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Stepping toward Physical Activity Requirements: Integrating Pedometers into Early Childhood Settings

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Physical activity is an essential component for lifelong wellness and the quality of life. Over the past years, childhood obesity has dramatically increased. Data supports that young children are adopting sedentary behaviors within and outside of school hours that may contribute to obesity and other health-related diseases. This paper provides early childhood practitioners with an overview of physical activity recommendations for young children between the ages of three to five and cost-effective means to assess physical activity through step count pedometers. Finally, some pedometer activities are provided along with a description of the children’s reactions and behaviors to the integration of pedometers. Both the activities and pedometer appear to be easily incorporated into any classroom or recess settings to get your children moving and active. KeywordsChildcare settings-Health-Wellness-Step count-Movement activities
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Stepping toward Physical Activity Requirements: Integrating
Pedometers into Early Childhood Settings
Leah E. Robinson Danielle D. Wadsworth
Published online: 23 April 2010
ÓSpringer Science+Business Media, LLC 2010
Abstract Physical activity is an essential component for
lifelong wellness and the quality of life. Over the past
years, childhood obesity has dramatically increased. Data
supports that young children are adopting sedentary
behaviors within and outside of school hours that may
contribute to obesity and other health-related diseases. This
paper provides early childhood practitioners with an
overview of physical activity recommendations for young
children between the ages of three to five and cost-effective
means to assess physical activity through step count
pedometers. Finally, some pedometer activities are pro-
vided along with a description of the children’s reactions
and behaviors to the integration of pedometers. Both the
activities and pedometer appear to be easily incorporated
into any classroom or recess settings to get your children
moving and active.
Keywords Childcare settings Health Wellness
Step count Movement activities
Physical Activity in Young Children
The percentage of children who are overweight or obese in
the United States has increased substantially in recent
decades (Ogden et al. 2006,1997; Strauss and Pollack
2001; Troiano and Flegal 1998). Although the exact eti-
ology of the increase in obesity has not been established,
physical inactivity has been associated with children who
are overweight or obese (Strauss and Pollack 1998; Troiano
and Flegal 1998; Hedley et al. 2004). Regular physical
activity has been shown to reduce risk of chronic diseases
such as heart disease, obesity, and cancer (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention 2004; US Department of
Health and Human Services 1996). In addition, physical
activity has also been associated with a broad range of
psychosocial benefits (e.g., high self-esteem and peer
acceptance; Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
2004; US Department of Health and Human Services
1996). Although the benefits of regular physical activity
have been heavily documented, participation among all age
groups is low.
Physical activity guidelines for preschool-age children
suggest the accumulation of at least 120 min of physical
activity each day, with 60-min of that time in structured
physical activity and the remainder 60-min in unstructured,
free-play settings (National Association for Sport and
Physical Education 2009). Data suggest that children in
preschools accumulate approximately half of this recom-
mendation (i.e., 60 min per day of unstructured physical
activity; Pate et al. 2004). Additionally, Brown et al. (2006)
reported that young children spend approximately 80% of
their day stationary even when given the opportunity to
engage in outdoor and indoor physical activities. Because it
is unlikely that children will accumulate the remaining
60 min before or after preschool hours, providers of young
children’s programming should aim to meet these recom-
mendations. Interestingly, the major factor in determining
children’s physical activity during preschool hours has
been shown to be based largely on the preschool that the
child attends (Pate et al. 2004). Therefore, early childhood
providers are key individuals who greatly influence young
children’s participation in physical activity.
L. E. Robinson (&)D. D. Wadsworth
Auburn University, 2050 Memorial Coliseum,
Auburn, AL 36849, USA
e-mail: lerobinson@auburn.edu
123
Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102
DOI 10.1007/s10643-010-0388-y
Measuring Physical Activity in Young Children
Although the guidelines for physical activity are time
specific, it is difficult to determine the time spent in
physical activity by preschool children because, children
this age accumulate physical activity throughout the day. A
step count pedometer is an alternative to monitoring chil-
dren’s physical activity participation. A pedometer (Fig. 1)
is a small electronic device that measures the number of
steps a person takes. A pedometer is a practical tool to
assess physical activity because it is inexpensive, easy to
use, gives immediate feedback, enables children to under-
stand the amount of physical activity, and encourages
teachers to monitor their own physical activity.
The average price of a pedometer is $15.00, but these
devices can be purchased for as low as $2.00 each. A
pedometer attaches to the body by a clip and should be worn
on the right hip so that it is in line with the knee (see Fig. 1).
All pedometers give a digital display of steps taken; there-
fore, children are given immediate feedback on their physi-
cal activity levels and can begin to understand how to
quantify physical activity. For example, children can see
when they play tag they accumulate 1,000 steps but when
they play in the sandbox they only accumulate 400 steps. In
addition, early childhood teachers can wear a pedometer and
monitor the number of steps they accumulate at work.
Currently, there are no specific guidelines for the num-
ber of steps preschool children should take during a school
day. Step count recommendations for children aged 6–12
are 12,000 steps per day for girls and 15,000 steps per day
for boys (Tudor-Locke et al. 2004). If these recommen-
dations seem too ample, a different and effective method to
obtaining a daily step count goal is to identify a baseline
step count. A baseline step count can be determined by
allowing children to wear the pedometers for a few days
and determine their average step count per day. After the
baseline has been identified, set goals to increase the step
count each week.
