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No Map to Manhood: Male and Female Mindsets Behind the College Gender Gap
Abstract
This study explores the basis of the gender gap in postsecondary enrollment through qualitative interviews with 99 high school
seniors who are making decisions about college. While individual differences occurred, female high school seniors were far
more apt to have well-developed plans to attend college based on their views that education is a vital educational investment,
that the occupations they seek require a college education, and that they want to make a difference to society. Male high
school students evidenced two different mindsets. Those from families whose parents had graduated from college saw higher
education just as the expected path. Those from working class families had little knowledge of the labor market, the likelihood
of obtaining “dream jobs,” and the income they would need to live comfortable adult lives. Far more young men disliked schooling.
Both sexes have developed a stereotype of males as “lazy,” a label which covers a host of problems reducing college enrollment.
... • Trayectorias de educación y experiencia en el mercado contribuyen a la inequidad en el ingreso (Tansel y Bodur, 2012). • Mayor desarrollo en mujeres de perspectivas asociadas a su ocupación futura y el valor de su trabajo para los demás, que contrastan con mayor desarrollo en hombres de perspectiva orientada a los incentivos externos (Kleinfeld, 2009). • Mayor acceso a recursos es logrado por hombres que por mujeres cuando son pequeños propietarios de tierras en países de África del Este (Djurfeldt, Djurfeldt y Lodin, 2013;Nyongesa et al., 2016). ...
... En el mismo sentido, investigaciones realizadas en Estados Unidos evidencian que los estudiantes tipo que escogen pregrados en escuelas de negocios son hombres que alcanzaron altos desempeños en educación media, que crecieron en familias de altos ingresos, pero de bajo nivel educativo (Ball, 2012;Kleinfeld, 2009;Merluzzi y Dobrev, 2015;Seagraves y Gallimore, 2013). ...
... Los estudios que utilizan variables de geolocalización o espacios geográficos generalmente acuden a técnicas como los procesos de posicionamiento geográfico utilizando sistemas de información geográfica (Alonso-Villar y Del Río, 2008;Noback et.al, 2013;Nyongesa et al., 2016, y realizan análisis de tipo cualitativo como análisis de narrativas 5 (Attanapola, 2013;Kleinfeld, 2009), o análisis cuantitativos que crean y usan diferentes tipos de modelos, como los siguientes: ...
Este libro es el resultado de una investigación liderada en el 2019 por la Facultad de Administración de la Universidad de los Andes y el Consejo Profesional de Administración. Su principal objetivo es contribuir a identificar el desarrollo profesional que, con su carrera, han tenido los egresados de los programas universitarios de Administración en Colombia. Con un enfoque regional, dadas las oportunidades y particularidades en materia económica, demográfica y organizacional que deben asumir los administradores, dicha investigación estableció la existencia de dos tendencias que no son mutuamente excluyentes: la brecha salarial persistente en favor de los hombres pese al aumento de la participación y la calidad de las mujeres en el ejercicio profesional, y la disminución constante en los salarios de enganche con la que se encuentran los egresados al graduarse. Otro hallazgo notable que se muestra a lo largo de estas páginas es que a pesar de la turbulencia, las crisis y los modestos índices de crecimiento, trabajadores con capacidades y conocimientos profesionales en Administración suelen participar en procesos de innovación y demuestran adaptación oportuna al cambio al tener una perspectiva de largo plazo (pasado y presente) para enfrentar los retos, que exigen en la actualidad integrar lo social y ambiental a lo económico. Este libro es de interés para todos aquellos interesados en las condiciones del mercado laboral de los administradores en Colombia, la calidad de la formación y la pertinencia de la profesión.
... 31,32 In contrast, many young men may have little knowledge of the job market and tend to be overconfident in their ability to earn high wages without a college education. 31,33 The idea that "men should start earning income rather than take on debt for college" is a notion internalized by many US men. 34 Research has indeed shown that girls and young women understand that a college degree is critical to their job prospects and future financial security, 33 and as such, they report higher instrumental motivation for pursuing education than do their male counterparts. ...
... 31,33 The idea that "men should start earning income rather than take on debt for college" is a notion internalized by many US men. 34 Research has indeed shown that girls and young women understand that a college degree is critical to their job prospects and future financial security, 33 and as such, they report higher instrumental motivation for pursuing education than do their male counterparts. 31,35 Such gender difference in the instrumental motivation for pursuing a college degree suggests that male college students may think of student loans as an unnecessary burden that comes with the responsibility of future repayment; in other words, they are more likely to view student loan debt as a liability rather than a resource that allows them to invest in their future. ...
