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Wildlife Crime: The Problems of Enforcement
Abstract
Environmental and wildlife crime appear recently to be benefitting from an increasing profile amongst those agencies tasked
with their control, as well as receiving growing criminological attention. Despite this, those with responsibilities in this
area report that it remains marginalised, receiving limited resources and suffering from a lack of political impetus to push
such problems higher up the agenda. This is particularly so for those agencies, such as the police, that may be seen to have
many more pressing objectives. This discussion paper considers the problems of relying on an enforcement approach to controlling
such offences, taking, as an example, those activities that may be termed ‘wildlife crime’, focusing on the situation in England
and Wales. Firstly, the legislative framework that criminalises harm or exploitation of wildlife is presented, alongside the
main enforcement methods used. Next, the problems facing an enforcement approach are critically considered, the key issues
being: under-resourcing and marginalisation, the large ‘dark-figure’ of wildlife crime, the possibility of corruption, the
lack of seriousness with which such crimes are viewed, and the lack of deterrent effect. Finally, responses to the problems
of enforcement are presented, categorised as either methods to improve enforcement or, as the author advocates, methods which
are alternatives to enforcement (such as adopting a crime prevention approach). The paper concludes with suggestions for future
research in this field.
KeywordsCrime prevention–Deterrence–Enforcement–Environmental crime–Wildlife crime
... Second, they highlight how the nature of rural crime and rural communities can influence investigations. For example, wildlife crime has not been seen as serious, either by members of the public or investigating authorities (Nurse, 2012;Wellsmith, 2011). Third, rural crimes are often underreported and it is difficult to generate a comprehensive understanding of rural crime problems. ...
... For example, wildlife crimes are technically 'victimless' crimes as animals cannot be considered victims in English law and there is no direct human victim to report the offence to the authorities. As a consequence, the vast majority of wildlife crimes will never come to the attention of authorities (Wellsmith, 2011;Nurse, 2012). In addition, police services may lack recording systems which automatically 'flag up' rural crimes resulting in sketchy intelligence gathering (Smith, 2010). ...
... Fourth, investigation can become further complicated because the police might not always be the primary investigating agency. Indeed, legislation is enforced by other agencies, including charities (such as Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals) and local authorities (Smith, 2010;Wellsmith, 2011). Fifth, investigators may lack the specialist knowledge needed to investigate wildlife crime (Rantatalo, Lindberg & Hallgren, 2021) Lastly, under-resourcing is often cited as a major problem for investigations of rural crime (Wellsmith, 2011;Nurse, 2012). ...
This article examines factors that influence the processes and practices of crime prevention and investigation in rural areas of England. Whilst evidence shows that rural crime is a significant problem, there has been hitherto a dearth of research into how the issue is policed. Drawing on the perspectives of police personnel, this article examines the features of the rural environment and the organisation and management of police services that influence the delivery of police work in rural areas of England. Specifically, the article considers factors that influence the reporting and subsequent recording of rural crimes; how police officers understand and perceive rural crimes; how police services prioritise crimes for preventative and investigative purposes; how responsibility for investigating rural crimes is diffused across law enforcement agencies and how this can cause confusion for officers; matters related to the generation of evidence; officer understanding of the legislation regarding rural crime; the willingness of officers to undertake the investigation of rural crimes and the reluctance of some to live in the countryside; and the organisation and management of police resources in rural areas. In so doing, it sets out the reasons why the policing of rural spaces is distinctive and considers implications for police work and its outcomes.
... Whilst a sanction-based approach would aim at enforcing laws by coercion and compulsion which is a punitive approach to addressing non-compliant activities by featuring the role of the courts, who enforce the seriousness of offenses via prosecutions and convictions. The goal is that deterrence acts on both levels, namely the individual offenders who will be discouraged from committing further environmental crimes, and the wider public who will be deterred from engaging in such activities due to the threat of punishment (Wellsmith, 2011). On the other hand, a compliance-based approach emphasizes the detection of deviant activity as a key step towards prevention instead of prosecuting offenders. ...
... From a deterrence-based perspective, there are specific factors that hamper the effectiveness of enforcement methods, which include 1) insufficient resourcing, 2) lack of awareness of the true extent of crime, 3) corruption, and 4) crime not being taken seriously by enforcement authorities. Each factor can reduce the effectiveness of enforcement, and different factors may interact to magnify each other's effects (Wellsmith, 2011). From a cooperation-based perspective, it has been argued that enforcement will be limited if 1) it is not backed by participatory actions, 2) it lacks incentives for compliance by relevant stakeholders, 3) it is anti-poor, and 4) it runs against long-term environmental goals (Dasgupta, 2000). ...
... Resource allocation thus refers to the distribution of state resources for enforcement among state agencies at different levels (local, state, and national) and among different sectors (detection, interdiction, prosecution, and conviction). Allocation pertains to the number of personnel dedicated to enforcement, as well as the level of material resources such as vehicles and the extent of application of technologies such as surveillance equipment (Wellsmith, 2011). Ideally, resources for enforcement should be distributed among agencies at all levels and sectors, because that allocation should permit all steps in enforcement actions to occur effectively (Arias, 2015). ...
The study aimed at assessing the common constraints that affect the enforcement of small-scale mining laws and regulations which have created a vacuum for illegal operators to infiltrate the space with the associated environmental and social cost implications. Underpinned by the institutional theory, the study analyzes from existing theoretical and empirical studies to assess why institutions and agencies on artisanal and small-scale mining find it difficult to clamp down on illegal gold extractive activities. Retrospective literature analysis was the main method employed by the study. A synthesis from the review suggests that key challenges revolve around poor allocation of resources, poor collaboration among multiple levels and sectors, protection rackets by powerful beings in society, connivance of some traditional authorities and members, poverty, green squeezing, and cumbersome nature of ASM licensing process in Ghana. The study contends on the one hand that laws, policies, and regulations are only as good as their enforcement; whilst on the other hand, enforcement is only as good as the laws and regulations formulated in the first place. The study discusses five policy suggestions that will go a long way to help enforcement of ASM policies and institutions in Ghana.
... Insufficient resources are reflected in three primary areas: (1) human resource shortages. The limited number of skilled professionals and management personnel makes it difficult to meet the daily needs of monitoring, patrolling, scientific research, and overall management [90]; (2) lack of technical resources. Advanced technologies, such as monitoring equipment, scientific research instruments, and information management systems, have yet to be widely implemented, which hampers the efficiency and scientific rigor of wildlife resource management [91]; (3) insufficient training resources. ...
... Advanced technologies, such as monitoring equipment, scientific research instruments, and information management systems, have yet to be widely implemented, which hampers the efficiency and scientific rigor of wildlife resource management [91]; (3) insufficient training resources. There is a lack of sufficient training for law enforcement officers, prosecutors, and judicial personnel, which undermines their ability to effectively enforce conservation laws and impose appropriate sanctions [90]. The uneven distribution of resources manifests in three main ways: (1) uneven distribution of human resources. ...
