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Frequent Social Comparisons and Destructive Emotions and Behaviors: The Dark Side of Social Comparisons
Abstract
Social comparisons may seem to serve several positive functions, including self-enhancement. Frequent social comparisons, however, have a dark side. Two studies examined the relationship between frequent social comparisons and destructive emotions and behaviors. In Study 1, people who said they made frequent social comparisons were more likely to experience envy, guilt, regret, and defensiveness, and to lie, blame others, and to have unmet cravings. In Study 2, police officers who said they made frequent social comparisons were more likely to show ingroup bias and to be less satisfied with their jobs. The dark side of frequent social comparisons was not associated with self-esteem. Results are discussed in terms of the role of individual differences in social comparison processes.
... Another consequence of using online social networks is social comparison. Negative consequences have been connected to self-comparison [72], particularly when contrasted to a superior counterpart [73]. Social networking platforms provide a variety of opportunities for social comparison. ...
Cyberpsychology is the study of the psychological effects of technology on human behavior. This relatively new field has gained popularity in recent years due to the rapid advancement of technology and the increasing reliance on the internet for communication and socialization. Behavioral science has shown that social networking can positively and negatively affect individuals and society. On the positive side, social networking allows people to connect and communicate with others in ways that were previously impossible, creating new opportunities for socializing, networking, and sharing information and ideas. It can also provide a sense of community, support, and belonging for those who may feel isolated or marginalized in their offline lives. However, social networking platforms have also been linked to negative psychological outcomes such as excessive use leading to addictive behavior and cyberbullying. This paper also discusses the concept of nudging in the digital space and its relevance to social networking services.
... Likewise, social comparisons may result in a belief that external conditions or socially approved benchmarks are more important than internal and personal traits. When a person perceives their inherent characteristics to be less important for gaining social recognition, the sense of self-esteem will be lowered [59]. According to the study by [7], participants who scored higher in social comparison orientation experienced lower self-esteem and poorer self-perception balance. ...
The outbreak of coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) generated a global health crisis, resulting in people facing a distressing and unexpected situation. The risk of contamination and the experience of social distancing changed people's behaviors and impacted individual feelings, habits, and relationships. Uncertainty about the timeline of the growing pandemic, Isolation, and restrictions due to quarantine worsened feelings of anxiety and loneliness among both older and younger populations. Moreover, the loss of one's usual routine and reduced social contacts may cause boredom, frustration, and isolation, which can generate high levels of distress in individuals increasing the risk of mental disorders, such as anxiety, mood, addiction, and thought disorders. During the COVID-19 lockdown, there was a steep increase in social media usage as individuals were confined to their homes, which paved the way for many harmful effects on their mental health. Due to this wide popularity, many researchers are inspired to conduct several studies on excessive social media usage and its impact on our lives. One such prominent research area is the impact of social media on self-esteem. By reviewing different studies, it is evident that one gets a boost in their self-esteem when they get positive responses to their actions (posts, stories, etc.) on social media, on the other hand, as one gets exposed to other‘s highlighted episodes of life (promotion in job, vacations) they have a fundamental drive to compare these with their normal episodes (daily hassles, work routines, academic assignments) in their lives. This tendency called “upward comparisons” frequently occurs among social media users, especially among adolescents eventually leading to low self-esteem.
... As a double-sided coin, group interventions can bring social support and belonging, facilitating patients' health processes, but could also be used as a way to resist change by externalizing one's health needs to others. Accordingly, the evidence shows that frequent SC can trigger destructive emotions and behaviors [50]. Furthermore, stress appraisal, including intolerance of uncertainty, has been proven as a predictor of SC [49,51]. ...
Fibromyalgia syndrome (FMS) disrupts patients’ biopsychosocial spheres. A multicomponent intervention (MCI) program, which combined health education, cognitive behavioral therapy, and physical activity, was conducted in South Catalonia’s primary care centers with the aim of improving symptom self-management and quality of life. A qualitative interview study was carried out to understand patients’ lived experiences during the intervention program. Sampled purposively, 10 patients were interviewed via phone calls and face-to-face. The encounters were audio-recorded, verbatim transcribed, and analyzed through thematic analysis. As a result, four themes emerged: legitimizing fibromyalgia through the MCI, the MCI as a socializing experience, learning how to live with FMS through the MCI, and room for improving the MCI. Participants agreed on the program being an insightful experience that promoted illness knowledge and acceptance and that improved their coping skills and symptom self-management. The inclusion of additional psychological guidance, expressive psychological group therapy, and providing relatives with information were proposed for enhancing the program. Our findings have contributed to gaining insight into the subjective impact of the MCI and identifying new therapeutic targets to tailor the program to patients’ needs, which will hopefully increase its effectiveness and improve their quality of life.
