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Athletic Participation, Fraternity Membership, and Sexual Aggression Among College Men: A Meta-analytic Review
Abstract and Figures
A meta-analysis of the data relating either college athletic participation or fraternity membership to attitudes and behaviors
associated with sexual aggression was conducted with 29 studies which yielded 57 effect sizes. Membership in each male group
was associated to a moderate extent with rape-supportive attitudes, and to a smaller extent with self-report of sexually aggressive
behavior. There was much variability in the data that could be partially predicted by variables such as the size of the college,
the validity of the study, and the age of the research participants. The involvement of these all-male groups in the perpetuation
of hypermasculine attitudes (Mosher and Sirkin 1984) in a patriarchal culture was discussed.
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... another key risk factor for sexual aggression amongst university students (Murnen & Kohlman, 2007). For example, in the US, students who are members of a "high risk" sports teamthat is, a team associated with heavy drinking and a party culture conducive to sexual aggressionor who play high-profile team sports (e.g., football) typically report higher rates of past sexual perpetration than students who are either members of a "low risk" sports team (e.g., athletics or tennis) or non-athletes (Gage, 2008;. ...
... Similarly, in the UK, participation in 'laddish' sports (e.g., rugby and football)those that typically centre around homosocial bonding via inappropriate 'banter' and alcohol consumptionhas been shown to increase individual risk of committing sexual assault and rape (e.g., Phipps & Young, 2013). Like sports participation, research has shown that fraternity membership is also linked to university-based sexual aggression perpetration, particularly amongst US students (Goodson et al., 2021;Hoxmeier & Zapp, 2022;Murnen & Kohlman, 2007;M. P. Thompson & Morrison, 2013). ...
... Research has shown that sexually aggressive males in the US form a heterogeneous forensic population who can be categorised into distinct subgroups based on their personality characteristics, motivations, and offending styles (for a review, see Robertiello & Terry, 2007;Wojcik & Fisher, 2019). US studies with male university students have proposed various typologies of sexual aggression, for example, based on offending patterns (e.g., Brennan et al., 2019;Foubert et al., 2020;Lisak & Miller, 2002;Zinzow & M. P. Thompson, 2015), athletic and fraternity involvement (Murnen & Kohlman, 2007), and self-reported alignment with "frat culture" (Testa & Cleveland, 2017). ...
University-based sexual aggression is a pervasive public health issue associated with numerous negative, long-term outcomes. Most scientific literature on the topic has emanated from the US, where researchers possess a solid academic understanding of sexual aggression by male university students - the leading perpetrators of campus-based sexual offences - and have evaluated various harm prevention strategies for tackling the issue. This contrasts with the UK, where academic assessments of male students' illegal sexual behaviours are scant and research evaluating evidence-based prevention interventions is embryonic. This is despite established high rates of sexual victimisation across campuses nationally.
To help catalyse research into university-based sexual aggression in the UK, this thesis presents six novel empirical studies that offer some of the first psychological insights into UK male students' sexual offending behaviours. These include studies assessing the prevalence of, and socio-ecological risk factors associated with, the harmful sexual behaviours of male university students in the UK, the heterogeneity of self-reported perpetrators as a group of forensic interest, and the efficacy of evidence-based online harm prevention programming at reducing UK university males' sexual offence proclivity.
Considered together, findings suggest that (a) UK male students are at increased risk of sexual perpetration at university; (b) perpetrators' behaviours are guided by various socio-ecological risk factors, which differentiate them from their non-offending peers; (c) students with harmful sexual histories comprise a heterogeneous forensic group who can be meaningfully categorised based on their psychological characteristics; and (d) evidence-based online harm prevention programming can effectively reduce the short and longer-term risk of sexual offending amongst UK university males. The implications of findings for academic research and UK harm prevention work are discussed, alongside methodological limitations.
