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Impacts of Surface Mine Valley Fills on Headwater Floods in Eastern Kentucky
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The potential impacts of valley fills associated with mountaintop removal/valley fill (MTR/VF) coal mining on downstream flooding in the coalfields of eastern Kentucky and adjacent states are a subject of public debate and scientific uncertainty. This study explored two aspects of this issue. First, hydrologic indices of relative runoff production and surface and subsurface flow detention were applied to conditions typical of headwater and low-order drainage basins in eastern Kentucky. Results show that there is a clear risk of increased flooding (greater runoff production and less surface flow detention) following MTR/VF operations, and suggest that, on balance, valley fills are more likely to increase rather than decrease flood potential. However, there is a wide range of outcomes, qualitatively and quantitatively. Flood risks can be increased or decreased, and the degree of either may vary markedly. The effects of MTR/VF mining on downstream peak flows are highly contingent on local pre- and post-mining conditions, and it would be unwise to apply generalizations to specific sites. Second, the occurrence of flash floods downstream of MTR/VF operations when nearby unmined areas did not flood or had less severe floods has frequently been explained (without supporting data) in terms of locally greater precipitation. The likelihood of such short-range variability of storm precipitation is evaluated by applying the state probability function to NEXRAD radar estimates of precipitation for two 2001 storms which produced flash floods in eastern Kentucky. The spatial structure of the storm precipitation indicates that at the scale of the analysis (pixel size of approximately 2km) large local variations in storm precipitation are unlikely—that is, the probability of nearby hollows or low-order drainage basins receiving substantially different storm precipitation totals is low.
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... Their model suggested that both discharge and sediment yield increased significantly between 1992 and 2019. These findings are consistent with other studies in the Appalachian region suggesting that MTRVFan extreme type of surface miningand related reclamation efforts can increase stormwater runoff (Bonta et al., 1997;Negley & Eshleman, 2006;Phillips, 2004). ...
... The largest set of scientific evidence of geomorphic-based environmental effects in waterways located downstream from waste dumps comes from the so-called mountaintop removal mining (MRM), also mountaintop mining (MTM), of the Appalachian Coalfield Region of Eastern Unites States (Palmer et al., 2010). In this region, mining performed within a physiography characterized by significant differences in height (several hundred metres) and steep valleys has induced fundamental changes in the topography and morphology of watersheds, has greatly affected the water quality of downstream ecosystems (Lindberg et al., 2011) and led to heavier storm runoff and increased frequency and magnitude of downstream flooding (Phillips, 2004;Ferrari et al., 2009;Miller and Zégre, 2014). ...
Mining is the largest producer of solid wastes which, when released to land or into waterways, can cause harmful environmental impacts. This is mostly due to fluvial erosion, which is highly increased in mountain areas, due to abrupt slopes. We have analysed this situation at a mountain watershed (192 ha), where steep mined sites and their waste dumps are the main source of sediment in a Natural Park. This problem was tackled by building gabion check dams downstream from the mined sites. We used the DEM of Differences (DoD) method to quantify erosion and sediment yield from three waste dumps (5 ha). Their topography and substrate properties were analysed to understand the erosion problem. The sediment trapped by the check dams was quantified by electrical resistivity tomography (ERT). The rainfall characteristics triggering an episode that filled the check dams with sediment in the winter 2009–2010, were studied to confirm whether it was a case of extreme precipitation conditions.
The waste dumps sediment yield (353 ± 95 Mg ha⁻¹ yr⁻¹) suggests severe landform instability. Analysis of topographic and substrate properties confirmed long, steep slopes combined with highly erodible materials. The check dams proved to be inefficient in controlling sediment loads, as they had only functioned for four years of 31 of existence, having trapped 13 000 ± 660 m³ of sediment, whereas we estimated that the waste dumps have yielded approximately three times more sediment for the same period. Rainfall analyses showed that neither intense nor extreme conditions (return period of 25 to 35 years) triggered the mobilization of 37 ± 2 Mg ha⁻¹ in a month. This study highlights the fact that mining operations in similar mountainous settings, with equivalent waste dump construction and reclamation practices, are currently unfeasible. We conclude that landform stability cannot be achieved at this site without landform changes. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Despite ample scientific evidence proving climate change is occurring, climate change skepticism and denial remain heavily politicized and polarizing issues across the Appalachian region. Personal accounts can provide an accessible entry point for alleviating skepticism and contributing to an increased understanding of climate change and its local consequences. This exploratory study complements existing literature regarding climate change perception by providing an experiential and localized understanding and awareness of climate change from an often-marginalized group: rural, female farmers in Appalachian Kentucky. This study aims to examine the impact that personal experience has on Kentucky female farmers’ perception of climate change and their willingness to adopt adaptation and mitigation strategies. Six semi-structured interviews were conducted and coded using a hierarchical coding framework to inform this study. This research note highlights the observations and perspectives of six Appalachian farmers in Kentucky as they navigate farming during climate change.