It is essential that children engage in physical activity on
a daily basis to promote health and well-being (Centers for
Disease Control and Prevention 2004; US Department of
Health and Human Services 1996). Because of the amount
of time children spend being sedentary, childcare providers
and classroom teachers should strive to promote daily
physical activity for all children. With pedometers and
various movement activities, children in childcare facilities
can be active. Specifically, early childhood teachers can
manipulate constraints within the learning environment to
elicit positive physical activity responses in young children
(Gagen and Getchell 2006). Several indoor games and free-
play activities can be applied in outdoor recess sessions
that focus on physical activity and wellness. These lessons
can also be integrated into the classroom environment to
promote academic learning.
This article provides a variety of activities that can be
easily incorporated into the daily lesson and/or recess (free-
play) session that will inspire your children to move. These
activities can be integrated into early childcare settings to
promote physical activity, along with total growth and
development in children, by incorporating history, social
interaction, comprehension, visual recognition, body
awareness, and movement. For each activity, information is
provided regarding the purpose of the activity, required
equipment, an activity description, variations or modifica-
tion to each activity, and a description of the preschoolers’
behaviors to the activity. In accordance with the National
Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC
2004), classroom instruction should be developmentally
and instructionally appropriate to the learner. Specifically,
children must be provided with learning experiences that
meet their developmental need and/or ability. The follow-
ing activities focus on children between the ages of three
and five.
Integrating Pedometers into Classroom Settings
This article took a case study approach and provides insight
to the integration of pedometers and these activities to an
early childhood setting. The center is located in a Southern
state and participates in a movement program under the
supervision of the researchers. The movement program is
an integrated part of this preschool’s curriculum. The
center is a subsidized early learning environment with 99%
of preschoolers being of African ancestry. The participants
in the case study consisted of one class of 15 preschool-age
children (M=55 months, SD =5.9). Parental consent
was received prior to the preschoolers’ participation in the
movement program.
Fig. 1 Pedometer on a preschooler
96 Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102
123
The children were first exposed to the pedometers dur-
ing their outdoor movement program activity. Specifically,
the researchers explained what a pedometer was and why
they were being used. The researchers stated, ‘‘the
pedometers let us know how active you are by counting
each time you take a step’’. The researchers proceeded to
show the preschoolers the pedometers, placed one on each
child’s waistband (Fig. 1), secured by a pedometer strap.
The preschoolers were told that ‘‘the pedometer would not
bother them and not to open the pedometer’’ and that ‘‘you
should imagine that the pedometer is not even there’’. All
the preschoolers did an excellent job at following direc-
tions. Through observation, it appeared that none of the
preschoolers were manipulating the pedometers while they
were being worn. This might have been due to the
pedometer being placed on the children prior to their
movement program. Some of the pedometers became
unclipped at the waistband, and if this occurred the pre-
schoolers approached the researchers and notified them.
Activity 1: Seeing the World
Purpose
To teach children the importance of physical activity while
recording their total steps taken during the day and/or free-
play (recess) session. This activity also integrates spatial
awareness, geography, history, and social studies to phys-
ical activity.
Equipment
A map of your country or world, map markers (e.g., thumb
tacks), and pedometers.
Activity Description
(a) Explain to the children that as a class they will be
tracking their progress across the designated area (e.g.,
your country or the world). (b) Set a step count to mileage
scale (e.g., 10 steps equals 1 mile for young children and
100 steps equal 1 mile for older children). (c) Allow
children to wear pedometers, during either recess or the
entire school day, and record the step count at the end of
the session/day. (d) Total the number of steps taken by the
entire class and calculate the number of miles completed
(e.g., class completed a total of 160 steps =16 miles).
Activity Variation and Integration
(a) Make the activity an imaginary field trip to visit famous
landmarks (e.g., Mount Rushmore, the Statue of Liberty,
Buckingham Palace, or the Taj Mahal). After the landmark
has been reached, complete a 3–5 min discussion of the
historic aspects of the landmark. (b) Teach developmen-
tally appropriate dances and rhythm from difficult regions
of the United States and/or the world (e.g., Country Line
Dancing from America, River Dance from Ireland, Kete
African Dance from Ghana, or the Tango from Argentina).
(c) During Arts and Craft time, have children make pic-
tures of the places that they visited and note how many
steps it took them to reach the destination. This activity
was adapted from Pangrazi et al. (2003).
Children’s Behaviors and Reactions
For the activity, we explored our state. The researchers
calculated the number of miles it took to reach our state’s
capitol and four other state landmarks. In terms of aca-
demic integration, the children learned about specific
concepts relating to our state (i.e., flag, symbol, tree, his-
tory, and current governor). Additionally, a map of the
state was posted in the classroom with the four landmarks
geographically located and labeled as North, South, East,
and West. This assisted the preschoolers in understanding
directional and geographical terms which enhance spatial
development at a young age. The children appeared to
enjoy this activity and were able to understand some of the
basic concepts as it relates to our state, which are com-
monly learned in Kindergarten or first grade. The children
were excited about the possibility of exploring more of not
only their state, but also country and world. One next trip
planned is a trip to Hawaii and the children ask to wear the
pedometers all day so that we can get there faster!