Wildlife constitutes a vital component of Earth’s ecosystems and serves as a precious natural resource essential for human survival and development. Wildlife resource management integrates science, policy, and community collaboration through comprehensive measures including nature reserve establishment, rescue and breeding programs, technological support, and law enforcement supervision, ensuring the survival and reproduction of wildlife. Simultaneously, it facilitates rational, scientific, and sustainable development and utilization of wildlife resources to meet socioeconomic demands and cultural-artistic creation needs. Consequently, wildlife resource management plays a pivotal role in maintaining ecosystem stability, preserving biodiversity, and advancing sustainable human development. However, challenges such as intensified anthropogenic disturbances and global climate change have precipitated critical issues, including habitat loss/fragmentation, illegal wildlife trade, invasive species proliferation, and zoonotic disease risks. This chapter systematically examines four dimensions: global wildlife resource status, management challenges, operational limitations, and strategic recommendations. By analyzing contemporary challenges and constraints, it proposes innovative perspectives and actionable strategies for global wildlife management. This study could provide a powerful scientific reference for promoting wildlife resource management and protecting global wildlife diversity.
... In criminology, hidden figures of crime describe the amount of unreported or undiscovered crime. With the main victims of wildlife crimes being unable to communicate directly with humans, hidden figures are estimated to be quite high (Wellsmith, 2011;Lemieux et al., 2014). ...
... This is especially relevant considering that the main victims of wildlife crimes, the non-human animals themselves, cannot self-report (Sollund, 2019;Wyatt et al., 2022). The records can thus be used to study the scale of the trade and act as a good comprehension of which species are involved, even if the issue of dark figures is highly prevalent in wildlife crimes (Cook et al., 2002;Wellsmith, 2011). Dark figures refer to crimes which are not reported or detected. ...
The illegal wildlife trade is one of the main factors of biodiversity loss worldwide. Brazil, the largest country in South America, is a hub of wildlife trafficking, but availability of information on the issue is constrained to specific regions and to Portuguese speakers. Knowledge gaps hinder the establishment of targeted countermeasures in the fight against the illegal wildlife trade. Thousands of animals are seized from IWT and sent to wildlife centers each year. Here, we reviewed the literature on seized songbirds for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest, a global hotspot of biodiversity. Using a systematic review approach, we compiled a database with all available papers containing seizure records for the Brazilian Atlantic Forest. We focused on the 10 most seized species in each study to construct a comprehensive view of the main victims of the illegal trade. We reported 23 studies in 20 locations throughout the BAF. In 19 years, 139,000 passerines were recorded, distributed in 47 species – and two genera – across 10 families. Thraupidae was the most important family, with 27 species in the list and comprising 70% of individuals recorded. We highlighted the preference for granivorous birds and birds deemed good singers. There were few threatened species in the top list, but many of the ones included have population trends of decline, indicating a conservation issue that can direly affect even currently common species if the high demand continues. We appointed knowledge gaps within the Brazilian scenario of wildlife trafficking and provided practical recommendations on the issue considering the global scenario of IWT.
... Namun, tanpa penegakan hukum, pendekatan tampa-peraturan tidak cukup untuk mencegah kejahatan dalam skala luas (Fairbrass dkk., 2016;Keane dkk., 2008). Nilai penguatan penegakan hukum hanya melalui peningkatan kekerasan hukuman banyak diperdebatkan, dengan literatur umum kriminologis maupun kejahatan khusus satwa liar menunjukkan bahwa kemungkinan penangkapan, lebih daripada kerasnya hukuman, sangat penting dalam keberhasilan pencegahan kejahatan (Nagin, 2013;Wellsmith, 2011). Studi ini bertujuan untuk memberikan kontribusi untuk memahami tren kejahatan dan efek dari pendekatan dengan peraturan dan tampa peraturan yang diterapkan untuk mengatasi kejahatan yang mempengaruhi tiga spesies orangutan (Pongo spp.) di Indonesia. ...
... Prevalensi kejahatan yang ditunjukkan oleh tanggapan survei masyarakat dan catatan peneliti kejahatan satwa liar dan LSM menunjukkan bahwa hanya sebagian kecil kejahatan terhadap orangutan yang terdeteksi dan ditangkap (Freund dkk., 2017; data Massingham yang tidak diterbitkan; Meijaard dkk., 2011). Deteksi dan tingkat penangkapan yang rendah sering terjadi pada kejahatan terhadap satwa liar (Wellsmith, 2011). Kami menerapkan enam tingkat deteksi yang dipublikasikan pada populasi orangutan provinsi Kalimantan yang dihitung dari Voigt dkk. ...
Translation of English article available at https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109744. Abstrak: Perburuan liar dan perdagangan ilegal mengancam kelangsungan hidup banyak spesies langka. Kami menilai pola spatiotemporal dalam pembunuhan ilegal, pencederaan, penangkapan, kepemilikan, dan penjualan orangutan, serta upaya
penegakan hukum, dan intervensi konservasi yang mempengaruhi orangutan yang Sangat Terancam Punah di Indonesia dari 2007 hingga 2019 menggunakan data yang dikumpulkan dari sumber yang dipublikasikan dan tidak dipublikasikan. Kami
menemukan 2229 kejahatan yang dilaporkan selama masa studi, termasuk pembunuhan dan kejahatan yang tidak mematikan. Tingkat kejahatan tahunan tidak menunjukkan tren menurun secara keseluruhan selama masa studi. Sebagian besar
kejahatan, 99,6% untuk orangutan Borneo (Pongo pygmaeus), dan 95,7% untuk gabungan orangutan Sumatera (P. abelii) dan Tapanuli (P. tapanuliensis), menyangkut perdagangan lokal bukan internasional. Sebanyak 22 kasus pengadilan (0,9%)
terkait dengan 2229 kejahatan yang dilaporkan; 20 berujung pada hukuman. Pada tingkat deteksi yang diperkirakan kurang dari 10%, perkiraan kematian spesies rata-rata dari pembunuhan adalah 14,3% untuk gabungan orangutan Tapanuli dan
Sumatera, dan 5,1% untuk orangutan Borneo. Hal ini melebihi ambang kematian perburuan orangutan sebesar 1-2% yang diperkirakan akan mendorong populasi menuju kepunahan. Taman nasional dengan orangutan memiliki 0.28-2.11 petugas
penegak per 100 km2, di bawah 3–11 petugas per 100 km2 yang dianggap sebagai praktik terbaik global untuk mencegah perburuan liar. Intervensi yang paling umum untuk mengatasi kejahatan terkait orangutan —pendidikan dan penyerahan
hewan yang ditangkap secara ilegal—telah dilakukan tanpa penurunan angka kejahatan. Taktik ini saja tidak cukup untuk menangani kejahatan terkait orangutan. Peningkatan substansial dalam patroli, investigasi, penangkapan, dan hukuman,
serta solusi yang berfokus pada masyarakat sangat dibutuhkan untuk menghentikan pembunuhan dan perdagangan orangutan.
... However, without any law enforcement, non-regulatory approaches have not been sufficient to deter crime at broad scales (Fairbrass et al., 2016;Keane et al., 2008). The value of strengthening enforcement solely through increased severity of punishments is much debated, with both general criminological and wildlife crime-specific literature suggesting that the likelihood of apprehension, rather than severity of punishment, is crucial to successfully deterring crime (Nagin, 2013;Wellsmith, 2011). This study aims to contribute to understanding of crime trends and the effects of regulatory and non-regulatory approaches applied to address crimes affecting the three species of orangutans (Pongo spp.) in Indonesia. ...
