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The information processing capacity of modality and channel performance
... (p. 255) Hsia (1971) drew several conclusions from an extensive review of literature comparing multiple and single-channel presentations. These include the following: (a) Human information processing functions as a multiple-channel system until the capacity of the system is overloaded; (b) when the input becomes greater than the system's capacity, the system reverts to a singlechannel system; and (c) an increase in the amount of information presented does not necessarily increase the rate of information transmission. ...
... These include the following: (a) Human information processing functions as a multiple-channel system until the capacity of the system is overloaded; (b) when the input becomes greater than the system's capacity, the system reverts to a singlechannel system; and (c) an increase in the amount of information presented does not necessarily increase the rate of information transmission. Hsia (1971) asserts that, because all incoming information needs to be coded prior to being processed by the human processing system, it would seem reasonable that all extraneous, irrelevant, and superfluous information be eliminated or reduced at that time. Hsia (1971) contends that by reducing this extra information, the learner is spared from having to discriminate the relevant from the irrelevant. ...
... Hsia (1971) asserts that, because all incoming information needs to be coded prior to being processed by the human processing system, it would seem reasonable that all extraneous, irrelevant, and superfluous information be eliminated or reduced at that time. Hsia (1971) contends that by reducing this extra information, the learner is spared from having to discriminate the relevant from the irrelevant. In addition to filtering information, a large portion of redundancy and noise is eliminated. ...
... What is usually controlled by the hypermedia program itself are the delivery channels used to present the information. While welldesigned multichannel presentations appear to improve recall and transfer of information (Hsia, 1971; Park & Hannafin, 1993), evidence suggests that all learners do not benefit from multiple channels of information delivery in the same way (Hsia, 1971; Lee, Hunt, & Pellegrino, 1991; Park, 1991). Several researchers suggest that individuals' cognitive processing capacity can be " overloaded " by excessive stimuli or dissonant cues contained in multiple channel messages (Grimes, 1991; Hsia, 1971). ...
... What is usually controlled by the hypermedia program itself are the delivery channels used to present the information. While welldesigned multichannel presentations appear to improve recall and transfer of information (Hsia, 1971; Park & Hannafin, 1993), evidence suggests that all learners do not benefit from multiple channels of information delivery in the same way (Hsia, 1971; Lee, Hunt, & Pellegrino, 1991; Park, 1991). Several researchers suggest that individuals' cognitive processing capacity can be " overloaded " by excessive stimuli or dissonant cues contained in multiple channel messages (Grimes, 1991; Hsia, 1971). ...
... While welldesigned multichannel presentations appear to improve recall and transfer of information (Hsia, 1971; Park & Hannafin, 1993), evidence suggests that all learners do not benefit from multiple channels of information delivery in the same way (Hsia, 1971; Lee, Hunt, & Pellegrino, 1991; Park, 1991). Several researchers suggest that individuals' cognitive processing capacity can be " overloaded " by excessive stimuli or dissonant cues contained in multiple channel messages (Grimes, 1991; Hsia, 1971). The navigational demands, coupled with the complexity of multichannel presentation modes in hypermedia lessons, may contribute to the information and cognitive overload phenomena widely reported in the hypermedia literature. ...
Abstract Educational hypermedia has been heralded as providing instruction that
... Este no se trabaja ni se discute en relación con nuestra investigación por dos razones: el inevita ble incremento de complejidad en el análisis informacional y el hecho de que, en la ciencia de la comunicación, es todavía materia de controversia el potencial real que puede constituir el uso de un canal doble. Respues tas a problemas como la redundancia espacial o temporal de la informa ción o la interferencia que se genera por el ingreso al sistema integrador de una doble información, simultáneamente, requieren de un mayor co nocimiento sobre los mecanismos fisiológicos involucrados, que por el momento no se posee (al respecto puede consultarse Travers, 1964;Dwyer, 1970;Hsia, 1971;Travers y Alvarado, 1970;Di Vesta, 1975). ...
... El presente trabajo ciertamente explora el problema; la esquematización debe mirarse como un cifrado de información y en tal caso, debe concluirse que la población rural desconoce la cifra empleada. Sin embargo este aspecto no se aborda de manera formal dado que para el actual conocimiento sobre el tema en la teoría de la información, sería demasiado complejo, si no es que imposible, el establecer una equivalencia de imagen a cifra (algunas consideraciones teóricas al respecto se encuentran en Hsia, 1971). Los conocimientos sobre decifrado de mensajes visuales en el sistema nervioso central se encuentra lejos todavía de ofrecer respuestas para los niveles de complejidad que el fenómeno alcanza en el hombre (estudios con teoría de la información sobre cifrado de mensajes visuales se señalan en: Negrete et al, 1964 (a y b); Yankelevich, 1966y 1969y Stark et al, 1969. ...
Durante los últimos 30 años ha surgido en diversas corrientes del pensamiento científico, la necesidad de sistematizar el conocimiento sobre los procesos involucrados en la relación humana que acontece por medio de la comunicación. Esta creciente inquietud se debe en gran medida a que el aumento de la complejidad de la vida moderna implica para el hombre el manejo de una gran cantidad de información, aún al nivel de sus actividades cotidianas. El término comunicación es utilizado en la actualidad en forma tan profusa que su uso, tanto en el área técnica como la acepción semántica misma, se han tornado ambiguos.El trabajo que a continuación se presenta queda enmarcado dentro del grupo formalista mencionado, a pesar de que el proceso estudiado, "la comunicación con una población rural", se formula como un fenómeno de tipo sociocultural. La razón de esta discusión en torno a la ubicación de la investigación, es la exitosa contribución al conocimiento de la comunicación humana que recientemente ha logrado una herramienta perteneciente al campo de las matemáticas aplicadas: la teoría de la información.
... In these studies (See Hartman, 1961a;1961b;Berry & Brosious, 1991 for details), the AV media, and particularly documentary films, were usually compared with the mono-channel media of reading and listening. While the prediction of many of these studies was negative, others found some positive results (see Hartman, 1961b;and Hsia, 1971 for more details of this review of initial literature). ...
... Barrow & Westley, 1974;Schramm, 1963). According to Hsia (1971), "The only conclusion that can be drawn from nearly a thousand studies surveyed is: no secure general proposition can yet be stated" (p. 52). ...
In comparing reading, listening and TV presentation modes, we are dealing with diverse literature. More interest has been shown in the history to compare learning and memory from reading and listening than any other communication forms. TV invention in 1950s has revolted the convention into a wider dilemma. More recent literature review in comparative media indicates that there are widespread discrepancies among the reports on memories from presentation modes. Various explanations have been put forward to account for these differences. Different accounts portrait various reasons; depending to which decade and to what scope they belong. Literature from education and accounts from media and communication studies raise the issue of channel augmentation, channel enrichment, symbol system, and signal redundancy as the main topics affecting memory from presentation modes. Learning from media is best measured up when recalls from these modes are usually compared. When comprehension and learning mixes with memory issues in the measurement of input processing from each mode, the complicated cognition and its principal information processing measures become of the major concern. This paper shows how research into aspects of bisensory augmentation of TV versus other modes, is sparse, unconvincing and sporadic, and attempts to explain the reasons. To achieve this goal, the shortcomings of the literature with distinct theoretical stands on this subject of channel comparison are identified. It is shown that all these factors have produced a multi-dimensional perspective, convincing that the comparison is too complex to allow a simple evaluation. This paper also explores broad underlying cognitive effects in comparative conditions of presentation modes. In this article brief summary of factors that have not been considered in comparative media are explained. It is suggested that instead of formal comparison of these modes on surface, by looking at the underlying factors and applying cognitive psychological findings to this area can make the borders clearer. Conventionally, throughout the literature, reading from a text is usually compared with listening and audiovisual condition of TV. In doing so, traditionally, measuring memories retained from presentation modes has established a long record. When a medium like TV emerged in educational and social life, more tendencies in exploring its audiovisual effects on learning and recalls took over all the literature from communication studies, educational and various parts of psychological research in vast dimensions. A brief account of these literatures suggests that in comparing TV with reading and listening, there are three distinct views. These three views maintain positive, negative or neutral positions when reading and listening are compared with TV. In the history of media comparison, those who reported the supremacy of print over TV and audio presentation mentioned that the main advantage of print over television and listening is that the reader is self-paced (e.g.