Activity 2: Design a Route
Purpose
The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention initiated a
Walk to School program for children (www.cdc.gov/ncc
dphp/dnpa/kidswalk). This website provides tools to design
walking routes on and off school grounds. Encourage
children to incorporate the walking routes into their daily
behavior within and outside of school hours. In addition to
promoting physical activity, this activity also enhances
spatial awareness and orienteering (i.e., map reading and
navigation) skills at a young age. According to the National
Academics, this activity and others that incorporate spatial
thinking lead children to understand and analyze the pro-
prieties of objects and relationships between objects
(2006). Currently in the United States, there is an incentive
to integrate spatial thinking in school-aged children and
this pedometer activity, along with others, incorporates
Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102 97
123
mathematics and other skills that lead to lifelong learning.
For a great resource that provides additional ideas to
integrating spatial awareness in your classroom, refer to
Learning to Think Spatially: GIS as a Support System in
the K–12 Curriculum (National Academics 2006).
Equipment
Pedometers, maps of local areas (e.g., school and com-
munity), and construction paper.
Activity Description
(a) Draw or locate a map of the school or surrounding
neighborhood. (b) Discuss the importance of walking to
promote a healthy lifestyle. (c) Discuss safety issues for
walking (e.g., mark unsafe areas as ‘‘No Walking Zones’’,
not walking alone, walking with adults, avoiding high
traffic streets, not walking at night, and not talking to
strangers). (d) With the assistance of teachers, children will
develop a walking route (see Fig. 2for an example of a
school walking map). (e) Children will complete the
walking route as a class or in smaller groups if resources
permit. (f) Record the number of steps the children com-
pleted during their walking route.
Activity Variation and Integration
(a) Allow groups to switch maps and explore different
walking routes. (b) Incorporate the use of a playground
map that uses different shapes and pictures to represent the
playground equipment and school buildings. (c) Integrate
navigational and directional terms such as north, south,
east, and west along with other orienteering terms (e.g.,
straight line, diagonal, around, and perimeter). This activity
was adapted from Pangrazi et al. (2003).
Children’s Behaviors and Reactions
Originally, we planned to design a walking route on the
location of the center that the children could complete.
However, many of the children desired to create a walking
map that incorporated the landmarks from ‘Seeing the
World’. For example, in the center of the construction paper
was a picture of the state capitol and a directional compass
of north, south, east, and west was located in the corner. The
preschoolers were instructed that one of the landmarks was
located south of our state’s capital. They then proceeded to
draw a picture of the landmark in its corresponding location
on the construction paper. The same procedures occurred for
the other landmarks. The modification also reinforced spa-
tial development because the preschoolers were able to
discriminate directional terms and concepts. The pre-
schoolers were also able to quantify the number of steps and
understood that it took more steps to get from the state
capitol to landmark 3 versus landmark 1. Again, from these
activities appeared to not only enhance the children’s
physical activity but also improved their learning in a
variety of academic areas. About a week after the activity
the preschoolers were using chalk to draw on an asphalt area
that is adjacent to the playground. We were very impressed
when they were drawing maps on the asphalt and discussing
which way was south and how many steps it would take to
get to ‘‘the south side of the playground’’.
Plotting Steps
Purpose
A graph provides a great visual representation of children’s
step counts. This activity provides children the opportunity
to use a pedometer to measure activity, produce a graphic
representation of step counts, and integrate analytical skills
and mathematics.
Equipment:
Pedometers and poster/construction paper.
Activity Description
(a) Create a graph for each child. The vertical axis will
represent step counts and horizontal axis will represent the
class activity or day (see Fig. 3). The range of step counts
can be adjusted. (b) At the end of the day or activity, mark
on the graph the number of steps taken. (c) Allow the
children to color in their step counts. (d) Question the
children on why their step counts were higher or lower than
other days or activities. In addition, discuss as a class
Fig. 2 Preschoolers’ pictorial representation of a route
98 Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102
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possible ways that each child could increase their step
counts and list the top five suggestions. (e) The next day or
week, test the suggestions to see if they were effective. (f)
Have children compare the graphs from the earlier day or
week, which promotes analytical skills. This activity was
adapted from Pangrazi et al. (2003).
Children’s Behaviors and Reactions
For this activity, we used the steps accumulated during the
pedometer obstacle course and the steps accumulated
during the preschoolers’ afternoon outdoor free play. At the
end of each physical play period the researchers would
mark on the graph the step count for each child. At the end
of the week the children were asked to color up to the step
count mark for each play period during their arts and crafts
period. After the children had colored in the graph we
asked each child what their highest and lowest step count
was and why they thought it was high or low. All of the
children’s step counts were low on one particular day
because we could not go outside due to inclement weather.
The children responded ‘‘Remember you said we couldn’t
go out in the rain! We get more steps when we play
outside.’’ Other responses were ‘‘I get more steps when you
play with me,’’ ‘‘I didn’t feel good that day,’’ and ‘‘I liked
the games that day’’. We were impressed with how well the
children understood the relationship of the pedometer
count to their activity level. At the end of the activity we
placed the graphs on the wall next to the map and applied
the steps to seeing the world activity.
Pedometer Obstacle Course
Purpose
Incorporating an obstacle course during recess or free-play
is a great way to increase pedometer step count and
physical activity in young children. The activity also
integrates physical fitness and promotes learning in other
academic areas while encouraging children to move.