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In late July 2022, heavy rains resulted in localised flash flooding across the Upper Kentucky River. To quantify the scale of this event, we analysed hydrometeorological activity using radar, precipitation and stream gauge data for three unregulated watersheds within the headwater forks of the Kentucky River Basin. The July 2022 event resulted from warm‐season elevated thunderstorm activity generating record flooding for the Whitesburg branch of the headwaters. Steeper topography and barren surface cover may have also influenced flooding on a local scale. A better understanding of local flood responses may mitigate future impacts of these events.
Land cover change is prevalent in the eastern Kentucky Appalachian region, mainly due to increased surface mining activities. This study explored the potential change in land cover and its relationship with stream discharge and sediment yield in a watershed of the Cumberland River near Harlan, Kentucky, between 2001 and 2016, using the Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT). Two land cover scenarios for the years 2001 and 2016 were used separately to simulate the surface runoff and sediment yield at the outlet of the Cumberland River near Harlan. Land cover datasets from the National Land Cover Database (NLCD) were used to reclassify the land cover type into the following classes: water, developed, forest, barren, shrubland, and pasture/grassland. Evaluation of the relationship between the land cover change on discharge and sediment was performed by comparing the average annual basin values of streamflow and sediment from each of the land cover scenarios. The SWAT model output was evaluated based on several statistical parameters, including the Nash–Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient (NSE), RMSE-observations standard deviation ratio (RSR), percent bias (PBIAS), and the coefficient of determination (R²). Moreover, P-factor and R-factor indices were used to measure prediction uncertainty. The model showed an acceptable range of agreement for both calibration and validation between observed and simulated values. The temporal land cover change showed a decrease in forest area by 2.42% and an increase in developed, barren, shrubland, and grassland by 0.11%, 0.34%, 0.53%, and 1.44%, respectively. The discharge increased from 92.34 mm/year to 104.7 mm/year, and sediment increased from 0.83 t/ha to 1.63 t/ha from 2001 to 2016, respectively. Based on results from the model, this study concluded that the conversion of forest land into other land types could contribute to increased surface runoff and sediment transport detached from the soil along with runoff water. The research provides a robust approach to evaluating the effect of temporal land cover change on Appalachian streams and rivers. Such information can be useful for designing land management practices to conserve water and control soil erosion in the Appalachian region of eastern Kentucky.
Energy and water have been fundamental to powering the global economy and building modern society. This cross-disciplinary book provides an integrated assessment of the different scientific and policy tools around the energy-water nexus. It focuses on how water use, and wastewater and waste solids produced from fossil fuel energy production affect water quality and quantity. Summarizing cutting edge research, it describes the scientific methods for detecting contamination sources in the context of policy and regulations. The authors highlight the growing evidence that fossil fuel production, from both conventional and unconventional sources, leads to water quality degradation, while regulations for the water and energy sector remain fractured and highly variable across and within countries. This volume will be a key reference for scholars, industry professionals, environmental consultants and policy makers seeking information on the risks associated with the energy cycle and its impact on the environment, particularly water resources.
It is hypothesized that land cover change (LCC), driven by mountain top removal (MTR), in the Appalachian region of eastern Kentucky would change biogeophysical properties of land surface and subsequently various atmospheric boundary layer parameters and precipitation. In this research, we have conducted model-based sensitivity experiments of atmospheric response of a significant flash flood–producing rainfall event by modifying land cover and topography. These reflect recent LCC, including MTR. We have used the Weather Research and Forecasting (WRF) model for this purpose. The study found changes in amount, location, and timing of precipitation. LCC also modified various surface fluxes, moist static energy, planetary boundary layer height, and local-scale wind circulation. This study reports that there was an increase in sensible heat flux (H) for bare soil simulation (post-MTR) compared to pre-MTR conditions (increased elevation with no altered land cover). Allowing for growth of vegetation, the grass simulation resulted in a decrease in H. With regard to latent heat flux (LE), there was a notable decrease from pre-MTR to post-MTR simulations. For the grass and forest simulations, LE increased and were comparable to the pre-MTR simulation. Under the pre-MTR condition, the total precipitation was at its highest level. For the simulated loss of vegetation (bare soil) and elevation (post-MTR), there was a decrease in precipitation. With grass land cover, precipitation increased in all areas of interest. Forest land cover resulted in slightly higher simulated precipitation than grass.
Statistical analysis indicates that the average size of annual-flood peaks of the Tug Fork has been increasing. However, additional statistical analysis does not indicate that the flood levels that were exceeded typically once or twice a year in the period 1947-79 are any more likely to be exceeded now than in 1947. Possible trends in stream-channel size also are investigated at three locations. -from Authors USGS, 604 S. Pickett St, Alexandria, VA 22304, USA.