... The prevalence of crimes indicated by community survey responses and records of wildlife crime researchers and NGOs suggest that only a small percentage of actual orangutan crimes are detected and apprehended (Freund et al., 2017;Massingham unpublished data;Meijaard et al., 2011). Low detection and apprehension rates are common for wildlife crime (Wellsmith, 2011). We applied six published detection rates to Kalimantan provincial orangutan populations calculated from Voigt et al. (2018) and Sumatra orangutan populations estimated in Wich et al. (2016) (Table 2). ...
Wildlife poaching and illegal trade threaten the survival of many rare species. We assessed spatiotemporal patterns in illegal killing, injury, capture, possession, and sale of orangutans, as well as law enforcement efforts, and conservation interventions affecting Critically Endangered orangutans in Indonesia from 2007 to 2019 using data collected from published and unpublished sources. We found 2229 reported crimes during the study period, including killing and non-lethal crimes. Annual crime rates did not show a declining trend overall during the study period. Most crimes, 99.6 % for Bornean orangutans (Pongo pygmaeus), and 95.7 % for Sumatran (P. abelii) and Tapanuli (P. tapanuliensis) orangutans combined, involved local not international trade. A total of 22 court cases (0.9 %) related to 2229 reported crimes; 20 of these cases led to convictions. At expected detection rates of less than 10 %, average estimated species mortality from killing was 14.3 % for Tapanuli and Sumatran orangutans combined, and 5.1 % for Bornean orangutans. This exceeds the 1–2 % orangutan hunting mortality threshold expected to drive populations to extinction. National parks with orangutans had 0.28–2.11 enforcement officers per 100 km², below the 3–11 officers per 100 km² considered global best practice to deter poaching. The most prevalent interventions to address orangutan crime—education and handovers of illegally held animals—have been conducted without an associated decline in crimes. These tactics alone are insufficient to address orangutan-related crimes. Substantial increases in patrols, investigations, arrests, and convictions, as well as community-focused solutions are urgently needed to halt orangutan killing and trade.
... As a result, many jurisdictions have failed to curb ECs effectively (Jayasekara, 2021). Addressing this issue requires greater investment in enforcement policies, capacity building for officials and performance management (Gibbs et al., 2015;White, 2011;Wellsmith, 2011), and Pakistan is no exception. ...
Purpose
This study aims to investigate the impact of the financial action task force (FATF) recommendations and their practical implementation on green criminology in Pakistan.
Design/methodology/approach
This study used a qualitative case study technique to achieve the study’s objective.
Findings
According to the study, criminals in Pakistan are misusing natural resources to finance terrorism and launder environmental crime (EC) proceeds. Criminals frequently exploit environmental assets as a medium of exchange, and trade-based money laundering is widely used to transport natural assets to dodge taxes and regulatory checks. Furthermore, due to political instability, porous borders, a poor anti-money laundering framework, lax application of customer due diligence measures, corrupt politically exposed persons, an undocumented economy, frequent usage of hawala/hundi and a lack of political interest, Pakistan provides a favourable environment for ECs. This situation, combined with the low quality of laws and law enforcement’s lack of ability, resources and training, heightens the intensity of the problem. The overall effectiveness of the FATF recommendations against ECs in Pakistan is ineffective. Consequently, a solid domestic and international coordination and collaboration structure is needed for effective combat.
Research limitations/implications
The study primarily relied on published data.
Practical implications
The overall effectiveness of the FATF recommendations against ECs in Pakistan is ineffective. Consequently, a solid domestic and international coordination and collaboration structure is needed for effective combat.
Originality/value
There has been little research on the effectiveness of the FATF recommendations against ECs, especially in the global south.
... Department of State, 2023). Despite substantial support provided to Parties in recent decades (Reeve, 2002;CITES, 2022e), a lack of capacity and of human, financial, and technical resources persist as the main challenges to implementing the treaty effectively (Wellsmith, 2011;Dongol and Heinen, 2012;Ariffin, 2018;CITES, 2019c;Wyatt, 2021a;Kilonzo et al., 2024). Based on recent implementation reports (CITES Biennial reports and Implementation Reports), of 66 Parties, 67% have one or more Management, Scientific and/or Enforcement Authority that has insufficient financial resources to function effectively. ...
Understanding the effectiveness of Multilateral Environmental Agreements (MEAs) is critical to addressing international environmental issues. Here we articulate the implied theory of change (ToC) underpinning the design and operation of CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora), based on an analysis of the Convention’s documented evolution. We use this as a framework to critically evaluate the effectiveness of the Convention, with respect to its stated aims, using a range of theoretical and empirical insights. Although achieving success in various ways, CITES is proving ineffective at deterring illegal and/or unsustainable exploitation of many listed species for international trade, which we attribute to implementation and compliance issues and the Convention’s design, including a principal focus on deterrence through state-led law enforcement. Informed by this analysis we develop a modified ToC which could support more effective implementation of CITES. This ToC is intended for application at the species level and incorporates an in-depth examination of the social-ecological systems (SESs) within which species are harvested, used, and traded. This species-system ToC explicitly considers formal and informal institutions, and the use of institutional diagnostics to inform potential revisions to institutional arrangements along supply chains. We argue that taking this approach when considering whether and how to implement trade measures under CITES could enhance the effectiveness of these measures in reducing overexploitation and support legal, traceable, and more ecologically and socially sustainable international trade in wild species. Finally, we highlight the role that CITES could play in the broader global biodiversity governance regime; better alignment with other relevant MEAs could lead to more effective biodiversity conservation overall.
... Southwest China is a hotspot for both poaching and illegal trade events, which could be explained by the weaker enforcement in this remote and vast mountainous area. Thus, strengthening law enforcement in this region could intensify the law's deterrent effects and reduce these crimes [62]. (2) Raise the legal awareness of rural residents in Southwest China. ...
Asiatic black bears (Ursus thibetanus) are a large carnivore, widely distributed in East, South, and Southeast Asia. However, they have experienced dramatic population decline across this range due to various anthropogenic threats. The great demand for bear parts in the black market exposes this species to intense pressure of being poached and then illegally traded. Meanwhile, the continuous expansion of anthropogenic land use results in the sharpening of human–bear conflicts. In this study, we conducted a comprehensive search and collected information of the poaching, illegal trade, and human–bear conflict events related to Asiatic black bears reported in China during 2010–2020. By systematically searching judicial adjudicative documents and news reports, we identified 351 (64 poaching, 221 illegal trade, and 90 conflict) events across the country. The results showed that Southwest China was a hotspot across all categories (41, 149 and 40 events, respectively). Bear paws were the most common type of bear parts found in illegal trade (52.1%), and the most frequently reported human–bear conflict form was human injury from bear attacks (at least 52 people injured and another 7 killed). By determining the status of black bears being poached, traded, and their conflicts with humans in China, these results will provide important insights into the further research and conservation of this iconic species.
... Enhance wildlife protection legislation and ensure its effective enforcement [88]. Penalties should be imposed for illegal acts such as hunting, trapping, and habitat degradation [89]. Implement habitat restoration programs to restore degraded regions and provide safe havens for birds. ...