Before engaging in the pedometer obstacle course, place
the pedometer on each child’s waistband. The steps can be
used for ‘‘Seeing the World’’ and ‘‘Plotting Steps’’.
Equipment
Pedometers, outdoor space on the playground, and play-
ground equipment.
Activity Description
(a) Teacher will set up an obstacle course on the play-
ground or any open outdoor space. Typically, five to six
activities will be an appropriate amount for this age.
Examples along with equipment are found in Table 1. (b)
Allow children to start at each station, so that the obstacle
course is a continuous cycle. This will encourage partici-
pation for all children and lead to more movement. (c) On
the teacher’s signal, each child will begin a station and then
continue through the obstacle course until completing all of
the activities.
0
200
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
"Seeing the Word"
Obstacle Course
Pasta Relay
Chop Stick Relay
Kangaroo Relay
Step Count
Fig. 3 Example of pedometer step count graph
Table 1 Obstacle course activities
Station name Station description Improves Equipment
‘The Snake’ Running through hoops that curve back
in forth with alternating feet
Agility and foot-eye coordination Hula-hoops
‘The Tunnel’ Crawling under various apparatuses Strength and endurance Two chairs and a yardstick
‘Hurdles’ Jumping over small obstacles Lower body strength Empty gallon plastic milk containers or
small plastic cones
‘Tightrope walk’ Walking across a balance bench or beam Balance Balance Beam or a piece of wood (400 X4
00)
‘Leapfrog’ Jumping back and forth Lower body strength Small cones or empty plastic milk gallon
containers
‘Power jumps’ Jumping forward from one hula-hoop
to another
Low body strength Hula-hoops
Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102 99
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Activity Variation and Integration
(a) At each station, incorporate the use of puzzles that
promote academic integration (e.g., cut a picture into eight
pieces and have children put the pieces together). (b) Have
children practice spelling words or identify pictures of
coins, colors, or other content covered in class. (c) Have
children describe and imitate animals from story time.
This activity was adapted from Kirchner and Fishburne
(1998).
Children’s Behaviors and Reactions
The children enjoyed all of the activities and created
additional activities with some of the equipment that was
located on the playground. For example, the children cre-
ated a game called Power Ball where they roll and push a
big red ball with their hands from one end of the fence and
back. This activity promoted cardiovascular endurance. A
few of the other children also decided to bounce around the
playground in a seated position on bouncy balls. This great
activity develops lower body strength and balance. Addi-
tionally, they are having fun while accumulating steps and
improving their cardiovascular health. These balls can be
ordered from any physical education equipment catalog
and in three sizes to meet the height and weight of your
preschoolers.
Outdoor Activities
Purpose
A variety of fun and exciting outdoor activities can be
easily incorporated into your daily recess period. These
activities require minor teacher preparation and equipment
while maximizing children’s step count. Before engaging
in the following outdoor activities, place the pedometer on
each child’s waistband and track/record their accumulated
steps. The steps can be used for ‘‘Seeing the World’’ and
‘Plotting Steps’’.
Remote Control Movement
Equipment: Pedometers, open space, and a super large
remote control made of poster board.
Activity Description: (a) Explain to the children that the
remote control is going to control their movement. Make
sure to reinforce ‘‘moving safely through the general space
and following commands.’’ (b) The commands are: when
you press ‘‘Play’’ children walk throughout the space, when
you press ‘‘Fast Forward’’ they jog, when you press ‘‘Slow
Motion’’ they demonstrate a slow motion movement for
run, when you press ‘‘Pause’’ they freeze, and when you
press ‘‘Rewind’’ the children move backwards (make sure
the children look over their shoulder).
Activity Variation: Try various locomotor skills such as
galloping, leaping, jumping, and skipping. This activity
was adapted from P E Central (2007).
Beading Relay
Equipment: Three to four poly spots (one for each team),
three to four containers (one for each team), green, white,
and red beads or construction paper (stapled or taped
together to make a link), and yarn (cut in equal length for
each team).
Activity Description: (a) Children are in equal teams of
four to five individuals. (b) The first child in each line is
holding a string of yarn and runs down to their team container
that is filled with the large beads. (c) The child takes out one
green bead and threads the string. (d) The child runs back to
their team with the bead string and passes the string to the
next teammate. (e) This child takes the string, runs to the
container, strings a piece of white bead, returns back to their
team and passes the string to the next person. (f) The process
repeats and the child places a piece of red bead on the string.
(g) The relay continues until the bead string is filled.
Academic Integration: Beading promotes color recog-
nition and fine motor skills. The activity can also integrate
world history by incorporating the country colors of any
nation. This example incorporates the colors of Italy.
During class time, the teachers could spend a few minutes
discussing the history, culture, and food of Italy.
Piston Cup
Equipment: Pedometers, four cone markers with a number
card on each (#1–4), CD player, and the theme song from
‘Cars’, ‘‘Life is a Highway’’ by Rascle Flatts.
Activity Description: (a) Mark the four cones with
numbers 1–4 and an activity (e.g., push-ups, sit-ups,
jumping jacks, high knees, side to side hops, stretching, or
step ups) (b) Use the four marked cones to make a large
circle that will mark the area for the race track. (c) Divide
children into 4 equal groups and put one group at each
cone. (d) Play the ‘‘Life is a highway’’ song as children run,
skip, gallop, hop, or any other form of movement in a
counter-clockwise direction. (e) After a minute or so, pause
the CD to allow the children to take a ‘‘pit stop’’ at the
closest station. (f) During the ‘‘pit stop’’ the children will
perform the activity that is marked on the cone. (g) Start
the music again and repeat until all children have been to
every ‘‘pit stop’’ and the song is over.