... Another study indicated that rape is more likely to occur when the perpetrators are in a group (i.e. Murnen and Kohlman, 2007). The two looked at sexual aggression in college athletics and fraternities, and concluded that data backed up the association between all-male groups and sexual assault and the idea that sexual violence is masculine. ...
... The two looked at sexual aggression in college athletics and fraternities, and concluded that data backed up the association between all-male groups and sexual assault and the idea that sexual violence is masculine. Murnen and Kohlman (2007) argue that athletes commit violence against women because of the sense of entitlement that is instilled in them by universities that pamper them. ...
Using the lens of medium theory, this content analysis explored the framing of the Steubenville rape case in newspapers and blogs before, during and immediately following the trial. Our findings indicate newspapers focused on social media’s role in documenting the rape and the trial of the two assailants. Blog posts, on the other hand, focused on rape victims’ rights and social media’s role in bringing the case to justice. Of the 78 newspaper articles and blog posts coded, medium type did not make a significant difference in the framing of perpetrators and the actual act of rape. However, there was a significant difference in how the media types framed the case in general. This is a noteworthy finding, as it appears that newspapers were colorblind in their coverage and not as prone to use race frames as indicated in previous studies. Conversely, blog posts offered a platform for discussing issues that were omitted in mainstream media such as women’s rights, rape myths and the need for rape awareness/prevention programs for parents and youth.
... Gendered organizations, like fraternities, can also play a role in creating and disseminating masculine norms. Murnen and Kohlman's (2007) meta-analytic review indicated that male peer group affiliations (e.g., college athletic participation or fraternity membership) were related to hypermasculinity and rape-endorsing attitudes. Compared to non-fraternity men, fraternity members endorsed myths associated with rape more strongly (Canan, Jozkowski, & Crawford, 2018;Martinez, Wiersma-Mosley, Jozkowski, & Becnel, 2018). ...
Sexual assault is a serious public health issue that is particularly pervasive on U.S. college campuses, and it is well established that men's acceptance of rape myths is associated with negative, and even harmful, attitudes and behaviors toward women. Given the association of rape myths with sexual assault, there is a critical need to identify factors associated with men's acceptance of such myths. To this end, we surveyed 318 fraternity men and 183 non-fraternity college men in the United States to test whether sports media use and conformity to masculine norms, specifically beliefs in controlling women and sexual permissiveness, are associated with rape myth acceptance. Results showed that, after controlling for demographic characteristics including fraternity membership, regular sports media exposure, conformity to masculine norms that support control over women and permissive sexual activity (e.g. playboy norms), were positively associated with rape myth acceptance. This study contributes to a better understanding of multidimensional relationships between sports media consumption, conformity to masculine norms, and rape-supportive culture among young men.
... We excluded programs that had one or more mixed-gender sessions, and programs specifically focused on college-or undergraduate students as the effectiveness of these programs has already been evaluated extensively (Anderson & Whiston, 2005;DeGue et al., 2014;Graham et al., 2021;Ricardo et al., 2011;Wright et al., 2020), they are adults, and college students encounter specific risk factors for perpetrating sexual violence, such as fraternity membership (Murnen & Kohlman, 2007) that do not apply to the general population. ...
Sexual and dating violence (SDV) by male youth (≤ 25 years)—including sexual harassment, emotional partner violence, and rape—is a worldwide problem. The goal of this preregistered (PROSPERO, ID: CRD42022281220) systematic review was to map existing SDV prevention programs aimed at male youth, including their characteristics (e.g., content, intensity), intended psychosexual outcomes, and empirically demonstrated effectiveness, guided by the principles of the theory of planned behavior (TPB). We conducted searches in six online databases for published, peer-reviewed quantitative effectiveness studies on multi-session, group focused, and interaction based SDV prevention programs for male youth ending March 2022. After screening of 21,156 hits using PRISMA guidelines, 15 studies on 13 different programs, from four continents were included. Narrative analysis showed, first, broad ranges in program intensity (2–48 h total), and few program curricula included explicit discussion of relevant aspects of the TPB. Second, programs’ main intended psychosexual outcomes were to change SDV experiences, or related attitudes, or norms. Third, significant effects were found mostly on longer term behaviors and short-term attitudes. Other theoretical proxies of SDV experiences, such as social norms and perceived behavioral control, were sparsely investigated; thus, program effectiveness on these outcomes remains largely unknown. Assessed with the Cochrane Risk of Bias Tool, moderate to serious risk of bias arose in all studies. We present concrete suggestions for program content, such as explicit attention to victimization and masculinity and discuss best practices for evaluation research, including assessments of program integrity, and examining relevant theoretical proxies of SDV.