... Much kinder to cue summation theory and the views of Severin (1967aSeverin ( , 1967b is Hsia (1968Hsia ( , 1971. He submits, "tangible evidence suggests the possibility that when the amount of information to be processed is optimal, the audiovisual channels may be a more effective means of communication than either single channel" (p. ...
... 246). Hsia (1971) makes a very thorough literature review of the discrete ranges of audio, visual, and audiovisual information processing rates and capacities. One of his conclusions is that combined audiovisual presentations produce more dimensionality than audio or visual alone. ...
Presents an overview of hypermedia within the theoretical perspective of the information processing model of cognitive psychology. Hypermedia is the coordinated use of several media devices in a nonlinear and interactive sytem that involves the interaction of multimedia and hypertext. Hypermedia is based on types of information processing that occurs at different levels of memory storage: Sensory registers, and short and long term memory. Specific theories related to hypermedia include dual coding for sensory images and verbal language; detailed imagery and prior knowledge in organizing incoming information meaningfully; and the cue summation principle of learning theory. Studies reveal that there may be a relationship between the tenets of hypermedia and an individual's learning style. Field dependence/independence is found to be related to intellectual functioning, concept attainment, memory and metacognition. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
... Thus Severin (1967) argued that multiple-channel communication is effective when the cues have meaning. Interestingly redundant information presented across channels increases the dimensionality of the information and the stimuli for one channel provides reinforcement for the other, which improves the quality of communication (Hsia 1971). The dual code theory also supports the effectiveness of multiplechannel communication. ...
Although the pedagogic use of film and video has a long history, its widespread use has always been limited by production costs and delivery difficulties. In recent years costs of production have fallen and the web has emerged as a mainstream educational distribution medium. Video itself can be used in many ways: 'talking head', interviews, video diaries, video labs, simulations, instructional sequences, 'fly on the wall', video help etc. Through the browser, 'streaming' video sequences can be linked to slides, text conferencing, whiteboards, video conferencing, shared applications, online assessment and third party web sites. A major element of the JISC/DNER Click and Go Video project is to move beyond the current understanding of video as a purely presentational tool. The seamless combination of digital video with other tools offers an opportunity to experiment with video as a focus for networked learning. However there is an acute lack of pedagogic resources, research and evaluation on the use of video streaming for teaching and learning. The pedagogical challenge faced by teaching staff and practitioners is not only to choose the appropriate streaming technology but also to design meaningful learning events. In this paper we introduce a way to analyse video use through what we have named the Three 'I's Framework - image, interactivity and integration. This conceptual framework seeks to provide a practical decision tool to help teaching staff and practitioners with the pedagogic design and development of video streaming resources for online learning. Our aim is to provide a way of understanding the role of video as it changes from a presentation tool to a focus for networked learning.
... Thus Severin (1967) argued that multiple-channel communication is effective when the cues have meaning. Interestingly redundant information presented across channels increases the dimensionality of the information and the stimuli for one channel provides reinforcement for the other, which improves the quality of communication (Hsia 1971). The dual code theory also supports the effectiveness of multiple-channel communication. ...
The increasing development of digital rich resources promises and exciting opportunity to transform video and audio media into mainstream networked learning. The use of visual and audio literacies can inspire us to express ideas not readily available in written form, and in this way, it can enable different ways of representation and access to a wider and more dispersed student population. This paper will describe the concept of ‘visual literacy’ and the notion of ‘inclusive’ technology. Visually rich resources might perhaps bring more access, control and choice to networked learning events. However this apparently inclusive technology might be perceived as a barrier to ensure accessibility for users who have sensory disabilities. The JISC Click and Go: Access for All project (2003) has explored, through the use of inquiry groups and questionnaires, practitioners’ perceptions, understandings and experiences around the area of accessible digital video and audio. This paper explores current practice and introduces a decision tool intended to provide a practical route to clarify intentions and requirements through the use of questions and possible answers.
... Mikro öğrenme yaklaşımı; sinirbilimi, insanların bilgiyi işleme kapasitesini dikkate alarak oluşturulan bir yaklaşımdır. Hsia (1971), Hulbert (1975) gibi birçok araştırmacı insanların bilgi işleme kapasitesi üzerine çalışmalar yapmış ve tek seferde bir kişinin alabileceği bilginin bir sınırı olduğunu bulmuşlardır. Miller (1954, s. 9), kısa süreli belleğimizden geri çağrılabilen öge sayısını 7±2 olarak tespit etmiş ve tek seferde insan beynine bu sayıdan fazla bilgi yüklenmeye çalışılırsa beynin hata yapabileceğini söylemiştir. ...
Gelişen teknolojiler, COVID-19 salgını eğitim-öğrenme süreçlerini etkilemiş ve çağın gerekliliklerine uygun yeni yaklaşımlar geliştirilmesinin önünü açmıştır. Yabancı dil öğrenimi/öğretimi de bu değişimlerden en çok etkilenen alanlardan biridir. Yabancı dil öğrenimi artık sadece kursa katılmakla ya da örgün eğitimle değil; internet üzerinden, mobil cihazlarla ve bu amaçla geliştirilen uygulamalarla gerçekleşmektedir. Fakat gelişen teknolojilerle geleneksel yabancı dil öğretim/öğrenim tekniklerini kullanmak yetersiz kalmaktadır. Bu nedenle yabancı dil öğreniminde mobil öğrenmeden, nano ve mikro öğrenmeye kadar çeşitli kavramlar literatürde yerini almıştır. Mikro öğrenme; bilgi bombardımanı altında olduğumuz ve zaman sıkıntısı yaşadığımız 21. yüzyılda öğrenene dilediği zaman, dilediği yerde, ihtiyaç duyduğu miktarda bilgi vermeyi hedefleyen ve öğrenmenin bilişsel süreçlerine odaklanan bir yaklaşımdır. Duolingo gibi yabancı dil öğrenmek için hazırlanan pek çok dijital uygulama mikro öğrenme yaklaşımını temel alarak oluşturulmuştur. Mikro öğrenme, son yıllarda sıkça kullanılan ancak yabancı dil öğrenimi/öğretiminde üzerine çok araştırma yapılmamış bir yaklaşım türüdür. Araştırma kapsamında yapılan alan yazın taramasında, yabancı dil olarak Türkçenin öğreniminde mikro öğrenme yaklaşımı ile yapılmış herhangi bir çalışmaya rastlanmamıştır. Betimsel analiz yöntemiyle oluşturulan bu araştırma ile mikro öğrenme ve mikro öğrenmenin temel prensipleri hakkında bilgi vermek, yabancı dil olarak mikro öğrenme üzerine yapılan çalışmalara değinilerek yabancı dil olarak Türkçenin öğretimi/öğreniminde mikro öğrenme yaklaşımının nasıl kullanılabileceğine dair önerilerde bulunmak hedeflenmiştir.
... Table S1: Systematic Map. References [4,5,[7][8][9][11][12][13]15,[17][18][19][20][21][22][29][30][31][32][33][34][35][36][37][38][39][40]42,58,[65][66][67][76][77][78][79][80][81][82][83][84] are cited in the supplementary materials. ...
As access to video-viewing technology has increased, so has researchers’ interest in understanding how the viewing of captioned and subtitled videos can lead to effective vocabulary learning outcomes. Previously, there has been one meta-analysis on the effects of this type of video-viewing on vocabulary acquisition. However, the variables investigated and types of vocabulary knowledge analyzed were limited. To address these issues, we conducted a mixed review that combined a scoping review and meta-analysis. We identified 139 studies in major databases, of which 34 aligned with our inclusion criteria. Results from the scoping review found that researchers have assessed productive knowledge more than receptive knowledge, and knowledge of form and meaning more than knowledge of use. Participants were given TV series to view more than any other media type. Results from the meta-analysis found that viewing any type of captioned or subtitled videos had a positive effect on vocabulary acquisition. Among all the captioned and subtitled video types, viewing videos with intralingual captions had the largest effect on vocabulary learning outcomes. Furthermore, the viewing of animations had the largest effect on vocabulary learning outcomes compared with all the other types of video viewing investigated. No statistically significant difference between intentional or incidental learning conditions was found, indicating that both conditions are suitable for developing vocabulary learning through video viewing. Additional findings and implications for teaching and research are discussed.