Academic Integration: (a) Teach the concept of time by
changing the number markers on the cone to reflect
100 Early Childhood Educ J (2010) 38:95–102
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numbers on a clock (i.e. 12 o’clock, 3 o’clock, 6 o’clock
and 9 o’clock). (b) Have the duration of each activity at the
‘pit stop’’ reflect the number on the clock (i.e. at 12
o’clock complete 12 jumping jacks). (c) For an ultimate
challenge, incorporate the terms ‘‘counter clockwise and
clockwise’’ by having children complete the course in both
directions. This activity was adapted from PE Central
(2007).
Children’s Behaviors and Reactions
The children thoroughly enjoyed all of the activities, but
the most popular was the Piston Cup and the Beading
Relay. The children modified the Piston Cup into a game of
tag. Specifically, the children pushed a big red ball around
with their hands and chased after their classmates. As it
relates to the Beading Relay, the children had a great time
making a necklace or chain. A modification to this activity
occurred in the classroom. The children wanted to make a
chain or necklace that represented their total number of
steps. So, we followed the same step conversions that is
seen in Seeing the World (i.e., 10 steps equals 1 mile) to 10
steps equals 1 link. The children were then able to visually
see a relationship between the number of steps taken to the
number of links. They were also able to articulate the
underlying premise of the links and their relationship to
step count and moving to their parents(s).
Conclusion
From this case study approach, promising results were
found. It appears that the children enjoyed both the activ-
ities and the integration of pedometers. The pedometers did
not distract for other aspects of the teaching and learning
environment. The preschoolers would often questioned the
researchers when they arrived if they were going to wear
pedometers today. More importantly, the preschoolers’
became more aware of their own activity level and were
able to quantify the number of steps that they obtained. For
example, they knew that the day there was no outdoor
recess due to increment weather that they had lower steps
than on the days that they went outside or if they engaged
in an outdoor activity that did not require them to move
their legs and body to the same degree (i.e., playing with
scooters and the Piston Cup). The authors do note some
limitations to this case study approach. There was a small
sample size (N=15), the researchers implemented the
program, and a comparison group was not used to assess
the effectiveness of the pedometer activities on physical
activity. The authors’ goal was to get an understanding of
the children’s behaviors and reactions to the use of the
activities and pedometers for future studies. Their
intentions were to pilot test this pedometer program for its
feasibility prior to the implementation in an experimental
design that will incorporate a larger sample size, classroom
teachers, and a comparison group.
In terms of health and wellness, it is essential that young
children incorporate daily physical activity in their lives.
However, the literature supports that children are engaging
more in sedentary behaviors (Brown et al. 2006) and this
might be a factor associated with an increased risk of
children being overweight or obese (Centers for Disease
Control and Prevention 2004; US Department of Health
and Human Services 1996). Children between the ages of
three and five spend most of their day in early childcare or
school settings, and teachers could be influential in pro-
moting a healthy and physical activity lifestyle at a young
age. Classroom teachers can encourage physical activity
participation by incorporating various activities into their
daily outdoor recess/play session that promote movement.
Teachers can also reinforce the importance of and basic
knowledge about physical activity in the classroom.
Additionally, with the use of pedometers, teachers can
instruct children on how to assess their participation in
physical activity.
The activities provided in this paper are a starting point
for teachers to get their students moving. These activities
can be adapted to meet the needs and ability of your stu-
dents. Consider providing your children the autonomy or
freedom to create other games and activities that promote
movement. The goal is to get young children active and
moving which contributes to the overall development of a
child. These activities promote physical development while
supporting both cognitive and social development at an
early age. By integrating pedometers into your everyday
activities, your classroom can begin stepping toward a
physical active lifestyle.
Acknowledgments The main objective/concept of the pedometer
activities used in this article were adapted from the noted references.
However, the authors modified the activities to meet the need of the
manuscript target populations. Modifications were made to the
equipment, activity description, variations, and academic integration
to promote student learning and movement for young children
between the ages of three to five.
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... While further research is needed to substantiate this perspective, we are conscious that the nature of the 'lessons' provided has the potential to reinforce children's concerns about their own bodies and physical abilities. If the ECE sector is not careful, researchers such as Copeland et al. (2012), Piguo (2013), andRobinson andWadsworth (2010) could further exacerbate this issue, as they continue to utilise body surveillance measures (height/weight, body mass index, waist circumference) and devices (accelerometers or pedometers) to assess pre-schoolers' health status and as forms of biopedagogies. While such approaches have, to date, been the preserve of research settings, it is not too much of a stretch to imagine a time when quantifiable measures are used to determine the quality of the ECE provision provided by individual centres, and the health status of individual children. ...
... While further research is needed to substantiate this perspective, we are conscious that the nature of the 'lessons' provided has the potential to reinforce children's concerns about their own bodies and physical abilities. If the ECE sector is not careful, researchers such as Copeland et al. (2012), Piguo (2013), andRobinson andWadsworth (2010) could further exacerbate this issue, as they continue to utilise body surveillance measures (height/weight, body mass index, waist circumference) and devices (accelerometers or pedometers) to assess pre-schoolers' health status and as forms of biopedagogies. While such approaches have, to date, been the preserve of research settings, it is not too much of a stretch to imagine a time when quantifiable measures are used to determine the quality of the ECE provision provided by individual centres, and the health status of individual children. ...