Birds are important elements of an environment. The review articles show the significance, challenges, and conservation strategies for wild and migratory bird habitats in South Asia which have diverse landscapes host crucial ecosystems, providing breeding grounds, stopovers, and wintering areas for countless bird species. Anthropogenic activities, climate change, pollution, and invasive species threaten these habitats, necessitating effective conservation measures. Habitat assessment, monitoring, restoration techniques, and adaptation strategies are explored. The impact of climate change on bird habitats is discussed, emphasizing the importance of habitat resilience and adaptive management. Community engagement and education are pivotal in conservation, with successful models involving local communities in decision-making processes. The article also addresses the status of illegal bird hunting in the Indian subcontinent, emphasizing the need for strengthened law enforcement and community involvement. Though birds are important element of the environment, however, they are cause to spread some disease in especially migratory birds. It's have contribution to biodiversity, pest control, and pollination but can also cause economic losses in agriculture and pose risks to aviation. Managing coexistence between birds and human activities is required for successful conservation program. Interdisciplinary research, long-term monitoring, and quantitative assessments of habitat resilience is underscored. The article concludes with a future plan for wild and migratory bird management in Bangladesh, outlining measures such as habitat protection, community involvement, and international collaboration. Graphical Abstract
... Trade occurred in at least 43 US states and 6 countries, including Canada. As with other environmental crimes, a large portion of wildlife trafficking is likely to go undetected or be misreported (Wellsmith 2011;Kurland and Pires 2017). It is reasonable to assume that the true scope and scale of North American turtle collection and trade, particularly illegal trade, is grossly underreported and underestimated. ...
... Technological tools like AI, LiDAR, and advanced tracking systems offer promising solutions, yet their implementation remains inconsistent across jurisdictions, highlighting the need for standardized, adaptable, and locally contextualized conservation policies that balance protection with sustainable community development. The inherent complexity of wildlife crime demands a nuanced, multi-dimensional approach that addresses economic inequalities, cultural practices, and global market dynamics, transforming conservation from a reactive enforcement model to a proactive, collaborative ecological governance strategy (Wellsmith, 2011). ...
Wildlife crime remains one of the biggest global challenges worldwide even up to the current decade. This is even worse when it is compounded by what is referred to as the 'dark figure' where cases go unreported or are not detected by law enforcement agencies due to victim reluctance or sheer inability of the police to arrest all offenders. To address this issue, scientists have used remote sensing techniques to detect illegality using satellite and other aerial images such as drone.Since the amount of remote sensing data is growing very rapidly, and increasing even more in the future, efficient computational systems and sophisticated preprocessing methods are essential for handling and analyzing these data. Artificial Intelligence(AI) has been instrumental in this area through functions like object recognition, data integration, filtering, and anomaly detection that aid the efficiency and accuracy of remote sensing exercises. Overcoming scaling challenges, enhancing engagement, and navigating privacy hurdles remain vital for the implementation of live AI-based models. This review article will also try to give a measure of the likelihood of technological solutions to prevent wildlife crimes and the overriding issue of the 'dark figure' and the expanding mass of data through a critical analysis of the literature on the respective remote sensing devices and the AI algorithms that may be used to combine them.
... According to Arias [17], there are generally two approaches to enforcing environmental regulations: deterrence, sanctions, and compliance or cooperation. Both methods allow the enforcement of regulations through key steps, prosecution, and conviction [18]. ...
... First of all, it is crucial to differentiate between wildlife crime and humanwildlife conflict. Wildlife crime involves the illegal taking, trading, exploiting, or possessing of the world's wild flora and fauna, in violation of national and international laws (Wellsmith, 2011). In contrast, human-wildlife conflict (HWC) includes how people perceive risks associated with negative interactions with wildlife (Kahler & Gore, 2015), often driven by cohabitation in overlapping territories rather than criminal intent (Schell et al., 2021). ...
Wildlife crime has presented a trend of diversity, globality, and severity, which has posed severe threats to biology, ecology, economy, and society. Although researchers in these fields have never stopped fighting against it by proposing prevention and control countermeasures from their disciplinary perspectives, spatial heterogeneity have been largely overlooked in most studies. Here, we use 873 wildlife crime cases in Yunnan, a province with the highest wildlife crime rate in China, to highlight the spatial differences in wildlife crime rate within a province and the reasons behind them. Our results show that the provincial capital, border counties, and tourist cities serve as hotspots for wildlife crime, each characterized by distinct formation mechanisms. Distribution channels, climate and social order, and national culture significantly influence the emergence of these hotspots. Furthermore, the spatial elements of Crime Prevention Through Environmental Design (CPTED) complement the Situational Crime Prevention (SCP) framework and are applied across various scales in the study of wildlife crime management in Yunnan Province. These findings can help us suggest new ideas for preventing wildlife crime from a criminological geography perspective taking into account spatial considerations.
... objective is to confirm the distribution of this species in Taiwan, as a basis for future 143 conservation and management. 144 Regulations concerning invertebrates have received limited attention worldwide (Cardoso 145 et al., 2011;Caro, 2022). Legal regulation is a crucial aspect of conservation (Oldfield, 2003). ...
Most conservation policies and management primarily focus on vertebrate animals. However, considering the high demand for invertebrate species in the exotic pet markets, it is crucial to give them great consideration. This research explores Coenobita purpureus, a land hermit crab newly recorded in Taiwan in 2017. We noticed that it has gained popularity in the online pet market recently, despite limited studies confirming its population. To mitigate the potential risks associated with this species, our study investigated online wildlife trade markets, conducted field surveys for its distribution, and scrutinized relevant regulations in Taiwan. The median price of the species significantly increased after its description. This suggests a growing demand in the exotic pet market, potentially leading to unsustainable trade. Besides, the online platform and coloration of individuals also influenced the price. Furthermore, we discovered that C. purpureus is more widely distributed in Taiwan than initially described in the literature, confirming its native status, though the population may be small. We also identified limitations in current Taiwanese regulations and policies regarding the risk of unsustainable trade in potentially threatened invertebrate species. Moreover, we found evidence of individuals being smuggled from China through e-commerce channels. Regulatory measures addressing the smuggling of small amounts of wildlife are also insufficient, potentially posing invasion risks from alien species. Finally, we drew upon the conclusions from these aspects to provide integrated and practical management implications for policymakers. Additionally, we aim to offer this valuable case study to spotlight the state of the global invertebrate trade.
... Enhance wildlife protection legislation and ensure its effective enforcement [88]. Penalties should be imposed for illegal acts such as hunting, trapping, and habitat degradation [89]. Implement habitat restoration programs to restore degraded regions and provide safe havens for birds. ...
Birds are important elements of an environment. The review articles show the significance, challenges, and conservation strategies for wild and migratory bird habitats in South Asia which have diverse landscapes host crucial ecosystems, providing breeding grounds, stopovers, and wintering areas for countless bird species. Anthropogenic activities, climate change, pollution, and invasive species threaten these habitats, necessitating effective conservation measures. Habitat assessment, monitoring, restoration techniques, and adaptation strategies are explored. The impact of climate change on bird habitats is discussed, emphasizing the importance of habitat resilience and adaptive management. Community engagement and education are pivotal in conservation, with successful models involving local communities in decision-making processes. The article also addresses the status of illegal bird hunting in the Indian subcontinent, emphasizing the need for strengthened law enforcement and community involvement. Though birds are important element of the environment, however, they are cause to spread some disease in especially migratory birds. It’s have contribution to biodiversity, pest control, and pollination but can also cause economic losses in agriculture and pose risks to aviation. Managing coexistence between birds and human activities is required for successful conservation program. Interdisciplinary research, long-term monitoring, and quantitative assessments of habitat resilience is underscored. The article concludes with a future plan for wild and migratory bird management in Bangladesh, outlining measures such as habitat protection, community involvement, and international collaboration. Graphical Abstract
... Nations with high risk species have been found to struggle [20] while lenient sentencing is a repeated concern [11,21]. Suggested underlying factors that impede enforcement include; 1) limited resources, 2) overwhelming scale, 3) corruption, 4) apathy, and 5) ineffective deterrents [22]. These challenges lead to an inference that wildlife crime is a low risk, high reward activity [21,23]. ...