... Modal capacity means the amount of information that can be transferred within a certain time (e.g., one second) through one or more modalities (Hsia, 1971). The theoretical capacity is 10 2 bit/s for vibration on fingertips (Kokjer, 1987), 10 4 bit/s for audition (Jacobson, 1950), and 10 6 bit/s for vision (Jacobson, 1951). ...
The design of multimodal output should be based on modality capacity and appropriateness. Previous relevant research had various limitations such as using over-simplified tasks. We proposed a paradigm with virtual reality to explore the capacity and appropriateness of complex non-semantic information stream. In two experiments, fifty-six college students identified location, magnitude, and/or frequency/duration of visual, auditory, and haptic stimuli, and the bi- and tri-modal combinations. We found that (1) for stimuli of 2–4 bits, visual stimuli were identified faster, more accurately, and with lower workload (p values < .001) than auditory and haptic stimuli. (2) Multimodal redundant stimuli were identified with similar accuracy, response time, and workload as its best unimodal component (p values ≥ .068). (3) For visual stimuli, magnitude and location were identified more accurately than duration; for haptic stimuli, location was identified more accurately than magnitude and duration. (4) When two targets within one modality were to be identified simultaneously, performance of processing visual stimuli deteriorated least, and performance of processing auditory stimuli deteriorated most. Vision has the most general appropriateness and largest capacity for non-semantic information stream, which cannot be overcome by multimodal redundant output. These findings should be considered when designing multimodal interfaces.
... Additionally, Fleming (1970) and Hartman (1961) offered support for a single-channel presentation by stating that excessive stimuli and the instructor's desire to overload channels with information will lead to a "jamming" of receivers as instructional programs are "perceptually overloaded" (Moore, Burton, & Myers, 1996, p. 984). Meanwhile, Hsia (1971) offered several claims having conducted a review of past studies, including that human information processing is, in fact, multi-channel until the system becomes overloaded, when it alters to a single channel. Hsia also stated that an increase in how much information is presented will not always lead to increased transmission. ...
An important part of online courses is the delivery of instruction via video lectures. Video lectures should use media effectively to reduce extraneous load and maximize cognitive processing, thereby helping students to learn. Instructors may be able to reduce extraneous load by varying the number of audio and visual media used. This study presents analysis from a survey of students (n = 1701) enrolled in a cyber university in South Korea to investigate the relationship between media diversity in video lectures and extraneous load. Results showed a negative relationship between media diversity and extraneous load. Students who noted more types of media stated that they experienced less extraneous load. The implications of these results are of use to instructors who want to use diverse media to promote a better understanding of learning material.
... Audio-video redundancy or visual-verbal redundancy has been defined as the extent to which different channels (e.g., audio/verbal vs. video/visual) provide identical information (Hsia, 1971) that is well matched (Burriss, 1987) and tightly fit between the two channels (Grimes, 1991). The redundancy literature suggests that redundancy could enhance information processing and recall (Drew & Grimes, 1987;Grimes, 1991;Walma van der Molen, & Klijin, 2004;Walma van der Molen, & van der Voort, 2000). ...
... La primera de las teorías conocida como "señal/adición", sostiene que la misma es eficaz cuando las señales tienen un significado (Severin, 1967). Otros autores como Hsia (1971) sostienen que la información redundante presentada a través de distintos canales, aumenta en forma interesante la dimensionalidad de la información y los estímulos provocados por un canal proporcionan un refuerzo para otro, lo cual culmina en una mejora de la comunicación. ...
... Display informativeness is quantified as information transmitted in bits (which is the amount of information transmitted from display to human with some information losing during the transition), according to Information Theory (Miller, 1954； Shannon, 1948. Hsia (1971) provided a comprehensive summary of the studies that estimated information transmitted of different display modalities and dimensions under various conditions, which showed that the displays which encode information into multiple modalities and dimensions can strengthen information processing capacity since they provided more informative cues. As another critical component of cognitive efficiency, required mental resources can be indicated by subjective self-reported measure and physiological measure (O'Donnell & Eggemeier, 1986). ...
Cognitive efficiency has been defined as the ratio of display informativeness to mental workload required for processing information. In the study, we used Cognitive Efficiency (CE) metric to measure the efficiency of novel speedometer displays which were previously used to aid multitask performance in driving. The study also investigated whether encoding information into ‘beat pattern’, a redundant dimension, improves the cognitive efficiency of the displays. The level of cognitive efficiency was found to be similar among the ambient-visual, auditory, and tactile speedometer displays and it increased largely when information was encoded into a redundant beat pattern of the auditory display. In addition, the cognitive efficiency of novel speedometer display was sensitive to contextual factors such as wind effects. These findings enlarge our understanding of multifactor constructs of cognitive efficiency, which are expected to be more predictive of multitask performance than the measure of each of its constituent components.
... Each of the five human senses offers different properties that make it more or less suitable for different kinds of tasks [13]. For example, vision offers a higher information bandwidth than audio [20], but audio can remain effective when a target is beyond the field of view. ...
Finding an object in a physical environment is difficult if the environment contains many objects, especially if it is large and dense. We propose a design space that describes and compares existing guidance techniques according to four dimensions: output modality, physicality, granularity and spatial information. Output modality can be visual, audio or tactile. Guidance information can be displayed using physical objects or virtual artifacts. Granularity indicates whether the technique serves to navigate towards the vicinity of the target or to precisely localize the target. Finally, spatial information is either exocentric or egocentric. This design space aims at providing an overview of the domain and helping designers and researchers to understand the key properties of these techniques. It also enables their comparison and the generation of new techniques by highlighting unexplored areas.
... With the incorporation of multimedia technology in teaching and learning, learners are exposed to different stimuli through various channels, such as verbal, visual, auditory, physical etc. Multiple-channel theory, which involves at least two input information channels, propounds that comprehension increases as learners interact with any combination of the different available sensory channels (Hsia, 1971). Paivio (1971), in his proposed dual coding theory, highlighted that information can be simultaneously represented by pictures as well as words, and these two information sources activate two coding systems: visual and verbal codes that are functionally autonomous and interconnected. ...
This experimental design study examined the effects of viewing captioned instructional videos on EFL learners’ content comprehension, vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency. It also examined the participants’ perception of viewing the captioned instructional videos. The 92 EFL students in two classes, who were undertaking the Tape and Video Interpretation course, participated in this study. The randomly assigned experimental class viewed 30 episodes of captioned Connect with English and the control class viewed the same episodes without captions. Adopting the quantitative approach, a Michigan English Test, Content-Specific Tests and a questionnaire were administered to examine the participants’ content comprehension, vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency development as well as the experimental group’s perception towards viewing captioned instructional videos. Although, both groups recorded gains, the findings were in favor of the use of captioned instructional videos. The results showed that the effects of viewing captioned instructional videos are greater on vocabulary acquisition and language proficiency development than on content comprehension. The participants’ perceptions of the use of captioned instructional video were consistent with the results. They felt that it enhanced their language learning, but did not affect their comprehension of the movie and that captions were not a form of distraction. Pedagogical implications for EFL instructions, especially where multimedia technology tools may be limited is that, captioned instructional videos can be deemed as a promising media to enhance language learning.
... Two other suggested points are: (1) During the learning process include the same media when testing, and (2) If sensory modalities are used simultaneously, make sure the content of different sources are consistent and complementary (Szabo, 2002). Hsia (1971) reviewed studies that examined how multiple cues were processed and at what point channels reached memory capacity. Hsia found that the combination of the audio and imagery cues were more effective on performance outcomes than either cue presented alone although information processing was susceptible to bottlenecking. ...