This study analyzed the facets of the exercise of hegemonic masculinities as a means of counter-resistance of young men in the face of the rise of female groups in the university context. A longitudinal, qualitative, and interpretive study was developed based on multiple data sources, such as interviews, documents, and organizational artifacts, which were analyzed inductively based on open, axial, and selective coding. As main results of the triangulation of the data, the following stand out: (i) hegemonic masculinities are characterized by leadership in student groups, exaltation of masculinity, and classification of women as subordinate to boys’ interests; (ii) there is a resistance of a feminist collective, marked by the fight against situations of machismo in the university context; (iii) there is a male counter-resistance, with the intensification of actions against women, through harassment, aggression, vandalism, and compositions of sexist songs. The article contributes to the discussion about gender and resistance, especially in the organizational context.
Resumo O objetivo deste estudo foi analisar as facetas do exercício das masculinidades hegemônicas como meio de contrarresistência de jovens rapazes diante da ascensão de um coletivo feminista no contexto universitário. Para tanto, foi desenvolvido um estudo longitudinal, qualitativo e interpretativista, pautado em múltiplas fontes de dados, como entrevistas, documentos e artefatos organizacionais, que foram analisadas de modo indutivo, com base em codificação aberta, axial e seletiva. Como principais resultados da triangulação dos dados, destacam-se: i) as masculinidades hegemônicas são caracterizadas pela liderança em grupos estudantis, exaltação das masculinidades e classificação das mulheres como subordinadas aos interesses dos rapazes; ii) ocorre a resistência de coletivos feministas, marcada pelo combate a situações de machismo no contexto universitário; iii) há uma contrarresistência masculina, com a intensificação das ações contra as mulheres, por meio de assédio, agressões, vandalismos e composições de músicas sexistas. O artigo contribui para a discussão sobre gênero e resistência, especialmente no contexto organizacional.
For many years, social research on sport has examined the nature of violence against women by athletes. In recent years, the issue has been exposed as a critical one to which the communities of colleges and universities devote time and resources to address. College administrators and athletic department representatives have started, with increasing frequency, to work with student athletes to raise awareness, change cultural attitudes, and create safe environments for all students and staff on campus.
Racial disparities in perceptions of sexual assault incidents have largely focused on male-perpetrated violence against women. However, in some contexts such as college sports, sexual victimization of men may disproportionately impact racial minorities. Therefore, it is necessary to examine sexual assault in these contexts. Using a 2 × 2 factorial survey experimental design with vignettes pertaining to a collegiate athlete sexual assault scenario involving two male student-athletes, we examined perceptions of (1) racial differences in offender motivation, (2) racial differences in victim culpability, and (3) racial differences in preferred sanctions. Compared to the White-White scenario, participants in the Black-Black scenario perceived the perpetrator to be less motivated by power and control or mental health/bad upbringing. Black victims of White-perpetrated sexual assault were perceived as more able to offer physical resistance and therefore partially culpable for the incident. Finally, participants were more punitive for the scenarios involving Black offenders, especially when the victim was White. Participants were harsher in their preferences for both university sanctions and criminal justice sanctions, with the Black-White scenario producing a greater likelihood of recommending expulsion and incarceration. We discuss the implications of our findings for understanding racial disparities in sexual assault generally, as well as for college student-athlete contexts.