... Globally, millions of children become victims of sexual abuse and exploitation every year (English, 1998). Due to the lack of reporting and the covert nature of these crimes, official statistics likely underestimate the true scope of the problem (Wellsmith, 2011). Its prevalence varies by region, culture, and socioeconomic background, but the disease affects children from all walks of life (Ibnouf et al., 2007). ...
Child victims of sexual violence face significant legal and psychological challenges that can vary based on the jurisdiction they reside in. This research presents a comparative analysis of the legal protection and psychological impact experienced by child victims of sexual violence in two jurisdictions, Jurisdiction A and Jurisdiction B. The study employs a mixed-methods approach, combining legal framework analysis and psychological impact assessment to examine the interplay between legal safeguards and psychological well-being. The legal framework analysis reveals that Jurisdiction B offers more comprehensive legal protection for child victims, characterized by higher age of consent and well-structured reporting mechanisms. In contrast, Jurisdiction A has a lower age of consent and less robust reporting mechanisms, potentially leaving certain cases inadequately addressed. Psychological impact assessments of child victims in both jurisdictions indicate that Jurisdiction B's stronger legal protection correlates with lower levels of psychological distress. Child victims in Jurisdiction A tend to experience higher levels of anxiety and fear due to insufficient legal protection. Conversely, those in Jurisdiction B report a greater sense of security and empowerment, leading to less severe psychological impact. The findings underscore the positive correlation between effective legal protection and positive psychological outcomes for child victims of sexual violence. Moreover, a holistic approach involving collaboration between legal and psychological sectors is crucial to support the healing and recovery of child victims. However, this study acknowledges its limitations in generalizing results across different contexts and cultures
... De manera rutinaria, la criminología convencional ha ignorado los crímenes en contra de la vida silvestre, muchos de los cuales han están aislados de los sistemas de justicia penal y son más bien tratados por los sistemas regulatorios, administrativos o civiles (Lynch y Stretesky, 2014;White y Heckenberg, 2014;Nurse, 2013Nurse, , 2014Beirne, 2009;Wellsmith, 2011;Sollund, 2019). Hoy día, la criminología verde hace un llamado a tener una mayor conciencia sobre los daños y actos criminales cometidos contra las especies no humanas. ...
... During this time, cases often collapse due to the death/absence of the accused and/or witnesses and the loss of crucial documentation. Considering the detrimental impacts of commercial trade on many wildlife populations (Gray et al. 2018;Symes et al. 2018), it is imperative that wildlife crime be taken more seriously, and this includes increasing the risk of apprehension, prosecution and punishment (Wellsmith 2022;Shepherd et al. 2017). Furthermore, enforcement efforts need to be enhanced to include intelligence-led investigations to tackle the international trafficking of pangolins across India's borders and the trafficking syndicates involved, as well as to tackle demand from buyers and end consumers. ...
Pangolins have become one of the most intensely poached and trafficked mammal species, exploited mainly for the food and traditional medicine trade. Intense and continued illegal exploitation for commercial trade has become the leading cause of pangolin declines in parts of Asia and Africa. Recent research has illustrated the growing threat this poses to pangolins in India. India is home to two species of pangolin, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and the Chinese Pangolin M. pentadactyla, which have been assessed as endangered and critically endangered respectively. Pangolin seizures in India between 1991 and 2022 were analysed to gain a better understanding of illegal trade dynamics. A total of 426 seizures were collated, involving an estimated 8603 pangolins. The frequency of pangolin seizures increased over time as did the volume of estimated pangolins seized. This could be due to a range of different factors including rising poaching and trade levels, increased law enforcement and reporting, and awareness. Nevertheless, on the ground, investigations by the Wildlife Protection Society of India strongly indicate that the escalating poaching and trade in pangolins is driven by lucrative market demands from beyond India’s borders, with a growing focus on the trade in live pangolins. Enforcement efforts appear to be undermined by low prosecution rates with only 1.4% of recorded seizures resulting in successful convictions. Asian pangolins have rapidly disappeared from their natural range and been locally extirpated in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. India’s pangolin species are at similar risk if poaching and trafficking levels continue unmitigated.
... Poaching of wildlife for commercial trade is driving species declines across the globe (Gray et al. 2018; Symes et al. 2018). It is therefore imperative that wildlife crime be taken more seriously, and this includes increasing the risk of apprehension, prosecution and punishment (Wellsmith 2011;Shepherd et al. 2017). Further, enforcement efforts need to be enhanced to include intelligence-led investigations to tackle the international tra cking of pangolins across India's borders and the tra cking syndicates involved, as well as to tackle demand from buyers and end consumers. ...
Pangolins have become one of the most intensely poached and trafficked mammal species, exploited mainly for the food and traditional medicine trade. Intense and continued illegal exploitation for commercial trade has become the leading cause of pangolin declines in parts of Asia and Africa. Recent research has illustrated the growing threat this poses to pangolins in India. India is home to two species of pangolin, the Indian Pangolin Manis crassicaudata and the Chinese Pangolin M. pentadactyla , which have been assessed as Endangered and Critically Endangered respectively. Pngolin seizures in India between 1991 and 2022 were analysed to gain a better understanding of illegal trade dynamics. A total of 426 seizures were collated, involving an estimated 8,603 pangolins. The frequency of pangolin seizures increased over time as did the volume of estimated pangolins seized. This could be due to a range of different factors including rising poaching and trade levels, increased law enforcement and reporting, as well as awareness. Nevertheless, Wildlife Protection Society of India's investigations strongly indicate that the escalating poaching and trade in pangolins is driven by lucrative market demands from beyond India’s borders, with a growing focus on the trade in live pangolins. Enforcement efforts appear to be undermined by low prosecution rates with only 1.4% of recorded seizures resulting in successful convictions. Asian pangolins have rapidly disappeared from their natural range and been locally extirpated in many parts of East and Southeast Asia. India’s pangolin species are at similar risk if poaching and trafficking levels continue unmitigated.
... Thus, resources allocated to wildlife crime enforcement are generally lower, and various policing models are in place for how wildlife and environmental crimes are dealt with which can, for example, indicate that wildlife crime may be dealt with by officers alongside other duties. Thus, in certain areas, wildlife crime is a secondary consideration and is not allocated as a priority, nor does it benefit from application of all possible policing measures (Wellsmith, 2011). It is also worth noting that wildlife and environmental crimes may not integrate into the core training for police staff. ...
In Germany, an intense political and media discussion has emerged on the phenomenon of “clan crime” (Clan-Kriminalität). In the course of the debate, “Arab clans” have often been accused of establishing criminal networks based on kinship and family ties. Despite the public debate, however, there has been a very little empirical research on the topic and virtually no attempt to understand it on a scientific basis by examining its socio-historical and cultural contexts. In this chapter, I demonstrate the roles of migration politics, socio-economic conditions, and kinship dynamics in shaping the structure and character of “clan crimes” in Germany. I argue that when a crime is committed by the member of a clan, it usually takes place either within that person’s nuclear family or independently of it and not at a clan level. Despite a widespread belief to the contrary, in my fieldwork, I found no evidence of clans either organizing or supporting organized criminal activity.