... In an attempt to reconcile findings of the cue summation theory and Broadbent's theory, Hsia (1971) hypothesized that man is a multiple-channel organism when input is optimal. In other words, he is capable of processing information through multiple channels, "so long as the inflow is within the limit of his information processing capacity. ...
35.1 INTRODUCTION As noted by Winn (1993), "Human speech is the most powerful and expressive medium the designer has available for use in in-structional messages" (p. 117). Speech is naturally expressive, and by varying the qualities of loudness, pitch, pace, and tone, designers can use audio to motivate and inform students. Three primary audio elements are used in educational technology— music, speech, and sound effects (Beccue, 2001; Kerr, 1999). Through these elements, audio can deliver information, di-rect attention, convey emotions, and provide feedback. In fact, "Audio is so integral a part of multimedia that most users would recognize its importance only by its absence" (Lehrman & Tully, 1991). Although audio in an important instructional tool, it has not been studied as much as other media (Bishop & Cates, 2001; Jaspers, 1995; Thompson, Simonson, & Hargrave, 1996; Wilkin-son, 1980). This chapter focuses on published research studies related to audio. Beginning with evaluation research and media comparison studies, the focus is then shifted to auditory mem-ory and multichannel communication. A multimedia section fo-cuses on design guidelines for incorporating audio in multime-dia instruction. Finally, an overview of time-compressed speech and a summary are provided. The chapter is presented in seven parts.
... There also is likely to be a lower limit on the amount of decoding required so that viewers do not lose interest. Hsia (1971) points out that several studies have shown understimulation to have detrimental effects. While television programming is unlikely to be so bland as to cause sensory deprivation, a lower limit on the information necessary to capitvate viewers seems to have merit. ...
Two measures of the complexity of television program form were compared: one based on several indicators of the Information Theory concept of entropy, the other measure based on coders' perception of several kinds of program structure. Factor analysis of complexity scores for programs yielded two dimensions for both kinds of complexity measures. Canonical correlation among the entropy and structure factors was also significant along two dimensions. The entropy and structure factors produced similar differences in the program selection patterns of viewers. It was found that one dimension of program complexity was differentially preferred by young adults and the more highly educated. The other dimension of program complexity did not produce different program preferences among viewers of different ages and education.
... Así, Severin (1967) sostuvo que la comunicación del múltiple/canal es eficaz cuando las señales tienen significado. La información redundante presentada a través de los diferentes canales aumenta en forma interesante la dimensiona lidad de la información y los estímulos para un canal proporcionan el refuerzo para el otro, lo cual culmina en una mejora de la calidad de la comunicación (Hsia, 1971). La teoría del código/dual también apoya la eficacia de la comunicación del múltiple/canal. ...
La habilidad de combinar el video digital con otras herramientas educativas, brinda la oportunidad de revalorizar el concepto puramente presentativo del video, siendo tomado en este caso, como foco para la actividad y comunicación entre estudiantes. Sin embargo la investigación y evaluación en el área, para informar al pool de profesores y practicantes, en el uso del video con sus estudiantes, es pequeña. Existe la necesidad de construir un nuevo léxico para describir el valor pedagógico y el buen uso del video, así como el desarrollo de nuevas herramientas que den soporte tanto pedagógico como tecnológico. En este sentido se describe el concepto marco denominado Las tres i. Nuestra experiencia de uso en las asignaturas de grado Introducción a la Informática e Introducción a la Programación de la Facultad de Agronomía de la Universidad de Buenos Aires, nos ha demostrado que lo pedagógico y lo tecnológico están íntimamente relacionados y resultan difícil de separar, habiendo encontrado que el proceso de aprendizaje/enseñanza es un diálogo entre al menos dos. A través de este trabajo se pretende dar a conocer el correcto uso del video digital en base a la narración de dos experiencias concretas, en cada una de las mencionadas materias, en las cuales se utiliza el video digital con gran éxito desde hace varios años. De esta manera creemos contribuir en el debate, cuyo aspecto central es encontrar la mejor forma de integrar el video digital en la educación superior, además del valor que agrega como recurso tecnológico y canal de diálogo entre estudiantes, profesores y otros recursos para la enseñanza.
... Multi-channel communication theorists claim that learning is effective when cues presented across channels are related or redundant [12] and together make a mutual meaning. By this, the individual information pieces sent through different channels is shaped into a message. ...
As a result of the big expansion of Internet most learning institutions supply learning based services through the Internet. Currently we are facing a new evolution with the new generation of mobile network. This will result in more complex types of joint distribution channels and multiplication of terminals and this provide a wide array of new opportunities, challenges, and arenas in the field of e-learning. Today?s basis requirement on ?Just in time learning? (JiT) and ?Learning on Demand? (LoD) can be easier realized with multi-channel e- learning services. The thesis will focus on challenges of developing of multi-channel service development in which all of the content is located at the same node. This paper will give an overview of multi-channel services, with emphasis on the use of these services in the field of learning. Products, technology, applications, and research of current interest will be presented. Also an application of multi-channel services and its technology will be researched. Furthermore this researcher is going to develop a prototype which will illustrate the challenges or weaknesses in multi-channel services.
... Theoreticalry, exceeding load capacity will impact most heavily upon decision-making since this overload limits the ability to make absolute judgments (Pollack, 1952;Garner, 1953;Pollack & Fricks, 1954;Miller, 1956;Hsia, 1971). Consequently, the usefulness of information acquired under such conditions is attenuated. ...
Acceleration of the rate-of-take recorded material as a way of increasing input load to the learner may be detrimental to the quality of learning that occurs. Experimental findings here show that such an increase severely attenuates optimal learning levels. Correct absolute judgments regarding input material is impaired. (Author/PJM)
... Severin added to the above sentiments by emphasizing that the cues added had to be relevant ones. Hsia (1968, 1971) expanded on this by stating that they not only had to be relevant, they had to be redundant. If "more is better" works only some of the time, then how to decide more (or less) of what? ...
This paper provides a rationale for the selection of illustrations and visual aids for the classroom. The theories that describe the processing of visuals are dual coding theory and cue summation theory. Concept attainment theory offers a basis for selecting which cues are relevant for any learning task which includes a component of identification and recognition. Selection strategies, methods for concept attainment, are used when the learner is able to choose the order of instance. Reception strategies are used in the more realistic unpredictable, random instance presentation. Experiments that tested individual choice of selection and reception strategies resulted in the following suggestions to consider when choosing an illustration: instructional pacing; previous experience; and field dependence. Supportive evidence also discusses the effects of pacing; level of prior knowledge; and field dependence and visual learning. It is concluded that the application of concept attainment theory to future research may allow more precise and informed choices of illustrations, as well as suggesting use of types of illustration previously unconsidered. (Contains 34 references.) (DGM)
... Clearly, also, persuasion requires time, and the side getting more time gets more of an opportunity to do that. Research into the visual elements of broadcast journalism has also established that information is seen and remembered more when both audio and video elements are combined (Hsia, 1971;Reese, 1984). These balance measures are therefore ''viewer driven'' because their components emphasize potential influence on them. ...
Broadcast and cable network evening news shows gave more prominence, time, and attention to Democrat John Kerry than to President George Bush in their 2004 presidential election coverage. Broadcast networks were more balanced in their aggregate attention to the candidates than were the cable networks. Individual broadcast network stories and segments were also more balanced than were individual cable network stories and segments, regardless of the candidate more favored in stories and segments. The daily election segments of CBS News and Fox News were the most balanced, contrary to expectations that these two news organizations were most likely to show imbalance. However, different broadcast and cable network news attention to the National Guard and Swift Boat stories impugning the characters of both candidates suggests that the broadcast networks biased some of their coverage against the president.
... As Anderson's (1985) research on television watching has shown, when a stimulus is very confusing, subjects often become bored and stop paying attention to it -also a common experience in reading poetry, the verbal analog of a fragmented video. Conversely, when viewers are very bored, their minds may wander, and they may fail to process the stimulus, thus becoming confused (Hsia, 1971). So the direct effects of stimulus complexity on boredom and confusion may be moderated by indirect effects of the other factor -indirect effects that are possible because boredom and confusion are independent constructs, not logically opposite poles of a single dimension. ...