... 31,35 By contrast, many boys and young men may mistakenly believe that, just like their father's generation, they can obtain high-paying jobs without a college degree. 31,33,34 Therefore, women may be more likely to view student loans as borrowed resources that will eventually yield a financial return, whereas men may be more likely to view student loans as a liability. 32 Considering these potentially differential appraisals of student loans (as debt burdens vs. as borrowed resources), taking on larger amounts of student loan debt may have generated more stress for collegeaged men than for their female counterparts, leading to more mental health problems and higher levels of substance use among young adult men. ...
Objective:
Student loan debt has become a growing crisis. Considering that women are more likely than men to take on student loans and more likely to take on larger amounts, we examine whether the effects of student loans on young adults' mental health and substance use differ by gender. Participants: We used the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1997 (NLSY97) data collected from 1997 to 2015. The NLSY97 consists of a nationally representative sample of American youths born between 1980 and 1984. Participants included 2,607 men and 3,004 women who reported college enrollment. Methods: We analyzed data using hybrid regression models. Results: Student loans have more negative effects on young men than young women, in terms of mental health problems, smoking, and heavy drinking. Particularly, young men tend to increase substance use in response to cumulative loan amounts. Conclusions: Borrowing patterns and the health consequences of student loans are gendered.
... The essence of science is a way of thinking from a person in understanding scientific concepts through a sequence of scientific methods to discovering new knowledge (Tursinawati & Widodo, 2019). The nature of science consists of several main aspects, namely (1) scientific knowledge is not entirely objective, (2) scientists use creativity, (3) knowledge is tentative, (4) scientific knowledge is influenced by social and cultural elements, (5) theory and law are different types of knowledge, (6) scientific knowledge is empirical, (7) there are no general scientific method steps, (8) there is a difference between observation and conclusion, (9) s ains cannot answer all questions, (10) cooperation affects the development of science, (11) there is a difference between science and technology, and (12) experiments play an important role in science (Jiang & McComas, 2014). The nature of science is very important to be understood by a teacher, because if the understanding of the nature of science is not right, it will not only have an impact on the knowledge mastered by the teacher himself but also have an impact on the knowledge he teaches to his students (Widodo, 2021). ...
... Teachers' understanding of education is influenced by gender and education level (Michael et al., 2023). Gender influences mindset and potential in deepening education (Kleinfeld, 2009). There are several different understandings of gender, either assessing that gender is the same as sex or different according to one's experience and capacity (Pryzgoda & Chrisler, 2000). ...
This study aims to analyze the understanding of elementary school teachers regarding the Nature of Science based on Gender and Teacher Certification. The research method used is a descriptive method with a quantitative approach. This research was conducted using a research instrument in the form of questionnaires. The population of this study is elementary school teachers in Indonesia, The research sample is teachers from 65 elementary schools in Indonesia. The results showed that male teachers' understanding of the nature of science was higher than that of female teachers. Then the results of research on the understanding of elementary school teachers about the nature of science based on educator certification show that certified elementary school teachers have a higher understanding of the nature of science than elementary school teachers who have not been certified. The greatest nature of science is in the nature of the scientific method in the scientific attitude component.
... Generally, scholars find that Latinas have high motivation to attend college (Castillo et al., 2010;Sciarra & Whitson, 2007), and women generally have higher educational and occupational aspirations than men (Mau & Bikos, 2000). Research suggests that women's high enrollment numbers, compared to men, in postsecondary education are motivated by women's high educational aspirations (Hubbard, 1999;Kleinfeld, 2009;Ovink, 2017;Sapp et al., 2016;Wood et al., 2011). ...
... In education, research on gender has a relatively high appeal. This is due to psychological findings showing that a primary mindset distinguishes male and female students (Kalender et al., 2022;Kleinfeld, 2009). In physics, many researchers have proven the influence of gender on learning success (Gunawan et al., 2020;Herliana et al., 2020;Sun, 2020). ...
This study aimed to measure student numeracy ability within the context of physics on the kinetic theory of gases. This study employed a quantitative method with descriptive and parametric statistics analysis. Sixty-two sample students were measured for numeracy ability. The research instrument applied was the ten numeration questions that had been tested empirically. The research indicates that the student cognitive level positively influences numeracy ability with an effect size value of 0.682 and an Adj. R2 value of 0.676. Furthermore, gender-related analysis proves that there is no gap in the numeracy ability with an effect size value of 0.030 and Adj. R2 is 0.014. This study has implications for designing physics learning that develops numeracy ability, especially in determining learning designs that accommodate cognition level and gender.
... In general, urban females performed better than urban males and rural females. Perhaps females have better emotional perceptions, mental expectations for career choice, and self-knowledge, compared to males (35)(36)(37)(38)(39). Also, perhaps urban undergraduates have better emotional control and expression, independence, and adaptation, compared to rural undergraduates (34,40). ...