... While further research is needed to substantiate this perspective, we are conscious that the nature of the 'lessons' provided has the potential to reinforce children's concerns about their own bodies and physical abilities. If the ECE sector is not careful, researchers such as Copeland et al. (2012), Piguo (2013), andRobinson andWadsworth (2010) could further exacerbate this issue, as they continue to utilise body surveillance measures (height/weight, body mass index, waist circumference) and devices (accelerometers or pedometers) to assess pre-schoolers' health status and as forms of biopedagogies. While such approaches have, to date, been the preserve of research settings, it is not too much of a stretch to imagine a time when quantifiable measures are used to determine the quality of the ECE provision provided by individual centres, and the health status of individual children. ...
... While further research is needed to substantiate this perspective, we are conscious that the nature of the 'lessons' provided has the potential to reinforce children's concerns about their own bodies and physical abilities. If the ECE sector is not careful, researchers such as Copeland et al. (2012), Piguo (2013), andRobinson andWadsworth (2010) could further exacerbate this issue, as they continue to utilise body surveillance measures (height/weight, body mass index, waist circumference) and devices (accelerometers or pedometers) to assess pre-schoolers' health status and as forms of biopedagogies. While such approaches have, to date, been the preserve of research settings, it is not too much of a stretch to imagine a time when quantifiable measures are used to determine the quality of the ECE provision provided by individual centres, and the health status of individual children. ...
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Children’s physical education in early childhood settings has always been underpinned by an emphasis on play. This is viewed as foundational for child development (movement education, cognitive growth, socialising functions, emotional development). However, where priorities about childhood obesity prevail, increased ‘prevention’ efforts have become targeted at primary and pre-school-aged children. It could be argued that early childhood education has become another site for the ‘civilising’ of children’s bodies. Drawing on data from a questionnaire completed by 65 early childhood education centres in Aotearoa New Zealand, we examine the play and physical education ‘curriculum’ and what this may mean for pre-school children’s views of physical activity and health. In light of the evidence that suggests pre-school physical education programmes reinforce achievement of a certain restrictive and narrow model of physical health and activity, we explore the implications for primary school physical education. In doing so we consider how teachers of physical education in primary schools may need to reconsider the curriculum to support young children to regain enthusiasm for pleasurable movement forms that are not centred on narrowly perceived notions of the healthy or sporting body.
... In order to eliminate this disadvantage, many studies recommend incorporating physical activity into the learning environment [8,9]. In parallel with technological advances, recent studies on neurophysiology have supported the idea that movement can be an effective cognitive teaching model by improving memory and increasing student motivation and interest in the lesson [10,11]. Similarly, Davis argued that stimulation of the vestibular (inner ear) and cerebellar (motor activity) systems by movement activities can lead to significant gains in attention and reading [12]. ...
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This study aims to develop an interactive language learning game and explore its efficacy for English language learners. A computer-generated playground was projected onto a large classroom floor (4 × 3 m) with a wide-angle projection device. A Kinect depth camera determined the spatial positions of the playground and the positions of the students’ heads, feet, and bodies. Then, we evaluated the system’s effect on English education through pre- and post-tests. While there was no significant difference between the groups in terms of achievement in the pre-tests, the experimental group exhibited significantly greater improvement in the post-tests (F: 14.815, p < 0.001, η2p: 0.086). Also, both groups demonstrated significant learning gains in post-tests compared to pre-tests (F: 98.214, p < 0.001, η2p: 0.383), and the group x time interaction of the experimental group increased more in percentage (32.32% vs. 17.54%) compared to the control group (F: 9.166, p < 0.003, η2p: 0.055). Qualitative data from student views indicated enhanced learning pace, vocabulary acquisition, enjoyment of the learning process, and increased focus. These findings suggest that a kinesthetic learning environment can significantly benefit English language learning in children.
... Physical activity is an important component for the whole life health and life quality. For some years ago, obesity has already increased quickly (Robinson and Wadsworth, 2010). Early childhood is born till five years that is an important period development and where the basic health behavior like physical activity (Birch and Fisher, 1998) is important. ...
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This research aimed to develop a physical activities learning model (MPAF) based on critical thinking skills (CTS) among children aged 5 to 6 years old and to evaluate its validity, practicality or commitment, and effectiveness in implementing the CTS based-MPAF among those children. The data were collected from 14 students of TK (Kindergarten) Negeri Pembina Surabaya through both qualitative and quantitative methods. The finding revealed that teachers played a vital role in learning process and could be confirmed by a successful achievement of valid, practical and effective critical thinking according to the determined standards. Conclusion: CTS based-MPAF can successfully work if the teachers precisely realize the learning principles in early childhood education and CTS based-syntax referred to available references.
... Physical activity is an important component for the whole life health and life quality. For some years ago, obesity has already increased quickly (Robinson and Wadsworth, 2010). Early childhood is born till five years that is an important period development and where the basic health behavior like physical activity (Birch and Fisher, 1998) is important. ...