Building upon structuralist and phenomenological theories, this article explores the effects of video montage—camera cuts in particular—on the appeal and persuasiveness of television advertisements. The article proposes a structuralist method for objectively describing ad form and tests well-known theories propounding that responses to a stimulus are a function of boredom and confusion. Camera cuts, boredom, and confusion were all found to affect subjects' attitude toward the ad. © 2004 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
Education research as a broad discipline has historically represented many subdisciplines seeking to answer various important questions, such as "how do people learn," "how do we create effective learning experiences for students," "how do we design effective schools and universities," and "how do we train effective teachers?" This book provides an overview of 50 years of education research (1970-2019) as well as future trajectories (2020) by providing decade-level snapshots of the most impactful research studies that were conducted in each subdiscipline across these years. Utilizing both quantitative bibliometric data and qualitative synthetic analysis, this book provides readers with an understanding of how education research has evolved over time and an understanding of how these trends may influence the ongoing work of education professionals.
Understanding visual information processing is becoming more important as technologies like virtual reality (VR) are being integrated into our training and learning experiences. A dissection between reception from perception is necessary to accommodate researching these visually intensive technologies. For instance, visual reception is the act of encoding information from the outside world, whereas perception is the act of interpreting that information internally. Theories regarding cue location, hierarchy of features, perceptional salience, postattentive amnesia, inattentional blindness, change blindness, and attentional blink will be discussed in this paper to focus on the separation of visual reception and perception. This paper will also highlight human thresholds of visual interpretations and the reliability of immersive technologies like VR for researching and understanding visual information processing. Concluding, this paper will discuss the need for iSchool communities to collaborate on this type of research. Specifically, educators, developers, and researchers working with VR contexts to better understand human behavior and software design.
Objective
This study aims to investigate the benefits of unimodal tactile displays relative to other modal displays and the performance gains of adding redundant tactile displays by integrating empirical studies.
Background
Tactile displays have attracted increasing attention in recent years due to their unique advantages. Synthesizing experimental data is necessary to analyze the performance benefits of tactile displays for participants and better help practitioners in utilizing them.
Method
Five meta-analyses were conducted. Two meta-analyses compared the participants’ performance between tactile and other modal displays (visual vs. tactile and auditory vs. tactile). Three meta-analyses examined the performance gains of adding redundant tactile displays based on other modal displays (visual vs. visual + tactile, auditory vs. auditory + tactile, and visual + auditory vs. visual + auditory + tactile). The related moderator variables, the types of presented information and concurrent tasks, were analyzed.
Results
Little evidence shows the performance difference between tactile and auditory displays. Tactile displays are more beneficial than visual displays for presenting alert information or in the situation with a visual concurrent task. The performance gains of adding redundant tactile displays to other modal displays also depend on the specific type of presented information and the concurrent task.
Conclusion
When using tactile displays to convey information, interface designers should consider the specific type of presented information and the concurrent tasks.
Applications
The present study's findings can provide some implications for designers to utilize tactile displays when they construct and implement information displays.
The decision-making process of bilingual individuals differ based on the language used, this phenomenon is called “Foreign Language Effect”, and in this paper, the authors will demonstrate just how pervasive and ubiquitous this effect is. To extend the current understanding of this phenomenon, three different games were designed in order to measure risk propensity, preference towards foreign products and empathy. Eight different first languages were tested against two main second languages, English and Chinese, resulting in the collection of 650 data samples. The research was conducted through questionnaires and the results obtained showed that different first languages reacted in different ways to foreign language effects, people are less inclined towards risky behaviour when using a second language, and they generally prefer to buy products when those are presented in their native language. Age and proficiency level do not significantly affect the effect discovered, and there is a reduction in the empathy level when individuals need to take delicate decisions within second language contexts. Some cultural causes have been identified and provide explanations for some of the anomalous behaviour observed in certain first languages, opening future research questions on the role that culture plays in bilingual decision making.
In multimodal interaction, information is presented to users through multiple channels, e.g., sight, sound, touch, smell, and taste. Too much information delivered in a short time, however, may result in information overload that overflows people’s information processing capacity. We summarized the methods of quantifying the capacity by categorizing them into the span of storage or the speed of processing. The span of storage mainly includes short-term memory and working memory capacity and multiple object tracking capacity. Working memory is required in many intellectual functions, and its capacity could be tested with change detection tasks, self-ordered tasks, and complex span tasks. Whether different modalities have separate capacities, whether objects or features are stored, and whether the capacity works as discrete slots or a continuous resource pool were discussed. The speed of processing could be calculated as the information transfer rate with the stimuli and responses matrix; Entropy is used for more complex stimuli such as languages. The relative capacity of multitasking, which is often incorporated in multimodal interaction, could be calculated with the capacity coefficient. The application of these methods to the non-traditional modalities in human-computer interaction, e.g., touch, smell, and taste, was discussed.
Media education and training in Thailand is in a progressive stage. Thai education system and education policy are included in order to enable readers to have a better understanding of the current situation of Thai media education and training. Issues and challenges are also discussed. This main goal is to articulate knowledge from my working experience as a media creator and educator in higher education and in Thailand for seventeen years. I was invited to present this paper in Malaysia by the University of Malaysia in Aug 19, 2014.
English is considered a major tool for communication. TV/video plays an important role in the transmission of information and is a powerful medium in English teaching. Moreover, implementing with captioned videos with verbal information and full visual context has become more accessible in the language classroom. In this regard, this study investigated the impacts of video captioning on L2 learners' listening comprehension in Taiwan. The experiment proceeded for five weeks, which involved watching two fifteen-minute episodes from an English-as-a-Second-Language (ESL) instructional videotape, Connect with English, in a listening class once a week. General English Proficiency Test (GEPT), the pretest and posttest, was administered to assess the students' listening comprehension. Descriptive statistics and Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) were utilized in the data analysis. The findings revealed that the subjects viewing captioned videos outperformed the control group, which did not view captioned videos with captioning. These suggest that the use of captioned videos had improved the learners' listening comprehension.
This article applies a limited-capacity information processing approach to the question of whether audio / video redundancy improves memory for television messages. Audio / video redundancy is defined as a continuum. Four different types of stimuli frequently used to operationalize redundancy are considered in terms of: (a) how much capacity they require to be fully processed; (b) how complex they are; and, (c) how much audio and video information they contain. Predictions based on these considerations are made about relative memory for each type of stimulus at three levels of processing (encoding, storage, and retrieval). The three major memory measures are conceptualized as providing information about different aspects of the information processing of a message. Specifically, recognition measures index how much information was encoded, cued recall indexes how much information has been stored, and free recall indexes the information available for retrieval. The predictions made using this theoretical approach are initially tested using the results previously reported in the literature. Over 75% of the reported results are in the direction predicted. It is suggested that talking head messages are different from other forms of audio / video redundancy, that audio memory is affected more by audio / video redundancy than video memory, and that video memory is affected more by complexity and amount of information—both of which are frequently confounded with redundancy.
The insights of historian Daniel Boorstin are added to those of Lynn White, Harold Innis, Edmund Carpenter, Marshall McLuhan and Walter Ong to explicate the position of Technological Determinist: If the medium is the message, and rhetorical analysts have traditionally concentrated their study on the contents of messages on television, then rhetorical analysis needs to revise its methodology.
Do multimedia enhancements affect how much individuals learn from online news websites? Do audio and video downloads generate positive impressions of the website in the minds of users? A five-condition, between-participants controlled experiment (N = 60) was designed to address these questions. Each study participant read three news stories from a news website created for the experiment; he or she was given either a text-only version of the news site; a version with text and pictures; one with text and audio; one with text, pictures, and audio; or one with text, pictures, and video. Following exposure, participants filled out a paper-and-pencil questionnaire assessing their memory and perceptions. Results suggest that pictures and audio are particularly powerful psychological cues. In general, multimedia tends to hinder memory for story content and leads to negative evaluations of the site and its content, but improves memory for advertisements. Theoretical and practical implications of these findings are discussed.