Background: The outbreak of COVID-19 has brought about radical changes in social life. The study focuses on a special group, Chinese undergraduate students with left-behind experiences. Specifically, the study addresses how such students feel and grasp the meaning in life and how they adapt to the current social environment after experiencing the impermanence of life. The correlation between the meaning in life and social adjustment in the post-epidemic period is evaluated.
Methods: The Meaning in Life Scale and the Social Adjustment Scale were used to test 988 undergraduate students. Multi-factor analysis, correlation, regression, and dominance analysis were performed on the test results.
Results: (1) During the epidemic, Chinese undergraduate students generally had low meaning in life scores, including below-average values for life goals, and middle-range scores for social adjustment. (2) Having or not having left-behind experiences had an important influence on the meaning in life and social adjustment of undergraduates: undergraduates with left-behind experiences performed better than those without left-behind experiences in terms of meaning in life, while their social adjustment was weaker than those without left-behind experiences. (3) The zest for life and freedom of life of undergraduates in both groups negatively predicted social adjustment, and zest for life preferentially influenced social adjustment. Zest for life also had a significant effect on life value in the group without left-behind experiences. Zest for life was a priority factor influencing social adjustment.
Conclusion: The epidemic and left-behind experiences are important factors influencing the relationship between meaning in life and social adjustment among Chinese undergraduate students.
... However, it is important to note that the make-up of the focus group was representative of the 'ARC' sessions, and the gender balance of the degree programme in general given that the student cohort was predominantly female. The lack of male attendance also appears to be reflective of other research which suggests that male students are less likely to ask for help with their studies (Kleinfeld 2009;Swanson, Vaughan, and Wilkinson 2017). Therefore, although this group was not diverse, it does offer an accurate reflection of 'ARC' session attendance. ...
It has been well documented in research that students from so-called ‘non-traditional’ backgrounds can experience significant difficulty in accessing higher education, in part due to a lack of cultural capital. This is further reinforced by ‘invisible pedagogic practices’ such as ‘critical analysis’, ‘structure’ and ‘argument’, which uphold the prestige of disciplines without adequately inducting students into such practices. Through the evaluation of an academic literacy intervention (‘ARC’) designed to improve the academic resilience and confidence of students on an undergraduate degree programme, this paper demonstrates that ‘literacy’ is as much a social practice as it is a set of applied skills. Thus, ‘academic literacy’ should constitute both study skills and academic socialisation. This paper further argues that the acquisition of ‘academic literacy’ necessitates the adoption of an ‘academic identity’, which is an emotional as well as an intellectual endeavour. This requires institutions to move away from the deficit model of ‘academic literacy support’ towards models which enable the construction of a shared academic identity and cultivate a sense of belonging to the university environment.
... Additionally, it seems that there may be a different mindset for male students entering college. In a qualitative study of college student mindsets, Kleinfeld (2009) found that male students tended to display concerning behavioral patterns that were not evidenced by female students, such as a reluctance in asking for help, laziness, difficulties with planning or working, and a tendency to partake in social activities despite needing to study. ...
Research has revealed a gender gap where male students have higher rates of academic difficulties and lower college enrollment and graduation rates compared with females. This study measured the relationship of male student (including first-generation and minority students) participation in a first-year seminar and their first-term grade point average and first-year persistence for two cohorts (N = 828; 683) and third-year persistence for one cohort. There were significant differences in first-term grade point average (as high as 0.7 grade points greater) and first- and third-year persistence for all participants (including subgroups) in both cohorts as compared with nonparticipants. There were strong statistical findings where the range of differences in persistence between all male participants and nonparticipants was as large as almost 25% (third-year persistence). For male minority students, this difference increased to 34%. The study presents compelling evidence for a three-credit, academic-based first-year seminar to promote male student success over the short and long term.
... Dessa resonemang om maskulinitet är kanske utvecklade med unga vuxna i åtanke, men resonemangens orimlighet framträder med all tydlighet om vi tillämpar dem med unga barn i förskola och skola. Antipluggattityder har beskrivits till exempel hos studenter efter gymnasiet (Kleinfeld, 2009b) men lär inte finnas i början av skolan och i förskola, där eleverna inte "pluggar" ens. En av slutsatserna i denna översikt är att det finns utvecklingsfaser som barn och ungdomar går igenom under sin uppväxt och deras betydelse bör beaktas, vilket man kan göra genom att undvika generaliseringar som skulle gälla för alla åldrar. ...