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Full-text available
This research aimed to develop a physical activities learning model (MPAF) based on critical thinking skills (CTS) among children aged 5 to 6 years old and to evaluate its validity, practicality or commitment, and effectiveness in implementing the CTS based –MPAF among those children. The data were collected from 14 students of TK (Kindergarten) Negeri Pembina Surabaya through both qualitative and quantitative methods. The finding revealed that teachers played a vital role in learning process and could be confirmed by a successful achievement of valid, practical and effective critical thinking according to the determined standards. Conclusion: CTS based – MPAF can successfully work if the teachers precisely realize the learning principles in early childhood education and CTS based – syntax referred to available references.
... For example, an earlier study in Australian adolescents showed that girls receiving a 12-week pedometer intervention increased their physical activity while there was no change over time in the control group (Schofield, Mummery, and Schofield 2005). A recent case study (Robinson and Wadsworth 2010) also showed that integrating pedometers into a school physical activity program allowed young children to become more aware of their own activity level (quantify the number of steps) and enjoy all the activities. In addition, researchers found that adults that received self-referenced goals (individualized goals) might be more effective in increasing their physical activity and self-efficacy than encouraging them to reach a fixate number of steps (general goals ;Croteau 2004;Rooney et al. 2003). ...
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Background: School physical education (PE) programs provide a prime environment for interventions that attempt to develop school-aged children’s motor competence and overall physical fitness, while also stimulating competence motivation to engage in physical activity during childhood. It is generally recognized that a pedometer-based intervention strategy combined with a goal-setting strategy may be effective in increasing physical activity participation among school-aged children. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the impact of an 8-week pedometer-based goal-setting intervention on children’s motivation in PE, motor competence, and physical activity. Methods: A pretest–posttest comparison group design was used with the 8-week intervention (3 days/week for 24 sessions). Participants were 273 (boys = 136, girls = 137) students recruited from 3 elementary schools in the US. Classes in each school were randomly allocated to three experimental conditions: (1) an intervention group with a personalized pedometer weekly target to reach in their PE class (N = 110), (2) an intervention group with the fixed pedometer target range to reach in each PE class based on the recommended criteria (N = 90), or (3) a control group without intervention (N = 73). Analysis/results: The factorial repeated measures MANOVA indicated significant multivariate effects for the group [F(6, 528) = 12.954, p < .001]. Post hoc analyzes showed that both experimental groups had significantly higher expectancy-value beliefs, motor competence, and physical activity compared to the control group (p < .001). Conclusions: Health practitioners should be aware that goal-directed action can contribute to school students’ PE-related achievement motivation, motor competence, and achieving the recommended 60 min of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.
... Others have found that there are inconsistencies between actual foods served and childcare menus [44]. Other studies have addressed the self-report issue by measuring physical activity through direct observation, [37] or using a pedometer [45]. Both of these methods offer more objective measurement, but they are both time and cost intensive. ...
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Full-text available
Background The food and activity environments of childcare have been identified as promising areas in which to improve nutrition and activity for children. Methods Of the 292 centers caring for children 18–60 months of age, 107 randomly selected directors completed a survey. The survey queried nutrition and physical activity practices, attitudes of providers and staff, and demographics of the enrolled children and the center, including participation in the federal Child and Adult Care Food Program (CACFP). Responses were compared for CACFP compared with non-CACFP participating centers. Results CACFP center directors reported serving more fruit, fried potatoes, beans, 100 % fruit juice, non-fat milk and water compared with non-CACFP directors. Sixty-four percent of CACFP centers and 87 % of non-CACFP centers served no vegetables the previous day (p = .0973). There were no differences in the amount of physical activity time reported by CACFP status. Also, 81 % of directors reported never or rarely allowing screen time in the previous week. Directors of Non-CACFP centers were more likely (93 %) to strongly agree that they were able to identify healthy foods and (87 %) that healthy foods are available where they shop than CACFP center directors (65 %, p = 0.0088, 54 %, p = 0.0354, respectively). Discussion More nutritious foods (fruit, beans, 100 % fruit juice, non-fat milk and water) were provided in CACFP centers, compared with non-CACFP centers, but no differences in physical activity were identified. However, non-CACFP directors were better able to access and identify healthy foods. CACFP guidelines regarding food served were likely responsible for the more nutritious foods, though CACFP providers may be challenged by fewer skills and lower educational background. Conclusions Stronger guidelines supporting both food and activity would bolster policies for childcare centers and improve the nutrition and physical activity environments in this setting.
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Chapter
The early childhood years mark a critical period for growth and development. Emerging evidence supports that integrating physical activity into children’s lives is essential for creating a solid foundation for future movement and physical activity behaviors. Specifically, these behaviors contribute toward a positive developmental trajectory of health and well-being (e.g., promoting physical, social, emotional, and mental development). Physically active children are likely to remain physically active through their teenage and young adult years as well as carry over into adulthood. With children spending a majority of their day in preschools and schools, these settings are an ideal location to encourage physical activity. Educators can integrate tools like pedometers into their classrooms to enhance physical activity while supporting academic learning. In this chapter, we will provide teachers and practitioners with information regarding the implementation of pedometers into their classrooms to get their children ‘moving and learning’. We will discuss the importance of physical activity and provide current physical activity recommendations along with recent policies and practices to support physical activity in early childhood settings. Then we will address evidence that supports the implementation of pedometers in classroom settings. The chapter concludes with practical examples and strategies that guide educators of young children in ways to integrate pedometers into the early childhood curriculum.