The adverse effects of agricultural non-point source pollution (e.g., sediment, nitrogen, phosphorous) on water quality are widely recognized and documented. Riparian vegetation, however, can help to filter out these pollutants by detaining or processing the pollutants. In this study, we estimate the effectiveness and adequacy of riparian buffers in an agricultural landscape in Fayette County, Tennessee, through the use of a mathematical model—the Riparian Buffer Delineation Equation (RBDE)—and a geographic information system (GIS). Based on edaphic characteristics, slope, and surface roughness, the minimum buffer width needed to filter 90% of nitrates from surface flow was estimated using the RBDE for 18 soil types along five reaches of the Wolf River and in a tributary basin, Hurricane Creek. The minimum buffer widths suggested by the model ranged from 2.3 m to 64.3 m. We then digitized existing land cover, soil type, and hydrography into a GIS and compared the minimum estimated buffer widths with the widths of existing buffers in the study area. Results from the GIS buffer analysis indicated areas where actual buffer widths were less than the proposed minimum buffer widths. Lower-order streams were generally less adequately buffered than higher-order streams, yet previous studies have suggested that more pollutants may enter streams through low-order intermittent and perennial streams. This finding suggests that the Wolf River may be more susceptible to agriculturally derived inputs of sediment and nutrients from tributary streams than from runoff directly into the main stem.
The establishment and maintenance of riparian buffer zones along shorelines or streams is a common best management practice (BMP) in the United States. These vegetated areas function as sinker, filter, and transformer to delay, absorb, or purify contaminated runoff before it enters surface waters. Their effectiveness for nonpoint source pollution control has been widely appreciated.Presented in this paper is a case study in which a GIS-based (geographic information system based) buffer analysis was conducted on a North Carolina watershed in support of landscape planners' planning activities. By implementing scientifically tested models on generally available data sets in a GIS framework, the study accomplished a series of tasks that would have been extremely difficult if done in conventional ways. These tasks include (1) calculating and mapping variable riparian buffer zones; (2) identifying inadequately regulated areas (i.e. areas outside the currently regulated buffer zones but within the calculated buffer zones); (3) estimating land acquisition costs associated with these inadequately regulated areas. The analytical results were well received by the decision makers and advanced their knowledge about landscape planning issues that they were facing.
The study was undertaken to help answer questions about the effects of coal mining on streamflow characteristics, stream-water quality, ground-water flow and availability, ground-water quality, concentration, loading and types of suspended sediment in streams, and biological life in streams. Three mined basins and two unmined control basins in southern West Virginia were selected for study. The report defines the effects of coal mining on the hydrologic environment of small stream basins in southern West Virginia. It answers some of the questions that have been raised by coal companies, regulatory agencies, environmental groups, researchers, and the public. The report compares hydrologic data collected in unmined basins to data collected in deep-mined and surface-mined basins. The data include the measurement and description of precipitation, streamflow, ground-water levels, suspended sediment, stream and ground-water quality, and benthic invertebrate life in streams.
Technological development of America’s rivers, including the installation of more than 80,000 dams, has segmented the streams and fragmented their watersheds. A vision for the nation’s rivers requires science and public policy that emphasize restoration and maintenance of the rivers’ physical integrity to create a great river legacy for future generations. The Clean Water Act mandates the biological, chemical, and physical integrity of the nation’s rivers, but researchers and decision makers have paid scant attention to physical integrity. Physical integrity for rivers refers to a set of active fluvial processes and landforms wherein the channel, near-channel landforms, sediments, and overall river configuration maintain a dynamic equilibrium, with adjustments not exceeding limits of change defined by societal values. Rivers with physical integrity have functional surfaces and materials that are susceptible to monitoring and measurement with a set of geographic indicator parameters. Science and policy for the nation’s rivers must blend watershed principles with ecosystem concepts, focus on change rather than equilibrium as a defining characteristic of streams, adopt probabilistic rather than exclusively deterministic approaches, and pursue geographic representativeness through hydrodiversity, geodiversity, and biodiversity. The dams that fragment the system also offer opportunities for restoration of some natural characteristics through adjusted operating rules, redesign, and physical renovation, along with the removal of some dysfunctional structures. In the near future, when social values for rivers are likely to revolve around protection for endangered species, economics of flood protection, and dam removal issues, we can enhance restoration efforts by including physical integrity in research agendas, policy decisions, operational rulemaking, and public debate. Our multicentury legacy for future generations can and should be to establish physical integrity for rivers that are as natural as possible, thus insuring that as a system they are parts of the infrastructure for a vibrant national economy, continuing threads of our cultural heritage, and quality natural environments.
We use radar reflectivity t0 determine a set 0f typical variograms of Alpine precipitation, a summary statistic of spatial continuity. Variogram analyses benefit from the high resolution of reflectivity estimates in time and space.Spatial continuity of precipitation plays a key role in studying the representativity of point observations (gauge and disdrometer data, reflectivity profiles), and in distinguishing between stratiform and convective rain. Because of the direct influence of the orography on precipitation physics we expect a complex picture of variograms in the Alps. In fact, the variogram significantly varies in time and space, and so does the representativity. The error 0f a gauge-estimate for the average hourly rainfall in a drainage basin may be negligible in stratiform rain but serious in a meso-scale convective system.Further, the nugget variance of variograms is used to estimate the uncertainty of reflectivity measurements (e.g. caused by remaining signal fluctuation). For polar pixels we found nugget variances ranging from 0.3 to 1.9dB2(Z).