An electronically estimated form complexity variable, static complexity, is analyzed throughout the course of a network TV newscast. No support is found for the hypothesis that audiences prefer an optimal level of static complexity, but there is support for the hypothesis that longitudinal analysis accounts for more variance than a cross-sectional approach. This study has implications for research in TV news that confines itself to content-based variables and assumes only a cross-sectional relationship between newscast material and audience responses. Both form variables and time should be considered along with content in the study of reactions to TV news.
Three experiments investigated the processing costs of watching television messages. Processing costs were indexed with a secondary task reaction time measure in which subjects were asked to pay attention to commercial messages while responding with button presses to randomly occuring tones or flashes. Response time to the secondary tasks was used as a measure of attention to the primary task (watching the messages). Audio and video complexity of the messages were within-subject variables, and the channels presented to subjects (audio-only, video-only, or both) was a between-subjects variable. Results indicated that: (1) for a tone secondary task, multiple-channel presentations demanded more capacity than single-channel presentations (video or audio channel only); (2) more capacity was required to process simple video and auditory information than complex information; and (3) complexity of information in an absent channel (e.g., visual information in the audio-only condition) produced the same slowed reaction times as those occurring when the channel was present.
The construct validity of “television viewing” is developed and explicated. It is suggested that while this concept is usually used as a strict behavioral variable, many different constructs are implied by it. The construct validity of television viewing can be derived from a conceptualization of what it is in television which, when viewed, or exposed to, interacts with human behavior and attributes. Four such conceptualizations are illustrated, each leading to a different construct of “viewing”: (1) television as a social-situational factor involving choice behavior between activities; (2) television as a transmission of a content repertoire, implying decision-making regarding messages; (3) television as a source of content-messages dealing with recall, comprehension, and attitude change; and (4) television as a “language” pertaining to the processes of encoding messages in the service of extracting knowledge.
This short note reports on two studies that examined the relationship between density and vagueness and criterion measures of independent ratings with respect to lecturing. Lectures measured as being dense were considered hard going and received relatively low ratings for overall effectiveness. Lectures with a high proportion of vague words and structures were similarly rated. An explanation in terms of learning theory suggests channel blockage and inability of the sensory receptors to recognise and assimilate inputs.
Local television stories and segments covering the 2002 open race for governor in Michigan were compared with the same stations' coverage of the 1998 election in which an incumbent governor ran against a challenger. Coverage of the 2002 race was more even handed toward the Republican and Democratic candidates, as predicted. Overall, multistory segments making up a day's news coverage were more balanced than the individual stories, consistent with previous research in 1998. Segments leading newscasts were more balanced than those run inside. Election stories that ran alone in a day's newscast were also more balanced. However, stories covered by reporters were less likely to be balanced than stories covered by anchors, contrary to predictions.
Today's visually minded pupil seems able to attend several messages at one time. What happens if he watches and hears more than one sound film simultaneously? Can he learn from more than one information audiovisual input at a time? Twenty-one classes of third and sixth grade boys and girls (N = approximately 600) were randomly assigned to traditional two-channel film presentations or to four-channel film presentations through use of two screens and stereophonic headphones. Analysis of variance did not show significant differences between watching one sound film or two sound films simultaneously on objective posttesting of factual information learned.
Comprehending television is a complex process. Multiple resource theory proposes that the necessary resources are limited. Limitations, however, depend on four separate factors. First, resources are used by three different tasks—attention, meaning-level processing, and memory. Demands arise from individual tasks and combinations. The consequences of reaching limitations are different for each task. Second, television's auditory and visual modalities use different symbol systems. Audio information might be more difficult to process and requires more resources. Third, television stimuli might contain the meaningful information in either the auditory or visual modality. Meaningful information might require more processing and resources and should result in resource shifts. Fourth, television programs use varying levels of redundancy. Whereas processing two modalities generally requires additional resources, actual demands depend on the level and nature of the redundancy. As a result of these four factors, resource limitations can inhibit one process, modality, or attribute. Systematic study of these outcomes is necessary.
This selected review of film research from the vast literature on film as a medium of communication attempts to identify those characteristics of variables which research suggests may contribute to the effectiveness of instructional films. The inclusion of studies was largely determined by their relevance to practical application by film users. Emphasis has, therefore, been given to studies concerned with film utilization procedures and audience variables.
The present study investigated the relationships of meaningfulness, picture detail, and presentation mode on visual learning.
Subjects, 123 broadcasting students at Brooklyn College, viewed slides of animal pictures previously classified by judges
into high-and low-meaningful groups. All Ss saw both high-and low-meaningful stimulus items. Half saw the stimulus items as
full-color pictures while the other half saw them as line drawings. In addition, one-third saw the stimulus items as pictures
presented alone, one-third saw them as pictures with each animal name printed underneath its picture, and one-third saw the
pictures (without printed names) accompanied by the spoken animal name as each slide was shown. Following presentation of
stimulus slides, Ss were shown a series of full-color test slides containing dummy items randomly intermixed with stimulus
items. During two showings of test slides, Ss first indicated those animals recognized from the learning trial and second,
wrote down those animal names they knew.
Results included significant main effects on recognition accuracy for meaningfulness and presentation mode in addition to
significant interactions for meaningfulness-by-mode and mode-by-picture-detail. A significant main effect of presentation
mode resulted for correctly named stimulus items. Three significant main effects (meaningfulness, picture detail, and mode)
and one significant interaction (mean-ingfulness-by-picture-detail) were obtained on error scores.
Presents a series of studies investigating the dimension along which words are encoded, using the "release from proactive inhibition" in short-term memory technique. Results indicate that semantic dimensions (taxonomic categories or semantic differential) are highly effective, whereas physical characteristics, i.e., word length or figure-ground colors of the slide presentation are relatively ineffective in releasing proactive inhibition. Results of this technique of measuring encoding are related to other types of experiments on verbal material as well as to the topic of subception and imageless thought. (36 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
2 experiments with 180 and 360 undergraduates produced data on the retention of a single verbal discrimination list as a function of number of trials and length of retention interval (to 1 wk). Forgetting occurred; the greatest amount was 19% at 1 wk. Number of learning trials had only a small influence on retention. The hypothesis that some of the forgetting was produced by assimilation of situational frequency to background frequency was tested and supported. Retroactive inhibition (RI) was measured as a function of number of interpolated trials (IL) with a reversal paradigm. RI 1st increased and then decreased as IL increased; retroactive facilitation occurred with high levels of IL. Proactive inhibition, measured as a function of number of trials on a list, with number of prior learning trials on the interfering list constant, did not vary as a function of degree of learning. Results as a whole could only be partially interpreted within the framework of frequency theory. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Digits were spoken through earphones via 3 simultaneous auditory "channels," created by having 1 digit spoken to the left ear only, another to the right ear only, and a third (middle channel) to both ears at once. Also, each channel was spoken by a different voice, a woman's in the middle, and different men's voices to left and right. 18 right-handed and 18 left-handed Ss heard a series of 2 such triplets, with onsets of 1 sec. apart. Ss instructed to report the digits channel by channel recalled as many digits as those instructed to report them triplet by triplet, but Ss who were permitted free recall chose the triplet-by-triplet strategy more often than the channel-by-channel one. (French summary) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
8 comparable groups of subjects were each exposed to 3 mythological stories, in one of the following conditions: by audition (tape recording); by reading through once; by read-studying, for the time taken for the auditory presentation; by audition concurrent with reading. True-false post-tests were administered after the material was presented. A single read-through was as effective as auditory presentation; both were slightly inferior to read-study or reading accompanied by the auditory presentation. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Explored performance on a memory-span task as a function of the presentation mode that Ss prefer in a 2-part experiment. Part 1 used a memory-span procedure involving 8-letter sequences where the presentation mode (visual or auditory) was randomly mixed. In Part 2 67 undergraduates were exposed to auditory and visual 5-letter sequences simultaneously and could record either the auditory or visual sequence establishing a preference. The compatibility between mode preference in Part 2 and relative performance on visual and auditory items in Part 1 showed that Ss perform better on auditory items regardless of their mode preference. This result supported the notion that short-term memory is basically an auditory storage system. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