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Teachers of young children know the importance of designing developmentally appropriate activities to encourage motor development but are not always prepared with the information they need to accomplish this design. When teachers choose movement activities, motor development theory must be understood and utilized in the planning of activities to ensure that the choice of the movement task, equipment, and the movement environment interact to encourage developmentally appropriate movement experiences. Basic motor development theory is explained as the basis for examples of appropriate movement tasks for young children.
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The present study describes the development and pilot testing of the Observation System for Recording Physical Activity in Children-Home version. This system was developed to document physical activity and related physical and social contexts while children are at home. An analysis of interobserver agreement and a description of children's physical activity in various settings are presented. The system, which was shown to be reliable, provides a direct observation tool for researchers who are interested in assessing and intervening in physical activity in the home environment.
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Learning to Think Spatially examines how spatial thinking might be incorporated into existing standards-based instruction across the school curriculum. Spatial thinking must be recognized as a fundamental part of K-12 education and as an integrator and a facilitator for problem solving across the curriculum. With advances in computing technologies and the increasing availability of geospatial data, spatial thinking will play a significant role in the information-based economy of the twenty-first century. Using appropriately designed support systems tailored to the K-12 context, spatial thinking can be taught formally to all students. A geographic information system (GIS) offers one example of a high-technology support system that can enable students and teachers to practice and apply spatial thinking in many areas of the curriculum. © 2006 by the National Academy of Sciences. All rights reserved.
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The present study investigated physical activity trends among young children aged three, four, and five years old in Hong Kong preschools using pedometry. Subjects were eighty-six boys and sixty-two girls ( n = 148). The Digi-walker sw-200 electronic pedometers were utilized to collect activity data during daily regular physical activities in three preschools. School A was located at the rural area whereas School B and C were in urban areas. An observation inventory, Children Activity Rating's Scale (CARS), was used to categorize the intensity level of the physical activities and to validate the pedometer counts. In line with overseas studies, significant age and gender differences in physical activity levels were also observed among the Hong Kong preschool children. A two (gender) 2 three (age groups) analysis of variance indicated that both main effects were statistically significant ( p < 0.05). Older children in the school (School A) with a larger outdoor play space in a rural district were much more active than their counterparts in urban schools (Schools B and C) with limited indoor play space. The pedometer counts correlated significantly ( p < 0.05) with the CARS scores, which suggested that pedometry can be a reliable tool to measure the intensity of physical activity level of preschool children.
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To examine the prevalence of overweight among US preschool children 2 months through 5 years of age between the years 1971 through 1974 and 1988 through 1994. Nationally representative cross-sectional surveys with a physical examination, including measurement of stature, length, and weight. Between 1200 and 7500 children younger than 6 years were examined in each of four different surveys during 1971 through 1974 (first National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey [NHANES I]), 1976 through 1980 (NHANES II), 1982 through 1984 (Hispanic Health and Nutrition Examination Survey), and 1988 through 1994 (NHANES III). The prevalence of overweight increased among some sex and age groups of preschool children between 1971 through 1974 and 1988 through 1994. More than 10% of 4- and 5-year-old girls were overweight in 1988 through 1994 compared with 5.8% in 1971 through 1974. However, there was no change during this period in the prevalence of overweight among 1- and 2- to 3-year-old children. During 1988 through 1994, the prevalence of overweight among children 2 months through 5 years of age was consistently higher in girls than boys. Mexican-American children had a higher prevalence of overweight than non-Hispanic black and non-Hispanic white children. These results parallel what has been reported for older children and adults in the United States. These results show that in the last 20 years the prevalence of overweight has increased among 4- and 5-year-old children but not among younger children. These findings suggest that efforts to prevent overweight, including encouragement of physical activity and improved diets, should begin in early childhood.
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Overweight is the most common health problem facing US children. Data for adults suggest that overweight prevalence has increased by more than 50% in the last 10 years. Data for children also suggest that the prevalence of overweight continues to increase rapidly. To investigate recent changes in the prevalence of overweight within a nationally representative sample of children. The National Longitudinal Survey of Youth, a prospective cohort study conducted from 1986 to 1998 among 8270 children aged 4 to 12 years (24 174 growth points were analyzed). Prevalence of overweight children, defined as body mass index (BMI) greater than the 95th percentile for age and sex, and prevalence of overweight and at-risk children, defined as BMI greater than the 85th percentile for age and sex. The roles of race/ethnicity, sex, income, and region of residence were also examined. Between 1986 and 1998, overweight increased significantly and steadily among African American (P<.001), Hispanic (P<.001), and white (P =.03) children. By 1998, overweight prevalence increased to 21.5% among African Americans, 21.8% among Hispanics, and 12.3% among non-Hispanic whites. In addition, overweight children were heavier in 1998 compared with 1986 (P<.001). After adjusting for confounding variables, overweight increased fastest among minorities and southerners, creating large demographic differences in the prevalence of childhood overweight by 1998. The number of children with BMI greater than the 85th percentile increased significantly from 1986 to 1998 among African American and Hispanic children (P<.001 for both) and nonsignificantly among white children (P =.77). Childhood overweight continues to increase rapidly in the United States, particularly among African Americans and Hispanics. Culturally competent treatment strategies as well as other policy interventions are required to increase physical activity and encourage healthy eating patterns among children.