Denna rapport är en litteraturöversikt av forskning som behandlar relationer mellan psykisk hälsa och skola med ett särskilt fokus på frågor om pojkars och flickors erfarenheter i skolans miljö. Litterauröversikten har genomförts på uppdrag av Delegationen för Jäm-ställdhet i skolan under våren och sommaren 2010 av Mara Westling Allodi med medverkan av Siv Fischbein och Jan-Eric Gustafsson. Litteraturöversikten är en fördjupad analys som har genomförts på en databas av artiklar som har upprättats inom ramen för ett projekt med systematiska litteraturöversikter som har genomförts
mellan 2008 och 2010 av en arbetsgrupp på uppdrag av Kungliga Vetenskapsakademien (Gustafsson,
Allodi, Alin-Åkerman, Eriksson, Eriksson, Fischbein, Granlund, Gustafsson, Ogden, Persson, 2010a).
. Available from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/267717315_Pojkars_och_flickors_psykiska_halsa_i_skolan_en_kunskapsoversikt [accessed Apr 14, 2016].
... A style that promotes solitude or self-indulgence is often seen as more attractive than one that may require hard work and even delayed gratification. Unless young adolescents can see the payoff for what they are doing, they are less likely to choose what seems on the surface as the more difficult courses in life, such as higher education, ethical behavior, and hard work (Kleinfeld, 2009). Therefore, it is important for counselors, either through working with others, such as community leaders, or working by themselves, to expose boys and adolescents to positive male role models (Kiselica et al., 2008). ...
Becoming a man is developmental. Boys model after men in their lives as well as figures they see in the media. When role models are positive, appropriate, and present, boys grow into constructive adults who contribute to society. This article examines how counselors can intentionally help young men mature into well-grounded and prosocial individuals through the use of models in films. It provides a list of some movies that counselors can use in the process. © 2014 by the American Counseling Association. All rights reserved.
This paper adopts a Rawlsian theoretical framework to investigate how group membership shapes the experiences of three demographics previously barred from higher education on a systemic level: women, people of color, and people without significant or adequate material means. Rawls's idea of justice would allow the government to proac-tively extend college accessibility to underprivileged or underrepre-sented groups even if doing so amounts to a minimal degree of »un-fairness« towards specific demographics. While Rawls's »veil of ignorance« may appear to provide a group-blind answer to issues of identity, its phenomenological ideal in the real world lies in transcending the differences of identity rather than »masking« them. The paper leverages the results of recent studies on diversity and equity in higher education to proffer solutions to recurrent problems in the area of college accessibility.
Facilitating economically disadvantaged students’ access to higher education is an important goal of educational policy. However, some practices toward this goal are based on theories and assumptions not informed by the students’ conditions or needs. The purpose of this study was to understand the challenges faced by students from high poverty, urban high schools in their yearning for a college education. Analyses of interview and observation data from a yearlong study in six high-poverty schools revealed that economically disadvantaged students face contextual challenges that necessitate additional efforts and resources not required by others, including money, time, knowledge, courage, sacrifice, and taking risks. The findings are discussed in light of Bourdieu’s theory of capital in education. Implications for educational policy and practice are outlined, including increased attention to non-psychological, structural factors impacting college attainment such as systemic and cumulative disadvantage resulting from lack of various forms of capital.
Mathematics classrooms instruction in Nigeria secondary schools has been termed a major problem to both teachers and their students. Most classroom activities are teacher-centred with students as mere listeners and recipients of knowledge rather than being active initiators of their knowledge. This paper seeks to investigate the effects of introducing inclusion to Nigerian mathematics classroom in combating these problems. Four mathematics teachers taught senior secondary mathematics in three secondary schools in Northern Nigeria for fifteen weeks, adopting the concept of inclusion in their classroom teaching. Using the qualitative case study approach, the researcher used students' interviews and focus group discussions to determine the perceptions, strategies and benefits of using inclusive strategy to mathematics classroom instruction to collect data for this paper. Data collected from focus group interviews were analyzed using grounded theory approach. The results of the study revealed positive changes in students' attitude towards mathematics classroom instructions. This also helped to facilitate students' engagement, collaboration and interest in mathematics during the research as the students felt included in the mathematics classroom instruction. The researchers therefore suggested that adoption of an inclusive mathematics classroom in Nigeria will enable student learning and reduced the teachers domineering attitude during mathematics classroom instruction.
In many countries around the world, boys are not faring as well as girls academically. The lack of success that young boys are experiencing is a gender equity issue, and calls for the intentional focus and concerted effort that has worked so well over the past several decades to address inequities in girls' education. This chapter synthesizes research from the United States and from countries around the world that documents the difficulties that boys are experiencing in school and the strategies that are being employed to remedy the situation. It focuses in particular on how boys are faring in the increasingly academic, teacher-directed approach to early childhood education. Drawing on evidence from programs from nations and states around the world, it goes on to propose strategies to reduce the negative educational outcomes that disproportionately affect boys during the early years and beyond. © 2012 by Jody Heymann and Adèle Cassola. All rights reserved.