In the United States, college students have been identified as a high-risk group for sexual violence (SV) victimization and perpetration, with one in three women and one in four men experiencing SV in their lifetimes. Therefore, studies investigating both perpetration and victimization across genders are pertinent. Additionally, in the context of higher education, athletics is often viewed as a high-risk environment for SV. Despite established relationships between SV and intercollegiate athletics, research on this topic is not conclusive due to the heterogeneous nature of college sports, as well as a dearth of research on recreational athletes. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the differences in SV victimization and perpetration among intercollegiate, recreational, and non-athlete populations. Additional context was provided by exploring variables at multiple levels of the socio-ecological model for violence prevention, as these factors can be important aspects of a person's development and may inform behavior. Utilizing a sample of 62,996 students from 199 institutions of higher education in the United States, multilevel logistic regression analyses were conducted to assess individual- (i.e., personal demographics), relationship- (i.e., athlete status), and community-level (i.e., institutional characteristics) predictors of SV victimization and perpetration. The results indicated that recreational athletes are the most at-risk group, experiencing and perpetrating SV at higher rates than non-athletes. Results on institutional status and individual characteristics, as well as implications for practitioners and future research is discussed.
This study examined the culturally reinforced beliefs and attitudes which may allow or even encourage sexual aggression, particularly on college campuses. Rape Callous Attitudes or rape myths (Burt, 1980) are widely accepted in Western culture, but appear to be held more strongly by (potentially) sexually aggressive people. Since research indicates that Greek college men tend to be more sexually aggressive than their Independent counterparts, it was expected that acceptance of Rape Callous Attitudes would be held more strongly by Greeks than Independents. Additionally, Kanin (1984; 1985) has argued that sexually aggressive college men experience "hypererotic" socialization, which encourages frequent sexual activity as an important part of masculine identity. The present study examined how 303 University of Pennsylvania undergraduates' acceptance of Rape Callous Attitudes, Hypererotic Sexual Socialization, and Sexual Experience changed over four years of college, and whether or not Greeks could be distinguished from Independents. Two-way and repeated measures ANOVAS were used to analyze the data. Correlational Relationships between variables were also examined. Results show that all participant groups reported significantly less endorsement of Rape Callous Attitudes and significantly increased Sexual Experience over four years of college. There was no distinction between Greeks and Independents on those measures. Greeks were significantly higher than Independents in Hypererotic Sexual Socialization. Men consistently scored significantly higher than women on all three scales. Levels of Hypererotic Sexual Socialization remained essentially even for all participants. Results were discussed in relation to the specific University population and setting, as well as recent reaction to a number of sexually coercive events on campus. Implications for universities and suggestions for further research were also discussed.
Creating a humane sport environment could be a powerful deterrent to the hostile and sexist feelings, attitudes, and actions which the current male sports model exhibits.
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A profeminist perspective was employed to study male bonding in the locker rooms of two “big time” college sport teams. Locker room talk fragments were collected over the course of several months by a participant observer, a senior varsity athlete, and by a nonparticipant observer, a sport sociologist. Additional data were collected by means of field observations, intensive interviews, and life histories and were combined to interpret locker room interaction. The analysis indicated that fraternal bonding was strongly affected by competition. While competition provided an activity bond to other men that was rewarding and status enhancing, it also generated anxiety and other strong emotions that the athletes sought to control or channel. Moreover, peer group dynamics encouraged antisocial talk and behavior, much of which was directed at the athletes themselves. To avoid being targeted for jibes and put-downs, the men engaged in conversations that affirmed a traditional masculinity. As a result their locker ...
A social learning theory of deviant behavior (Akers, 1985) is used to identify the process through which fraternity membership may be correlated with sexual aggression. Fraternity members are significantly more likely than "independents" to engage in nonphysical coercion and to use drugs and alcohol as a sexual strategy but do not differ significantly in their use of physical coercion. When the social learning variables are controlled fraternity membership has no significant effect on sexual coercion and aggression.