...
By leveraging research-backed strategies from the learning sciences, adult educators can help learners develop effective study habits that lead to deeper learning. This paper will discuss the harm in perpetuating neuromyths and how doing so can lead to negative outcomes for learners. Then, six strategies will be shared to help adult educators build and implement evidence-backed research practices in their classrooms. The strategies should lead to better study habits, more knowledge retention, and quicker retrieval speeds. Additionally, employing these techniques can lead to adult learners' building self-efficacy and confidence, which are essential to learner success. Research insights from the learning sciences-a catchall name for disciplines investigating the neurological processes of learning (e.g., cognitive psychology; neuroscience)-should be used to inform teaching and learning design. Cognitive scientists have conducted myriad empirical studies into memory and learning, lending insights into how learning happens. These evidence-based insights into how learners transfer and retain knowledge should inform teaching practices. Nevertheless, a long-standing disconnect between educational research and practice remains, perpetuating beliefs and practices with little to no evidence of their effectiveness. Educators can plan for student learning using six strategies from the learning sciences (Sumeracki, 2019). These strategies are 1) retrieval practice, 2) interleaving, 3) spaced practice, 4) elaboration, 5) dual coding, and 6) using concrete examples. By employing teaching strategies and designing learning experiences that incorporate these techniques, adult educators can demonstrate research-backed study methods for their classrooms. Using these techniques is more likely to result in effective learning. Further, the practices should allow for quicker information retrieval, which, in turn, can enable learners to gain confidence in their learning capacity and capabilities. The purpose of this paper is to discuss how and why adult educators can utilize these six study strategies. Following a brief introduction of past and current theories of learning and the brain, we will explain the danger of neuromyths and argue to support the need for evidence-based strategies in adult learning. Afterward, we will provide an overview of the suggested strategies and ways to apply them in practice. The paper will conclude with a discussion of how employing learning science strategies can empower adult learners.
... Multimedia learning is usually framed in the context of work such as Mayer's theory of multimedia learning and his related twelve principles for multi-media design (Mayer, 2008(Mayer, , 2020Mayer and Fiorella, 2014;Moreno & Mayer, 1999). However, this framework and its theoretical underpinnings of information processing and memory theories (Atkinson, 1971;Baddeley, 1986Baddeley, , 1992Baddeley, , 1999Clark & Paivio, 1991;Paivio, 1986) and cognitive load theory (Chandler & Sweller, 1991;Kalyuga et al., 1999) capture only the cognitive dimension of educational media. While these are necessary aspects to consider for learning, they do not address additional types of impacts that mediating artifacts have both on what is learned and the impact of how messages are framed in educational mediating artifacts. ...
While we usually discuss multimedia in the context of frameworks such as Mayer’s theory of multimedia learning, our frameworks for multimedia lack a contextualized approach that recognize other dimensions and impacts of the work we do with mediating artifacts. Educational technology at its core centers around the introduction of mediating artifacts into learning and performance environments. Shifting from an emphasis on media (i.e., things) to mediating allows us to differently frame the work we do and the artifacts we introduce into systems, emphasizing not merely the nature of the things but the impacts of them as well.
... This study is based on dual coding theory. According to the proponents of dual coding theory (Paivio, 1971;Clark & Paivio, 1991), information is processed through one of two generally independent channels (audio and visual). One channel processes verbal information such as text or audio while the other channel processes nonverbal images. ...