RECALL STRATEGIES AND EAR ASYMMETRY WERE INVESTIGATED WHERE MEANINGFULNESS WAS CONTINGENT UPON THE TEMPORAL PAIRING OF INDIVIDUAL DICHOTIC PAIRS OF STIMULI. 2-SYLLABLE WORDS WERE RECORDED AT THE RATE OF 2/SEC. 4 GROUPS OF 15 RIGHT-HANDED SS, DIFFERING IN TERMS OF WORD TYPE (SIMPLE OR COMPOUND) AND CHANNEL (EAR PRESENTED THE 1ST SYLLABLE), LISTENED TO 10 TRIALS EACH OF 3 PAIRS OF DIGITS, 3 WORDS, AND 5 WORDS. THE MEANINGFUL ASSOCIATIONS BETWEEN DICHOTIC PAIRS HAD LITTLE INFLUENCE ON S'S STRATEGY FOR RECALL: SS MORE FREQUENTLY ADOPTED AN EAR-ORDER REPORT. BOTH WORD TYPES (SALIENCY EFFECT) AND LATERALITY (EAR ASYMMETRY) WERE FOUND TO INFLUENCE S'S STRATEGY FOR RECALL AND NUMBER OF ITEMS RECALLED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Conducted 3 experiments, with 192, 100, and 450 undergraduates, respectively, to determine whether improvement on a repeated item in a short-term memory (STM) task is due to differential encoding or incremental strengthening. The Peterson distractor technique was used. It was demonstrated that although a class of repetitions tended to exhibit the same proactive inhibition effects as a new class of material, it did not allow interference from nonrepeated items to dissipate. It is concluded that initial trace strength was equivalent on each trial of the STM task and that a repetition increased the strength of that item, placing it above the others at recall. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Can an operator in a man machine system monitoring an instrument display do it better if he has both auditory and visual cues? 50 college students were assigned randomly to one of 5 conditions tested. A simulated man machine visual display was used for visual search tasks; a headset was used for sound. "In general, it appears that auditory cueing can be used effectively in conjunction with a visual search task." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated preperceptual memory after presentation of an array of colored stimuli in 2 experiments. 5 undergraduates in each experiment viewed an array of red, green, and yellow circles after which a tone retrieval cue indicated the type of color information to be reported, either a partial report (1 of the 3 colors in Exp. I, colors in 1 of the 3 rows in Exp. II), or a complete report. In Exp. I, color information reported by category did not decrease in availability as delay of retrieval increased; however, Exp. II indicated that availability of color location information did decrease. Results imply a differential processing strategy depending on the type of information to be retrieved. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Results obtained with the method of absolute judgment suggest that a relatively unpracticed S can identify correctly three levels of intensity of an odorant and that a well-practiced S can identify about four levels.
"For the experiments on free-recall verbal learning a standard procedure and a standard method of fitting the exponential were used; normative data and data on reliability were presented. It was shown that there was no learning-how-to-learn or warm-up effect. Also, there was no difference between visual and auditory presentation or between individual and group testing. Learning was found to be a linear function of log frequency of usage… . it was possible to predict the learning of a list with a fair degree of accuracy given its length and presentation time." (19 ref.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A bisensory discrete tracking task was used where a probabilistic series of simultaneous auditory and visual stimuli were presented, each stimulus series for response with a separate hand. An auditory and a visual control group each practiced only a unisensory version of the task where response was with one hand The results revealed a net superiority of bisensory over unisensory responding when stimulus events were certain. This was because S in the bisensory task usually made the two response movements together, and anticipation of certain events resulted in an increase in speed of the visual response time to that of the faster audio response time. But, when events were uncertain, impairment was inferred for bisensory responding because the faster audio response time was reduced in speed and synchronized with the slower visual response time.
A book on human communication that is worthy of its subject must introduce the reader to the dynamic interaction of a number of diverse fields. Colin Cherry's book, over successive editions, has served for twenty years as perhaps the most literate and readable introduction to this interaction available. Readers have consistently found that fields within their specialty are covered with authority; that fields far removed are covered with clarity; and that the connections among them are shown to be close and natural.This third edition includes a new chapter, "Feeling, Knowledge, and Understanding," that extends the book's reach into philosophy, and in particular communicates some existential points-of-view. In it the author undertakes to demonstrate that "The language of physical science is inadequate for discussion of what is essentially human about human communication." In addition, numerous changes have been introduced throughout the text, and the bibliography has been expanded and updated.
Two experiments were performed in order to test the hypothesis that the time taken to remember a recently presented verbal item depends on whether the item is retrieved from primary (immediate post-perceptual) or from secondary (relatively long-term) memory. The results indicate that retrieval from primary memory takes significantly less time than retrieval from secondary, and that an item available in both stores is retrieved from the former (after a relatively short delay).
In contrast to the extremely acute sensitivity of a human listener to discriminate small differences in the frequency or intensity between two sounds is his relative inability to identify (and name) sounds presented individually. When the frequency of a single tone is varied in equal‐logarithmic steps in the range between 100 cps and 8000 cps (and when the level of the tone is randomly adjusted to reduce loudness cues), the amount of information transferred is about 2.3 bits per stimulus presentation. This is equivalent to perfect identification among only 5 tones. The information transferred, under the conditions of measurement employed, is reasonably invariant under wide variations in stimulus conditions.
Broadbent (1956) reports that two lists of digits, each presented to one ear separately so that the items in the two series coincide in time, are grouped together according to the ear-of-arrival, and that these two lists are accordingly recalled separately, one after the other. To ascertain whether such a tendency reflected some built-in mechanism or whether it was due to an optional tactic, adopted through success in making sense of message sequences in other situations, an experiment was designed in which a meaningful message would emerge for the subject if the ear-of-arrival cue was ignored. In this experiment, words broken up into syllables, and phrases broken up into their monosyllabic constituent words were presented to the subject, with the constituents alternating between the two ears. At the same time lists of digits were presented to whichever ear was unoccupied. The results show that recall by meaning rather than by ear-of-arrival, when these are in conflict, can occur and is no less efficient.
Previous studies of the development of information processing in children have frequently been methodologically suspect and inconclusive in outcome. A study was designed to overcome some of the difficulties encountered in earlier studies. Six boys and six girls at each year of age from 5 to 11 inclusive were tested for one week on a serial, numerals-keys choice reaction time task with 2, 4, and 8 alternatives. Results were consistent with Hick's (1952) law. Both reaction time (RT) and the rate of gain of information improved with age, but the intercept constant, a more labile index, did not. These findings suggest that development is largely restricted to the process of response selection within a 4-stage decomposition of RT. Girls consistently exhibited both faster RTs and higher rates of gain of information than boys. These sex differences are interpreted in relation to recent notions of cerebral maturation in males and females.
"The information transmission associated with elementary auditory displays consisting of a large number of independent stimulus aspects, e.g., the frequency or the sound level of a tone, was examined. In general, multiple stimulus encoding is a satisfactory procedure for increasing the information transmission associated with elementary auditory displays. Further, extreme subdivision of each stimulus aspect fails to produce substantial improvement in the information transmission." (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Transmission of information through the sense of taste about solutions of sucrose and salt was measured by means of I
t. S's judged concentration, stimuli covering a range of 100 gusts in equal log steps. For simple saline solutions I
t does not increase as the number of alternatives goes beyond five. I
t for nine simple sucrose solutions is very nearly the same as for nine simple saline solutions. For compound solutions I
t is slightly greater than the sum of the I
t values for the components computed from the same data. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
DISCUSSES THE "PHYSIOLOGICAL AND CHEMICAL ARRIVAL OF SENSORY SIGNALS IN THE CNS AND THE ELABORATION OF APPROPRIATE RESPONSES TO THEM." CONSIDERS IN DETAIL MOTIVATIONAL FACTORS, EMOTIONAL AROUSAL, THEORETICAL ASPECTS, AND ASSOCIATIVE PROCESSES. EXTENSIVE DEFINITIONS AND ILLUSTRATIONS ARE INCLUDED. (3 P. BIBLIOGR.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous studies have shown that the amount of information transmitted with a simple one‐dimensional auditory display is relatively small. This paper considers three conditions designed to increase the information transmission with elementary auditory displays. The three conditions or variables were (1) the frequency range of tones investigated; (2) the utilization of objective reference tones presented with the unknown tone; and (3) the “dimensionality” of the display—the number of independently varying stimulus aspects of the display. Little additional gain in information transmission is associated with the first factor; a moderate gain is associated with the second; and a relatively substantial gain is associated with the third.