Although biliteracy plays a vital role in academic achievement, there has been little research on the unique needs of female and male English language learners. Becoming biliterate is a complex process, compounded by other variables such as 1st-language background, class, culture, and gender. Among these variables, gender has been the least examined and reported for English language learners in the United States. This exploratory quantitative study investigates the interplay between gender and biliteracy in a diverse urban school district. The quantitative data demonstrate gender variations across all years and grade levels and on both English and Spanish assessments.
Youth in the foster care system are at greater risk for a host of aversive outcomes including diminished educational performance and attainment. While these issues are well-documented, less is known about gender differences on academic outcomes for these students. Over the past three decades, women have overtaken men in college attendance and post-secondary degree attainment. Research suggests that this gender gap may be greater among marginalized groups, including youth emerging from the foster care system. Using data from a statewide sample of adolescents in foster care, the current study explores the effect of gender on educational expectations and measures gender differences in college efficacy, academic functioning, and preparation for post-secondary education. After controlling for race/ethnicity and grade level, logistic regression models showed the females in foster care reported more than twice the likelihood of achieving a Bachelor's or graduate degree. Comparisons between genders revealed that females had higher reported academic performance than males, with males making greater gains in educational expectations after participating in a college access program. Limitations and suggestions for future research and action are discussed.
Each year our college system gives twice as many bachelor's degrees (BAs) to African American females as males. Large gender gaps favoring women also exist for other groups. Indeed, on average our college system gives 35% more BAs to females than males across all racial and ethnic groups. Traditional explanations for this pattern have focused on what happens in college. In this brief we note that at least part of the story can be found in differences in high school graduation rates. While the differences in high school graduation rates are far smaller, the variations by race and gender follow the same pattern as those found in college. We find that our high schools are graduating about 23% more African-American females than males each year and our estimates suggest about a 4% difference that favors females across all ethnic groups. In order to conduct this analysis we build on methods of calculating public high school graduation rates used in previous Urban Institute work and enhance them by adding in graduates from private high schools. (Contains 7 tables and 16 footnotes.)
Throughout elementary, middle, and high school, girls earn higher grades than boys in all major subjects. Girls, however, do not outperform boys on achievement or IQ tests. To date, explanations for the underprediction of girls' GPAs by standardized tests have focused on gender differences favoring boys on such tests. The authors' investigation suggests an additional explanation: Girls are more self-disciplined, and this advantage is more relevant to report card grades than to achievement or aptitude tests. Eighth-grade girls at an urban magnet school were more self-disciplined than their male counterparts according to delay of gratification measures and self-report, teacher, and parent ratings. Whereas girls earned higher grades in all courses, they did only marginally better on an achievement test and worse on an IQ test. Mediation analyses suggested girls earned higher GPAs at least in part because they were more self-disciplined. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This article is based on an Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC)/Department for International Development (DFID) funded research project on Wi- dening Participation in Higher Education in Ghana and Tanzania: Developing an Equity Scorecard. The article explores women's participation in higher education, utilizing statistical data for Equity Scorecards, and life history interviews with students in two public and two private universities. It focuses on how gender and so- cioeconomic status intersect and constrain or facilitate participation in higher education. Findings to date sug- gest that opportunity structures reflect social inequali- ties.
This study analyzes data from the NELS:92/00 to explore sex, racial/ethnic, and socioeconomic group differences in the benefits that high school graduates realize from college. Sex differences in higher education benefits may be a source of observed differences between women and men in college enrollment and degree attainment rates. The findings also suggest that observed racial/ethnic and SES group differences in college enrollment cannot be attributed to actual differences in higher education's economic and non-economic benefits, as some benefits are greater for African Americans than for Whites and benefits generally do not vary by SES.