... In addition, crimes in the rural include cases in which farmers are the offenders, a perspective which has been greatly ignored by mainstream criminology (Collins, 2016). Other examples include illegal criminal enterprises, such as in the meat trade (Smith & McElwee, 2013), environmental wildlife crimes (Caniglia et al., 2010;Fyfe & Reeves, 2011;Loeffler, 2013;Maingi et al., 2012;Wellsmith, 2011) and the illegal killing of predators or 'pests' (Enticott, 2011;Gargiulo et al., 2016). ...
... Additionally, carbofuran's secondary metabolites, notably 3-ketocarbofuran and 3hydroxycarbofuran, are also fatal. (Goh et al. 2021;Wellsmith 2011). ...
Rice fields are one of the agricultural sectors in Malaysia that are heavily pesticide-treated. This study aimed to determine how carbofuran degrades in paddy water and what happens to its metabolite products, carbofuran phenol, and 3-ketocarbofuran. The experiment was conducted in two distinct ways, with one water sample being exposed to sunshine and the other remaining in the dark. Within 56 days of observation, the study discovered that carbofuran decomposed very slowly in all conditions. The water sample exposed to sunlight showed a faster degradation rate, 0.04 day-1, compared to the water kept in the dark at 0.0186 day-1. The results also demonstrated that photolysis and hydrolysis enhance the degradation of the carbofuran in the water. Both 3-ketocarbofuran and carbofuran–phenol was detected as metabolites with low concentration levels, ranging from 0.03 to 0.23 ppm. These metabolites are considered 'emerging pollutants' as they can be detected in the environment and may post-treat as much as the parent compounds themselves. Hence, this study is trying to fill in the research gap to assess the route and rate of carbofuran and its transformation products.
... In addition, crimes in the rural include cases in which farmers are the offenders, a perspective which has been greatly ignored by mainstream criminology (Collins, 2016). Other examples include illegal criminal enterprises, such as in the meat trade (Smith & McElwee, 2013), environmental wildlife crimes (Caniglia et al., 2010;Fyfe & Reeves, 2011;Loeffler, 2013;Maingi et al., 2012;Wellsmith, 2011) and the illegal killing of predators or 'pests' (Enticott, 2011;Gargiulo et al., 2016). ...
Rural crime and safety is a neglected area of research. This chapter considers 15 reasons why the topic is worth investigating, taking each reason in turn and applying an international lens. The chapter discusses common misconceptions concerning rural crime and safety and in so doing makes a powerful case for far greater attention to the dynamics of crime and safety for those living in the rural/urban continuum and, more importantly, engaging societal and academic action into this process.
... A large dark figure indicates that economic activity is largely underground and undetected. Problems arising from this are numerous: lower awareness, less funding and political will, and reduced deterrent effects from penalties for the crime (Wellsmith 2011). ...
The global wildlife trade dates to antiquity. Recently, its harms to endangered species, animal welfare, and public health have become critical to address. The complexities of the wildlife trade are numerous, including the fact that much of the economic activity is illegal and unobserved. We find that wildlife products are used for sustenance, signaling status, medicine, and entertainment. There is vast heterogeneity in products and species traded. Supply chains extend from biodiverse, low-income regions to richer countries or urban centers. Empirically, we use data findings from the literature to rank countries in terms of intensity of the wildlife trade and identify factors that contribute to wildlife trade. We also identify supply-side and demand-side interventions that can control abuse in wildlife trade. Innovative techniques for observation, econometric analysis, and enforcement are sorely needed to support effective policies to preserve the world's wildlife.
Expected final online publication date for the Annual Review of Resource Economics, Volume 14 is October 2022. Please see http://www.annualreviews.org/page/journal/pubdates for revised estimates.
... Bennett (2011) stated that 'In the short-term the only practical way to reduce demand [for illegally traded wildlife] is through enforcement, both acting as a deterrent and also demonstrating that this is not a socially acceptable norm' (477). Yet, similar to other forms of illicit trade, there is insufficient evidence demonstrating deterrent effects of law enforcement interventions and there remain questions about the overall effectiveness of enforcement as a deterrent in IWT (Moreto & Gau 2017;Wellsmith 2011). ...
The unprecedented global scale of illegal wildlife trade poses threats to humans and ecosystems. Policies calling for increased enforcement to control illicit trade are rooted in the idea that more enforcement will result in greater deterrence, but as yet it is unclear how the illegal wildlife supply chain responds to enforcement actions. To evaluate the impact of formal or informal deterrence, it may be pertinent to consider strategies used by illicit networks to avoid sanction threats. Using an exploratory case study on urban wild meat trade (Republic of Congo), we describe some of the strategies used to avoid detection and consider how the concept of restrictive deterrence can be used to advance our understanding of the broader impacts of sanction threats on offender decision-making in illegal wildlife supply chains.
The book comprises 14 peer-reviewed chapters based on research on crime and security threats in relation to the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals. The book represents a multidisciplinary work that combines different views of safety and security provision in local environments, at the national level, as well as in the international environment. The chapters include findings of a literature review, empirical research on crime and victimization of individuals, case studies, specific forms of crime, institutional and civil society responses to security threats, as well as legal and police and policing perspectives in relation to safety and security provision in modern society.
Wildlife crime, encompassing illegal activities such as poaching, trafficking and habitat destruction, poses a critical threat to global biodiversity and ecological stability. This comprehensive review paper delves into the multifaceted dimensions of wildlife crime, exploring its causes, consequences and the various strategies employed to combat it. Drawing from an extensive body of literature, this paper examines ecological, economic, social and ethical impacts of wildlife crime. It analyzes the role of organized crime networks, the challenges of law enforcement and prosecution and the effectiveness of international conservation initiatives. Furthermore, this review highlights the critical importance of public awareness and community engagement in addressing wildlife crime. By synthesizing diverse perspectives and research findings, this paper offers a holistic understanding of the issue and underscores the urgency of concerted global efforts to protect our planet's invaluable biodiversity from the menace of wildlife crime.
Environmental crimes have become a pressing issue in today's world, with the degradation of ecosystems, pollution, and climate change threatening the very foundation of our planet. These crimes not only harm the environment but also have adverse effects on individuals and communities. Recognizing the need for effective prevention strategies, victimological approaches have gained prominence. Victimology focuses on understanding and addressing the needs of the victims, aiming to prevent victimization and promote justice. This essay explores the importance of legal support in victimological prevention of environmental crimes and highlights the key measures required to achieve this goal.
Wildlife traffickindg of endangered species is an international crime that is increasing in in terms of its significance and position in the global crime hierarchy. This phenomenon is a significant subject of research for both traditional and green criminology. The representatives of green criminology, when discussing the criminal policy in matters related to green crimes, refer to its broad meaning. From this perspective, “green criminal policy” includes: a) the legal and social approach, b) a regulatory system that emphasizes social arrangements, norms and reforms in the production and consumption system; and c) a system of social interactions. Each of these models is presented in the article. In this context, the results of qualitative research on the state of the social control of illegal trade in wild fauna and flora in Poland will also be cited.