Business Studies is one of the subjects that enable students acquire skills that are essential to personal, occupational and entrepreneurial activities. In Nigeria, there arereports indicating that students are not making consistent progress in learning Business Studies and that this is somehow attributed to teachers’ perception on the usefulnessof instructional materials for effective teaching and learning. However, in pedagogical practice it is believed by the experts of this field that the use of instructional media bythe teachers will make learning more permanent, offer reality of experience and provide high degree of interest. The objective of this study is to investigate the perceptionof teachers on the usefulness of instructional media to effective teaching of Business Studies.Three research hypotheses were formulated to guide the study. A total of 270 Junior Secondary Schools Business Studies Teachers constituted the sample for this studywhile multistage sampling technique was used. The data for the study was collected through the use of adapted and validated instrument called “Media Usefulness in BusinessStudies Questionnaire”. The data collected in this study was analyzed using t-test at 0.05 level of significance.The findings of the study revealed that there is no significant difference in the perception of experienced and less experienced teachers on the usefulness of instructional mediato effective teaching of business studies, there is no significant difference in the perception of male and female teachers on the usefulness of instructional media to effectiveteaching of business studies and there is no significant difference in the perception of teachers based on teaching qualifications on the usefulness of instructional media toeffective teaching of Business Studies. It could therefore be reported that participants in all the groups jointly agreed that instructional materials are useful for effective teachingof Business Studies.Based on the findings, it is recommended that student-friendly instructional technologies should be adequately supplied to the secondary schools. It is also recommendedthat there is need for Ministries of Education, Teacher Training Institutions and Private sector to support in the training of Business Studies teachers on the production andeffective utilization of instructional media.Keywords: Audio-Visuals, Dual Coding, Instructional Technologies, Media, Pedagogy
... Amid verbal and visual systems, there are three separate types of processing that can occur: representational processing, referential processing, and associative processing. Connections between the two reference systems have been made (Clark & Paivio, 1991). ...
The purpose of the paper is to use multimedia as a method to improve proficiency in vocabulary of undergraduate students from the level B1 to B2 (CEFR). The term "code-switching" is used to describe the use of multiple languages during a single discourse. Human minds can take in so much data before they get overwhelmed. The quality of that limited space can be improved by incorporating visual attention alongside verbal attention in order to create mental representations that are utilised to digest incoming information. “People learn more deeply from words and pictures than from words alone” (Mayer, 21). This research builds on previous work in this area by making use of multimedia materials that feature both the learners’ native language and English subtitles. This creates mental space for the students, which in turn guides them to a vocabulary-learning interface. CTML was employed to conduct a quantitative study between the age groups 17 and 20. Using a random sampling technique, researchers collected data from a total of 40 individuals. ANOVA (Analysis of Variance), independent t-tests, and paired t-tests were used to examine the use of Code-Switching in the experimental group and its statistical significance relative of the control group. The findings of the study suggest that utilising CTML can help non-native speakers of English improve their language through code-switching. There was a significant advancement in the vocabulary usage of the experimental samples of those who participated in the study.
Mental models are internal representations of external phenomena. During their interaction with visualizations, the users construct mental models to represent these visualizations internally, to visually reason on them and solve problems with them. This chapter synthesizes existing theories on mental models and visualization to discuss their role and relevance for the design of visualization systems. From a mental models perspective, we discuss two challenges of visualization design: (a) supporting the initial construction of mental models and (b) supporting the integration of information from multiple views by synchronous or sequential coherence techniques. We argue that the theory of mental models allows to understand visualization research and practice in a more unified fashion as an advanced model-building endeavor, operating on human computer ensembles engaged in “distributed cognition.”
Current theories of the structure of cognitive abilities are critically examined and found to lack adequate description of the processes underlying the abilities. An alternative model, Luria's theory of simultaneous and successive syntheses, is presented and discussed. This model of information processing is supported by a number of factor analytic studies of cognitive abilities and then related to data from studies of memory, imagery, and language. Finally, a model of
abilities in terms of a structure-process distinction is proposed.
The Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children—Second Edition (KABC-II, Kaufman & Kaufman, 2004) measures the cognitive abilities and mental processing of children and adolescents between the ages of 3 years 0 months and 18 years 11 months. Administered individually, this clinical instrument consists of 16 subtests (plus a Delayed Recall scale) and provides examiners with a Nonverbal scale composed of subtests that can be administered in pantomime and responded to motorically. The Nonverbal Scale is especially useful for children who are hearing impaired or have limited English proficiency (Kaufman, Kaufman, Kaufman-Singer, & Kaufman, 2005).