This document, consisting of 7 chapters, 35 figures, and 380 tables, provides statistical data on most aspects of United States education, both public and private, from kindergarten through graduate school. The chapters cover the following topics; (1) all levels of education; (2) elementary and secondary education; (3) postsecondary, college, university, vocational, and adult education; (4) federal programs for education and related activities; (5) outcomes of education; (6) international comparisons of education; and (7) learning resources and technology. A wide range of information is presented on subjects including the number of schools and colleges, teachers, enrollment, graduates, educational attainment, finances, federal funds for education, employment and income of graduates, libraries, and international education. Supplemental information on population trends, attitudes on education, educational characteristics of the labor force, government finances, and economic trends is provided. Included among data not appearing in previous editions are the following: salary comparisons of public and private school teachers and principals; mean tuition charges of private schools; student participation rates in federal, state, and local programs; residence and migration of first-time college students; student performance on history and geography tests; trend profiles of persons earning doctor's degrees in humanities and life sciences; characteristics of college faculty; faculty salaries; staff employed in higher education institutions; and computer use by students and adults. A short introduction highlights major findings, and each chapter contains a brief overview of significant trends. A guide to sources, definitions, and an index are included. (MLF)
This study uses a widely respected method to calculate public high school graduation rates for the nation, for each state, and for the 100 largest school districts in the United States. The authors calculate graduation rates overall, by race, and by gender, using the most recent available data (the class of 2003). While this report builds upon a foundation of previous reports, there is much that is new. First, this report contains graduation rate estimates for the class of 2003, the most recent year for which data are available. Second, in this report the authors are able for the first time to break out graduation rates by gender. Observers have long suspected that the graduation rate for boys is significantly lower than that for girls. Third, this report contains graduation rates for each of the 100 largest school districts in the country. (Contains 5 tables and 14 endnotes.)
This document is a compilation of the first 18 issues of a newsletter on public policy and postsecondary education opportunity trends. Each monthly issue contains one or two main articles providing an analysis of research on trends in postsecondary education. The major articles in these issues are: (1) "Equity of Higher Education Opportunity: Women Reached Equity with Men in 1991 But Progress for Hispanics and Blacks Stalled for Last 15 Years"; (2) "Higher Education's Share of State Budgets Declined Again in 1990 as it Has for Most Years Since 1968"; (3) State Policies on Educational Opportunity through State Student Financial Aid Laws"; (4) "Top Quartile Ten Times More Likely to Earn Baccalaureate Degree by Age 24 than Students From Bottom Quartile of Family Income"; (5) "The National Education Goal of a 90 Percent High School Graduation Rate"; (6) "Women Surpassed Men in Four-Year College Attainment in 1991 Following Five Decades of Steady Progress"; (7) "Growth in College Enrollment Rates During 1980s Limited to Americans Under Age 25"; (8) "What is Wrong with Washington State? Statewide Enrollment Limits Gone Amuck"; (9) "College Entrance Rates for Recent High School Graduates Reached Record Levels in 1991--Except for Men and Blacks"; (10) Tuition's Share of Expenditures for Student Education in Higher Education Rose Sharply During 1980s"; (11) "Things Go from Bad to Worse" (recent public policy decisions which effectively curtail postsecondary education opportunities); (12) Blacks Make Progress in High School Graduation and College Access But Colleges Offset Gains with 25 Years of Declining College Completion" (13) Measuring College Affordability"; (14) "Downsizing the Military" (implications for higher education); (15) Higher Education Amendments of 1992: Report of the Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives"; (16) "Hispanics Are Less Than Half as Likely as Whites to Complete Four Years of College--and Slipping Farther Behind"; (17) "Target Populations to Achieve the National Goal of a 90 Percent High School Graduation Rate"; (18) The State Record and Outlook for Fiscal Year 1994 for Financing Postsecondary Education Opportunity"; "Focus on the States...Changes for College by Age 19 Show Strong Geographic Patterns"; (20) "Education Equity Index Update...No Progress for Blacks and Hispanics on Equity in 1992"; (21)"The Rich Get Richer and the Poor Get... Disparities in Higher Education Opportunity across Family Income Levels Were Huge and Growing in 1991"; (22) "But a Quarter Didn't...Nearly Three-Quarters of College Freshmen Enrolled in First Choice of College in 1992"; (23) "The Outreach Market...Parental Educational Attainment Drives Educational Attainment of their Children"; (24) "What Else was There To Do? High School Graduates of 1992 Entered College by October at Record Rates, Again"; (25) "Up, Up and Away...Affordability Concerns Re-emerge among American College Freshmen in 1992"; (26) "It Helps To be...Family Income Backgrounds Continue to Determine Chances for Baccalaureate Degree in 1992"; (27) "The Launching Pad...Economic Stratification of Higher Education Enrollments is Alive and Thriving in 1992"; and (28) "Half Full? No! Half Empty! Blacks Still Only Half as Likely as Whites To Attain Baccalaureate Degree." (JB)