Green criminologist Rob White (2007, 2012) suggests that given the potential for environmental harms to extend far beyond the impact on individual victims that are the norm with ‘traditional’ crimes of interpersonal violence and property crime, green crimes should be given importance if not priority within justice systems. This chapter brings together several themes concerning policing, regulation and prosecution of environmental harms. Its focus is on the prosecution of organised environmental crime with a consideration of how varied judicial and regulatory approaches can more effectively address environmental harms. This chapter discusses the potential ineffectiveness of criminal law approaches where wildlife and environmental laws have been designed as administrative, regulatory and conservation management law rather than as ‘pure’ criminal law. This chapter notes the benefits of civil and administrative mechanisms that focus more on repairing harm and changing behaviour. In examining the prosecution of organised environmental crime, this chapter identifies how green criminology’s engagement with legal discourse examines complex issues in criminological enquiry that extend beyond the narrow confines of individualistic crime.
Wildlife markets are hotspots for illegal wildlife trade, with traders operating as a result of weak monitoring and law enforcement. Knowledge of species traded, sources, and routes used for transport is needed to identify illegal wildlife trade markets and intervene to stem trade. We conducted surveys in 13 wildlife markets across Bangladesh every month during January-December 2019 to assess the abundance and diversity of wildlife taxa traded and the factors driving this trade. Passeriformes, Columbiformes, Psittaciformes, Artiodactyla, Carnivora and Testudines were the most traded orders. Wildlife markets were also centres of trade for high-value species, including the tiger Panthera tigris , crocodile Crocodylus porosus and tortoises. In hill markets and peri-urban markets the most commonly sold species originated from nearby forests, whereas urban markets included both native species and exotic species sourced internationally. Market type, road links to the market, the presence of law enforcement agencies, proximity to a port and form of sale (live animals or byproducts) all significantly influenced what is being traded. Trade of mammals, reptiles, high-value wildlife species and threatened species was less common in markets proximal to law enforcement agencies. Markets close to seaports or airports were more likely to sell mammals, threatened species and high-value wildlife. Based on our results, we recommend a set of interventions to help reduce market-based wildlife trade in Bangladesh.
This chapter starts by listing 20 reasons why crime and safety in rural areas is a subject worth examining in its own right. We present reasons from common misconceptions of crime in rural areas to illustrations of how globalization and climate change link to crime and safety in areas on the rural-urban continuum, as well as how all these are associated with rural development and sustainability.
The illicit transnational trades in cultural goods and wildlife, while distinct, share many characteristics. This article identifies and compares the intricacies of controlling trafficking in cultural objects and wildlife from a customs perspective. Findings indicate that in Norwegian customs, the countering of wildlife trafficking benefits from at least two conditions: 1) officers have become more aware of the characteristics and harmful consequences of the trade, and 2) efficient interactions with other stakeholders ensure tangible outcomes in the form of seizures and punishment of offenders. While challenges remain, these factors serve to motivate officers and, in the last decade, have strengthened the control of wildlife trafficking. The countering of illicit trade in cultural objects, however, does not benefit from such circumstances. Findings suggest that the officers’ awareness of, and attitude towards, trafficking of such materials are key factors to consider for evolving the response.
This Problem Analysis is a review of the efficacy and opportunities for using social norm and behaviour change (SNBC) approaches to combat illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and other natural resource-related corruption.
Behavioural science is a rich and expansive field that has received prominent coverage in recent years for the promise it offers as a foundational yet underutilised approach to achieving biodiversity conservation. Extensive literature shows how SNBC initiatives can help combat diverse corruption problems, although for those related to natural resource management the evidence for doing so is sparse.
This report synthesises the available information and suggests the next steps to redress this current lack of evidence. It seeks to:
Understand what SNBC approaches might or might not work in fighting corruption.
Identify entry points for designing SNBC interventions that can effectively reduce corruption related to IWT.
Available here: https://www.traffic.org/publications/reports/behavioural-drivers-of-corruption-facilitating-illegal-wildlife-trade-problem-analysis-and-state-of-the-field/
This Problem Analysis is a review of the efficacy and opportunities for using social norm and behaviour change (SNBC) approaches to combat illegal wildlife trade (IWT) and other natural resource-related corruption. Behavioural science is a rich and expansive field that has received prominent coverage in recent years for the promise it offers as a foundational yet underutilised approach to achieving biodiversity conservation. Extensive literature shows how SNBC initiatives can help combat diverse corruption problems, although for those related to natural resource management the evidence for doing so is sparse. This report synthesises the available information and suggests the next steps to redress this current lack of evidence. It seeks to: Understand what SNBC approaches might or might not work in fighting corruption. Identify entry points for designing SNBC interventions that can effectively reduce corruption related to IWT. This Analysis has been produced in association with the Targeting Natural Resource Corruption (TNRC) project. The TNRC project is working to improve biodiversity outcomes by helping practitioners to address the threats posed by corruption to wildlife, fisheries and forests. TNRC harnesses existing knowledge, generates new evidence, and supports innovative policy and practice for more effective anti-corruption programming. Learn more at tnrcproject.org. This publication is made possible by the generous support of the American people through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID, the United States Government, or individual TNRC consortium members.
The study was aimed to report the damage to local crops by the Indian crested porcupine (Hystrix indica) in the Muzaffarabad District. Indian crested porcupine has a devastating effect on agriculture which is an important source of income and food for the local community. Developing an effective pest control strategy with the help of local government and the Wildlife department could help the farmers to overcome this problem.
Despite legal prohibitions, poaching of wild parrots is widespread in the neo-tropics, with the result that many species are now endangered. Guided by optimal foraging theory, secondary data are used to investigate why some species of Bolivian parrots, but not others, are found in an illegal pet market in Santa Cruz, Bolivia. Species commonly found in the market make more enjoyable pets, are more abundant in the wild and more accessible to humans. They are also mostly found within 50 miles of the city, but some found at greater distances are probably brought to the market by wildlife traders, 'itinerant fences' who travel around buying parrots poached by villagers. It is concluded that op-portunistic villagers are responsible for most parrot poaching in Bolivia and that this should guide solutions to the problem.
Capital punishment has been abolished in all Australian States since the mid 1980s. The United States of America is the only Western democracy that has retained the death penalty. The aim of this bulletin is to analyse and summarise the empirical evidence on the deterrent effect of capital punishment. It provides a survey of the results of 74 research projects published between 1952 and 2003. These projects employed a variety of methodologies, including economic modelling, and covered a range of geographical areas and time periods mainly in the United States. The majority of the studies show that the use of capital punishment did not deter the commission of homicide; this remains the case when studies that used relatively unsophisticated research designs were excluded. The bulletin concludes that three decades of deterrence research since Ehrlich's (1975a) economic model has failed to deliver conclusive evidence on the deterrent effect of capital punishment.
Despite decades of policy experimentation, the ultimate goal of efficient and effective environmental regulation has continued to elude policy-makers and regulatory theorists. The less than satisfactory performance of both government and market approaches to environmental protection has led to the introduction of a broader range of policy mechanisms, such as education, information-based strategies, economic instruments and self-regulation. Yet these various policy instruments are usually treated as alternatives to one another rather than as complementary. Drawing from studies in North America, Europe and Australia, the authors show how the design of complementary combinations of policy instruments, tailored to particular environmental goals and circumstances, will produce more effective and efficient policy outcomes. They also confront the critical problem of how, at a time of fiscal constraint and small government, environmental policy might still be designed in ways that improve outcomes both for the environment and for business.