People vary in their individual tendencies to compare to others—referred to as social comparison orientation (SCO). Researchers have heretofore developed and validated a scale to assess SCO—the Iowa-Netherlands Comparison Orientation Measure (INCOM). The standard INCOM assesses non-directional comparisons, but not directional comparisons to better- and worse-off others. The goal of the present research was to examine the factor structure and validity of directional (and non-directional) comparison tendencies using the expanded INCOM. Across four archival studies and one pre-registered study using student and non-student samples, we provide evidence for 1) a 3-factor structure for the INCOM with non-directional, directional-upward, and directional-downward SCO dimensions, 2) inter-correlations among the SCO dimensions suggesting convergent validity of the directional scales, 3) greater endorsement of non-directional, then directional-upward, and directional-downward SCO, 4) lower SCO among older individuals and members of racial/ethnic minority groups, and 5) strong and consistent associations of directional-upward SCO with well-being and affect, appearance beliefs (e.g., body satisfaction), social emotions (e.g., envy), and agency-related motivations and consequences in interpersonal contexts, but smaller and less consistent associations of non-directional and directional-downward SCO with outcomes (with notable exceptions). Taken together, this research indicates that SCO is a multi-faceted individual difference variable.
Income inequality has increased in the United States over the past decades and, more recently, social media has expanded adolescents’ reference groups and their field of social comparison. These parallel societal changes may influence adolescents’ social identity development and affect their well-being. We interviewed adolescents in contact with health services to understand their experiences with social status differences and social comparisons. In this sample of adolescents, social comparisons varied, based on context and individual characteristics, and were associated with a range of feelings and coping mechanisms. We highlight the implications of the findings in the context of changing societal dynamics.
Finding meaning in life (MIL) is one of the central motivations of human life. MIL significantly contributes to the optimal growth of human potential and overall well-being. Baumeister (1991) proposed that four needs: purpose, values, efficacy, and self-worth; shape individuals' quest for MIL. Scholars have suggested that social belongingness and social connection play a significant role in creating MIL. Moreover, social groups play an essential role in satisfying the four needs of MIL. The relationship between humans and technology, such as smartphones, has become intimate. Smartphones have become an integral and inseparable part of humans' life. Smartphones have provided abundant opportunities for constant social connection with family, friends, and diverse social groups. However, the inclusion of smartphones in individuals' lives is 'Janus-faced.' Smartphones provide ample opportunities to build and maintain significant social relationships both in the real and virtual worlds. On the contrary, smartphones tend to overly gratify individuals' pleasure-seeking behaviour and make them addicted to their usage. The study attempts to analyze the intricate relationship between four needs for MIL and perceived smartphone usage. The study considers two aspects of perceived smartphone usage: positive smartphone usage (PSU) and smartphone addiction (SA). A sample of 509 adult participants from India's capital and national capital region responded to questionnaires related to four needs of MIL, PSU, and SA. Data retrieved from this phase was analyzed using product-moment correlation and multiple regression. The analysis of data yielded the following results: (i) purpose was positively associated with PSU, (ii) lower order values were negatively associated with PSU and positively associated with SA; (iii) efficacy was positively associated with PSU and negatively associated with SA; (iv) self-worth was positively associated with both PSU and SA. The results suggested that individuals searching for MIL use their smartphones to build social capital, which provides them mental security, easy access to information , the scope for emotional sharing, and a better image in society. Secondly, the results suggest that helping individuals enhance their efficacy beliefs helps them experience better control of their habits linked with smartphone addiction. Thus, results imply that making people aware of the importance of MIL could help individuals use their smartphones effectively and help curb the disadvantages of smartphone addiction.