This First Look report presents findings from the Integrated Postsecondary Education Data System (IPEDS) fall 2007 data collection, which included three survey components: Institutional Characteristics for the 2007-08 academic year, Completions covering the period July 1, 2006, through June 30, 2007, and 12-Month Enrollment covering academic year 2006-07. The data on which this report is based are available to researchers and the public through the IPEDS Peer Analysis System and the College Navigator. This First Look report is based on the collection of data from more than 6,500 postsecondary education institutions that participate in Title IV federal student financial aid programs. Selected findings include: (1) In 2007-08, there were 6,709 Title IV postsecondary institutions in the United States and other jurisdictions of which 41 percent were classified as 4-year institutions, 33 percent were 2-year institutions, and the remaining were less-than-2-year institutions; (2) Among all Title IV institutions in the United States, 41 percent reported offering a bachelor's degree or higher as their highest offering, 13 percent reported offering an award of at least 2 but less than 4 years as their highest offering, 20 percent reported offering an associate's degree as their highest offering, and 26 percent reported offering an award of less than 2 years as their highest offering; (3) During 2007-08, private not-for-profit 4-year institutions reported average tuition and required fees charges for full-time undergraduates of 14,908, on average, for tuition and required fees during 2007-08, and public 4-year institutions reported charging out-of-state undergraduates an average of 5,730; (4) Public 4-year institutions reported a 5 percent increase (after adjusting for inflation) in instate tuition and required fees and a 3 percent increase in out-of-state tuition and required fees charged to full-time undergraduates between 2005-06 and 2007-08; over the same 2-year period, 4-year private not-for-profit institutions reported a 7 percent increase and private for-profit 4-year institutions reported a 5 percent increase in tuition and required fees charged to full-time undergraduates; (5) Private for-profit 4-year institutions reported the highest overall average price of attendance during 2007-08 for full-time undergraduates living on campus (31.109; public 4-year institutions reported an average price of 24,955 for out-of-state full-time undergraduates living on campus; (6) For the 2006-07 academic year, 4-year Title IV institutions reported awarding 2.4 million degrees and 2-year institutions reported awarding 563,875 degrees; (7) During the 2006-07 academic year, Title IV institutions reported conferring about 3.8 million postsecondary awards (degrees or certificates); (8) During the 2006-07 academic year, Title IV institutions in the United States reported a 12-month unduplicated headcount enrollment totaling 25.0 million individual students; of which 21.6 million were undergraduates, 3.1 million were graduate students, and 367,000 were first-professional students; and (9) During the 2006-07 academic year, Title IV institutions in the United States reported fulltime equivalent enrollment of 14.9 million graduate and undergraduate students. Two appendixes are included: (1) Survey Methodology; and (2) Glossary of IPEDS Terms. (Contains 11 tables and 10 footnotes.)
The purpose of this report is to provide a profile of students who delay their postsecondary enrollment and then to distinguish among students who delay their postsecondary enrollment with respect to how long they wait to enroll. In particular, it addresses the ways in which those who delay a shorter amount of time differ from those who delay longer in terms of their demographic characteristics, why they enroll, where they enroll, the types of programs or degrees they pursue, and their likelihood of earning a credential. These findings provide a snapshot of all undergraduates in 1999?2000, and indicate that delayed entrants begin their postsecondary education at a relative disadvantage compared with their peers who enroll in postsecondary education immediately after high school
Nearly 60 percent of college students today are women. Using longitudinal data on a nationally representative cohort of eighth grade students in 1988, I examine two potential explanations for the differential attendance rates of men and women—returns to schooling and non-cognitive skills. The attendance gap is roughly five percentage points for all high school graduates. Conditional on attendance, however, there are few differences in type of college, enrollment status or selectivity of institution. The majority of the attendance gap can be explained by differences in the characteristics of men and women, despite some gender differences in the determinants of college attendance. I find that higher non-cognitive skills and college premiums among women account for nearly 90 percent of the gender gap in higher education. Interestingly, non-cognitive factors continue to influence college enrollment after controlling for high school achievement.
Imperfections of capital markets and asymmetric information are possible justifications for the public funding of higher education. As such, public expenditure can increase efficiency. However, this efficiency gain is typically made at the cost of inequities which may take the form of elitism. Democratic oversight is needed to check the extent of such elitism. It is argued that admission to higher education should not be determined by elitist criteria, but (owing to informational asymmetries inherent in the educational process) curriculum content should be controlled by the educated elite.
This paper examines how the level and dispersion of self-reported happiness has evolved over the period 1972-2006. While there has been no increase in aggregate happiness, inequality in happiness has fallen substantially since the 1970s. There have been large changes in the level of happiness across groups: two-thirds of the black-white happiness gap has been eroded, and the gender happiness gap has disappeared entirely. Paralleling changes in the income distribution, differences in happiness by education have widened substantially. We develop an integrated approach to measuring inequality and decomposing changes in the distribution of happiness, finding a pervasive decline in within-group inequality during the 1970s and 1980s that was experienced by even narrowly defined demographic groups. Around one-third of this decline has subsequently been unwound. Juxtaposing these changes with large increases in income inequality suggests an important role for nonpecuniary factors in shaping the well-being distribution. (c) 2008 by The University of Chicago. All rights reserved..