Past controversies over the relative effectiveness of auditory, visual, and audiovisual channels are seen as the results of nondifferentiation of error and equivocation. Seventh grade students were used as Ss in an experiment consisting of noise and no noise conditions with constrained and nonconstrained communication in A, V, and AV treatments. Data were examined in terms of output, error, equivocation, and recalled (shared) information based upon information theory.The superiority of the AV treatment was substantiated in all respects of information processing, making less error and equivocation, but recalling more information correctly as compared with the A or V channel. Comparisons between A and V unequivocally established the fact that V made less error but more equivocation, whereas A processed more output information and also made more error; however, there was no significant difference between them in recalled information.The dependence of A upon constraint was found to be far greater than that of AV whose dependence in turn was greater than that of V. Noise was found to affect A most, V the next most, and AV the least. With between-channel redundancy AV seemed to be capable of reducing the effect of noise.
It has been assumed that by manipulating redundancy (both SR and BCR), it is possible to make LI Ss perform IP tasks as effectively
as HI Ss. The difference between HI and LI Ss may be eliminated or reduced by improving the performance level of LI Ss. The
simultaneous AV channel presenting identical or high redundancy information (high BCR) would make it possible to raise LI
Ss to a level of performance as high as that of HI Ss.
Thesis (Ph.D.)--Ohio State University, 1955.
A study demonstrating the application of information measures to visually presented stimuli, dots varying in number, for .03 sec. camera projection time. The matrix on S's sheet was 3 x 3 to 20 x 20 in separate tests. One to four dots were used. Results indicate that S's transmitted 4.4 bits per exposure for a single dot to 6.6 bits for 4 dots. The presence or absence of internal grid lines on S's answer sheet or on the projected square had no effect.
The purpose of this experiment is to determine the effect of the number of stimulus categories on the accuracy of judgments of loudness and to examine some of the factors which affect judgmental accuracy in this type of experimental situation. Found that in attempting to predict the response from the stimulus only, maximum information transmission occurs with five stimulus categories and decreases when more are used although predictability with a large number of categories becomes as great as with a smaller number if such factors as previous responses and stimuli, experimental session, etc., are introduced. In regard to the effect of the preceding stimulus on responses, it is not clear whether the Ss respond to the weighted average of the present and preceding stimulus or to a tendency to repeat the same response.
: The term absolute pitch customarily implies an ability to name isolated musical tones--an ability possessed by few persons. The usual experimental test of this facility requires O to identify by name (C, G sharp, F, etc.) a series of tones presented singly, each being separated from the one preceding by a designated time-interval. If O's average error of judgment satisfies a certain criterion (musical semitone or less), he is said to have absolute pitch; if his error exceeds the maximum allowed, he is not credited with absolute pitch. In the interest of extending our knowledge about the role of pitch in absolute judgments, this paper poses the following questions: How widely must a given number of pure tones be separated in pitch before the average O can make correct absolute judgments? What happens to the accuracy of absolute judgments of pitch when O is presented smaller and smaller pitch separations? How is the amount of information which O receives about the series related to the pitch-distance between tones? Are the effects of pitch-separation on absolute judgments significantly influenced by practice? How does disuse affect the ability?
Exploring the news: An experiment on the relative effectiveness of radio and TV versions of a children’s news program
- L C Barrow
- B H Westley
A survey of the literature of learning and attitude research in instructional television. Columbia: Uni-versity of Missouri Department of Speech, 1963 . Miller, G. A. Language and communication The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information
- W W Maclennan
- J C Reid
MacLennan, W. W., & Reid, J. C. A survey of the literature of learning and attitude research in instructional television. Columbia: Uni-versity of Missouri Department of Speech, 1963. Miller, G. A. Language and communication. New York: McGraw-Hill, 195I. Miller, G. A. The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 1956, 63, 81-97.
The individual as an information processing system Information storage and neural control
- J G Miller
Miller, J. G. The individual as an information processing system. In W. S. Fields & W. Abbott (Eds.), Information storage and neural control. Springfield, Ill. : Charles C Thomas, I963, Pp. 3oi-3o8.
An inventory of instructional telev,ision research
- H Kumata
Kumata, H. An inventory of instructional telev,ision research. Ann Arbor, Mich. : Educational Television and Radio Center, 1956.
The symbolic coding of information on cathode ray tubes and similar displays The immediate retention of unrelated words
- P E Muller
- Jr
- R C Sidorsky
- A J Slivinske
- E A Alluisi
- P M Fitts
Muller, P. E., Jr., Sidorsky, R. C., Slivinske, A. J., Alluisi, E. A., & Fitts, P. M. The symbolic coding of information on cathode ray tubes and similar displays. USAF WADC Tech Report No. 55-373, z955. Murdock, B. B. The immediate retention of unrelated words. Journal of Experimental Psychology, I96o, 6o, 222-234.
Effects of mass media of communication Handbook of social psychology
- C I Hovland
Hovland, C. I. Effects of mass media of communication. In G. Lindzey (Ed.), Handbook of social psychology. Cambridge, Mass.: Addi-son-Wesley, 2954. Pp. 2o62-22o4.
The role of neuronal network in sensory communication within the brain Sensory communica-tion
- A Fassard
Fassard, A. The role of neuronal network in sensory communication within the brain. In W. A. Rosenblith (Ed.), Sensory communica-tion. Cambridge, Mass.: MIT Press, 1961.
The brain as a computer Grouping strategies with simul-taneous stimuli
- F H George
George, F. H. The brain as a computer. Cambridge, Mass.: Addison-Wesley, 2962. Gray, J. A., & Wedderburn, A. A. I. Grouping strategies with simul-taneous stimuli. Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, 2960, I2,280-284.
The rate of handling information: Keypressing response to light patterns. Human Factors Operation Research Lab Memo
- E T Klemmer
- P F Muller
- Jr
Klemmer, E. T., & Muller, P. F., Jr. The rate of handling information: Keypressing response to light patterns. Human Factors Operation Research Lab Memo, Report 34, March, I953.
Forgetting in short-term recall: All-or-none or decremental? Journal of Experimental Psychology, I969, 82, 96oio6. Noback, C. R. The human nervous system Flash recognition-scale reading
- T O Nelson
- W H Bathelder
Nelson, T. O., & Bathelder, W. H. Forgetting in short-term recall: All-or-none or decremental? Journal of Experimental Psychology, I969, 82, 96oio6. Noback, C. R. The human nervous system. New York: McGraw-Hill, 1967. Osborne, J. W., Quastler, H., & Tweedell, K. S. Flash recognition-scale reading. Urbana, Ill. : Control System Lab., University of Illinois, Report No. 78, 1955.
The mathematical theory of communi-cation I949. Singh, J. Great ideas in information theory, language and cybernation Sperling, G. Successive approximation to a model for short-term memory
- C E Shannon
- W Weaver
Shannon, C. E., & Weaver, W. The mathematical theory of communi-cation. Urbana, Ill. : University of Illinois Press, I949. Singh, J. Great ideas in information theory, language and cybernation. New York: Dover Publications, 1966. Sperling, G. Successive approximation to a model for short-term memory. Acta Psychologica, 1967, 27, 285-292.
The perception of speech Handbook of experimental psychology
- J C R Licklider
- G A Miller
Licklider, J. C. R., & Miller, G. A. The perception of speech. In S. S. Ste-vens (Ed.), Handbook of experimental psychology. New York: John Wiley, 195i. Pp. lo4o-2o74.