The interventions derived from the findings of environmental psychology are usually only effective on a specific behavioral level and address cognitive processes that are not sufficiently effective for changing lifestyles. Moreover, they only address the existing needs of the identified target groups. What is missing so far are environmental psychological theoretical approaches that support a comprehensive social-ecological transformation. To achieve this goal, the psychological resources approach from health psychology and positive psychology is transferred to sustainable psychology. Based on empirical findings on psychological well-being and life satisfaction, six psychological resources are identified that promote both subjective well-being and sustainable behavior: mindfulness, capacity for pleasure, self-acceptance, self-efficacy, construction of meaning, and solidarity. Psychological resources do not immediately induce sustainable behavior, but initiate processes of reflection and experience that lead to long-term clarification of values and goals. Psychological resources set in motion upward spirals towards sustainable lifestyles and reinforce each other like interconnected elements in a dynamic network. The overall activation of this network thereby corresponds to the strength of the motivation for a sustainable lifestyle.KeywordsSustainable lifestylePleasure-goal regulation-meaning theoryHedonismEudaimonismMarketing modeTransformation modePositive psychologyPsychological resourcesWell-beingLife satisfactionMindfulnessCapacity for pleasureSelf-acceptanceSelf-efficacyMeaningSolidarityUpward spiralsBroaden-and-build theoryHealth pathwayValue activation pathwayLifestyle of Voluntary Simplicity (LOVOS)
Notes that explanations of human behavior have generally favored unidirectional causal models emphasizing either environmental or internal determinants of behavior. In social learning theory, causal processes are conceptualized in terms of reciprocal determinism. Viewed from this perspective, psychological functioning involves a continuous reciprocal interaction between behavioral, cognitive, and environmental influences. The major controversies between unidirectional and reciprocal models of human behavior center on the issue of self influences. A self system within the framework of social learning theory comprises cognitive structures and subfunctions for perceiving, evaluating, and regulating behavior, not a psychic agent that controls action. The influential role of the self system in reciprocal determinism is documented through a reciprocal analysis of self-regulatory processes. Reciprocal determinism is proposed as a basic analytic principle for analyzing psychosocial phenomena at the level of intrapersonal development, interpersonal transactions, and interactive functioning of organizational and social systems. (62 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
It was hypothesized that women are more vulnerable to depressive symptoms than men because they are more likely to experience chronic negative circumstances (or strain), to have a low sense of mastery, and to engage in ruminative coping. The hypotheses were tested in a 2-wave study of approximately 1,100 community-based adults who were 25 to 75 years old. Chronic strain, low mastery, and rumination were each more common in women than in men and mediated the gender difference in depressive symptoms. Rumination amplified the effects of mastery and, to some extent, chronic strain on depressive symptoms. In addition, chronic strain and rumination had reciprocal effects on each other over time, and low mastery also contributed to more rumination. Finally, depressive symptoms contributed to more rumination and less mastery over time.
Over and over, investigators have found self-esteem to be central in a broad network of constructs associated with motivation, performance, and well-being. Esteeming oneself—thinking well of oneself—has often been found to relate to more effective behavior and better adjustment than has low self-regard.
This article examines the association between evaluative and knowledge components of the self. Four studies tested the hypothesis that the self-concepts of low-self-esteem (LSE) people are characterized by less clarity or certainty than those of high-self-esteem (HSE) people. LSE Ss exhibited less extremity and self-reported confidence when rating themselves on bipolar trait adjectives (Study 1), less temporal stability in their trait ratings over a 2-month interval (Study 2), less congruence between their self-concepts and their subsequent perceptions of situation-specific behavior and memory for prior behavior (Study 3), and less internal consistency, lower self-rated confidence, and longer reaction times when making me/not me responses to pairs of opposite traits (Study 4). Alternative accounts of the results and the implications of self-concept clarity for understanding the pervasive impact of self-esteem on behavior are discussed.
A self-comparison scale was devised to assess positive self-comparisons by asking 167 women and 158 men to compare themselves with others of their age on five personal strengths using a scale ranging from 0 to 100 (50 = average). Factor analysis of the self-comparison scale identified one factor with acceptable internal and test-retest reliability. The median self-comparison score was 72, indicating that most participants viewed themselves as being "above average." The relation between self-comparison scores and measures of well-being was linear. Self-comparison scores contributed significant variance over social desirability, big five personality factors, and coping style in predicting three measures of well-being. The best predictor of self-comparison scores was the Hope Scale. Social desirability and eschewal of emotion coping also contributed significant variance in predicting self-comparison scores.