Many studies have found that the impact of schooling on earnings is greater for females than for males, despite the fact that females tend to earn less, both absolutely and controlling for personal characteristics. This study investigates possible reasons for this effect, using data from the National Longitudinal Survey of Youth 1979–. One explanation is that education appears to have a double effect on the earnings of women. It increases their skills and productivity, as it does with men, and in addition it appears to reduce the gap in male and female earnings attributable to factors such as discrimination, tastes, and circumstances. The latter appear to account for about half of the differential in the returns to schooling.
We give semiparametric identification and estimation results for econometric models with a regressor that is endogenous, bound censored and selected,called a Tobin regressor. First, we show that true parameter value is set identified and characterize the identification sets. Second, we propose novel estimation and inference methods for this true value. These estimation and inference methods are of independent interest and apply to any problem where the true parameter value is point identified conditional on some nuisance parameter values that are set-identified. By fixing the nuisance parameter value in some suitable region, we can proceed with regular point and interval estimation. Then, we take the union over nuisance parameter values of the point and interval estimates to form the final set estimates and confidence set estimates. The initial point or interval estimates can be frequentist or Bayesian. The final set estimates are set-consistent for the true parameter value, and confidence set estimates have frequentist validity in the sense of covering this value with at least a prespecified probability in large samples. We apply our identification, estimation, and inference procedures to study the effects of changes in housing wealth on household consumption. Our set estimates fall in plausible ranges, significantly above low OLS estimates and below high IV estimates that do not account for the Tobin regressor structure.
Women are currently the majority of U.S. college students and of those receiving a bachelor’s degree, but were 39 percent of undergraduates in 1960. We use three longitudinal data sets of high school graduates in 1957, 1972, and 1992 to understand the narrowing of the gender gap in college and its reversal. From 1972 to 1992 high school girls narrowed the gap with boys in math and science course taking and in achievement test scores. These variables, which we term the proximate determinants, can account for 30 to 60 percent of the relative increase in women’s college completion rate. Behind these changes were several others: the future work expectations of young women increased greatly between 1968 and 1979 and the age at first marriage for college graduate women rose by 2.5 years in the 1970s, allowing them to be more serious students. The reversal of the college gender gap, rather than just its elimination, was due in part to the persistence of behavioral and developmental differences between males and females.
The growing gender gaps in college enrollment and degree attainment in the U.S. and their potential economic and social consequences
- A Sum
- N Fogg
- P Harrington
Sum, A., Fogg, N., & Harrington, P. (2003). The growing gender gaps in college enrollment and degree attainment in the U.S. and their potential economic and social consequences. Boston, MA: Center for Labor Market Studies, Northeastern University.
Thirty-three years of women in S&E faculty positions (NSF 08–038)
- J Burelli
Burelli, J. (2008). Thirty-three years of women in S&E faculty positions (NSF 08–038). Washington, DC: National Science Foundation.
The state of American manhood (Number 171) Postsecondary Education Opportunity: Public Policy Analysis of Opportunity for Postsecondary Education
- T Mortenson
Mortenson, T. (2006). The state of American manhood (Number 171). Postsecondary Education Opportunity: Public Policy Analysis of Opportunity for Postsecondary Education.
Strategies for teaching boys and girls—Elementary level
- M Gurian
- K Stevens
- K King
Gurian, M., Stevens, K., & King, K. (2008). Strategies for teaching boys and girls—Elementary level. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.
The American freshman: National norms for fall 2007
- J H Pryor
- S Hutardo
- J Sharkness
- W S Korn
Pryor, J. H., Hutardo, S., Sharkness, J., & Korn, W. S. (2007). The American freshman: National norms for fall 2007. Los Angeles: University of California, Higher Education Research Institute, Graduate School of Education & Information Studies.
The trouble with boys
- P Tyre
Tyre, P. (2008). The trouble with boys. New York: Crowne Publishing Group.
Enrollment and degrees awarded 1963–
- American Bar Association
Strategies for teaching boys and girls—Secondary school level
- M Gurian
United States high school sophomores: A twenty-two year comparison
- National Center for Education Statistics
Where the boys aren’t: The gender gap on college campuses. The Weekly Standard
- MZ Vickers
The American freshman: National norms for fall
- J H Pryor
- S Hutardo
- J Sharkness
- W S Korn
- JH Pryor
Where the boys aren’t: The gender gap on college campuses
- M Z Vickers
- MZ Vickers