The market reduction approach is a crime reduction strategy that aims to reduce and disrupt stolen goods markets, in addition to reducing theft levels by making it more risky for thieves to sell stolen property. Initially, the concept has shown promise in England with regard to reducing traditional forms of property-related crime as well as disrupting certain types of stolen goods markets. Additionally, strides have been made using property as a unit of analysis rather than traditional foci of attention when examining crime patterns and designing tactical responses. In line with the 2005 United Nations program of work on transnational and organized crime, this article uses the specific example of the illegal trade of endangered flora and fauna to explore how the market reduction approach can be expanded beyond its current use into the realm of nontraditional types of property crime.
Even by their simple presence, people can discourage crime from happening at specijic times and places. Such direct-contact discouragement can occur when "guardians" keep an eye on potential crime targets (Cohen and Felson, 1979), or when "handlers" do the same for potential offenders (Felson, 1986). Eck (1994) adds a third type of discouragement role: "man- agers" who monitor places. Eck presents the routine activity approach as two triplets, with potential offenders, targets, and places monitored by guard- ians, handlers, and managers, respectively. Clarke (1992) notes the varying degrees of responsibility for discouraging crime. His ideas are adapted to current purposes, listing four steps of crime discouragement. Personal dis- couragement is exerted by family andfriends; assigned discouragement, by those so employed; diffuse discouragement, by those employed but not assigned to that specific task; and general discouragement, by unpaid persons lacking a personal tie or occupational responsibility. The multiplica- tion of these four steps by Eck's triplets gives us 12 types of discouragement against crime. These types help us also to think about other aspects of crime prevention. A case can be made that the offender is not the most important actor for explaining crime. From the perspective of the routine activity approach (Cohen and Felson, 1979; Felson, 1994; see also work on lifestyles by Hindelang et al., 1978), those who interfere with offenders, however inadvertently, play an even more central role in crime and its prevention. The "capable guardian" against crime serves by simple presence to prevent crime, and by absence to make crime more likely. For example, a retired person at home might well discourage daytime burglary of his or her own home or even the home next door. Conversely, someone working away from home during the day contributes by that absence to a greater risk of burglary. Two persons walking down the street might serve as effective
Environmental crimes, noncompliance and risks create significant harm to the health of humans and the natural world. Yet, the field of criminology has historically shown relatively little interest in the topic. The emergence of environmental or green criminology over the past decade marks a shift in this trend, but attempts to define a unique area of study have been extensively criticized. In the following paper, we offer a conceptual framework, called conservation criminology, designed to advance current discussions of green crime via the integration of criminology with natural resource disciplines and risk and decision sciences. Implications of the framework for criminological and general research on environmental crime and risks are discussed.
Previous discussions of green criminology have not defined the meaning of the term `green'. Here we investigate alternative definitions of this term, focusing attention on two contrasting definitions. One definition is aligned with corporate interests and emerged through corporate redefinitions of green environmentalism; we provide examples of the `green' criminology that resulted. We then offer a contrasting environmental justice definition. This alternative concept highlights common elements in social movements concerned with environmental justice while emphasizing these movements' commitment to simultaneously incorporating race, class and gender-oriented issues into green criminology.
In this paper we present a "routine activity approach" for analyzing crime rate trends and cycles. Rather than emphasizing the characteristics of offenders, with this approach we concentrate upon the circumstances in which they carry out predatory criminal acts. Most criminal acts require convergence in space and time of likely offenders, suitable targets and the absence of capable guardians against crime. Human ecological theory facilitates an investigation into the way in which social structure produces this convergence, hence allowing illegal activities to feed upon the legal activities of everyday life. In particular, we hypothesize that the dispersion of activities away from households and families increases the opportunity for crime and thus generates higher crime rates. A variety of data is presented in support of the hypothesis, which helps explain crime rate trends in the United States 1947-1974 as a byproduct of changes in such variables as labor force participation and single-adult households.
Corruption is known to limit economic development and fuel poverty, but it may also hinder conservation efforts and contribute to biodiversity loss. Here we explore some of the ways that corruption may affect conservation. We argue that corruption has potentially significant implications that should be highlighted and tackled directly. Unfortunately, research into the topic lags behind that in other sectors and empirical studies are scarce and underdeveloped. The result is that, whilst some academics and practitioners cite corruption as a threat to biodiversity and call for efforts to increase transparency and accountability, we currently know little regarding the nature and magnitude of any effects it may have. Whilst precautionary measures can be built into conservation projects to pre-empt corruption, further research would help to shed light on this issue and aid the development of appropriate responses.
The success of conserving biological resources in any Biosphere Reserve or protected area depends on the extent of support and positive attitudes and perceptions of local people have towards such establishments. Ignoring the dependence of the local people for their subsistence needs on resources of such areas leads to conflicts between protected area managers and the local inhabitants. Crop yield losses and livestock depredation were serious problems observed in most buffer zone villages of Nanda Devi Biosphere Reserve. In the present study 10 villages situated in the buffer zone of Nanada Devi Biosphere Reserve (1612 km2 area) in Chamoli district of Uttaranchal, India were studied during 1996-97 using a questionnaire survey of each household (419 = households; 2253 = total population in 1991; 273 ha = cultivated area). Estimates of crop yield losses were made using paired plots technique in four representative villages for each crop species. The magnitude of crop yield losses varied significantly with the distance of agricultural field from forest boundary. The total crop yield losses were high for wheat and potato in all the villages. The spatial distribution of total crop yield losses in any village indicated that they were highest in the area near to forest and least in the area near to village for all crops. Losses from areas near to forest contributed to more than 50% of total losses for each crop in all villages. However, in Lata, Peng and Tolma villages, the losses are high for kidney bean and chemmi (local variety of kidney bean) which varied between 18.5% to 30% of total losses in those villages. Potato alone represents 43.6% of total crop yield loss due to wildlife in Dronagiri village in monetary terms. Among the crops, the monetary value of yield losses are least for amaranth and highest for kidney bean. The projected total value of crop yield losses due to wildlife damage for buffer zone villages located in Garhwal Himalaya is about Rs. 538,620 (US 29,272) in the study villages. Due to existing conservation policies and laxity in implementation of preventive measures, the problems for local inhabitants are increasing. Potential solutions discussed emphasize the need to undertake suitable and appropriate protective measures to minimize the crop losses. Change in cropping and crop composition, particularly cultivation of medicinal plants (high value low volume crops), were also suggested. Besides, fair and quick disbursement of compensation for crop loss and livestock killing need to be adopted. Local people of the buffer zone area already have a negative attitude towards park/reserve establishment due to socio-political changes inducing major economic losses and this attitude may lead to clashes and confrontations if proper ameliorative measures are not taken immediately.
Most of the world's biodiversity occurs within developing countries that require donor support to build their conservation capacity. Unfortunately, some of these countries experience high levels of political corruption, which may limit the success of conservation projects by reducing effective funding levels and distorting priorities. We investigated whether changes in three well surveyed and widespread components of biodiversity were associated with national governance scores and other socio-economic measures. Here we show that governance scores were correlated with changes in total forest cover, but not with changes in natural forest cover. We found strong associations between governance scores and changes in the numbers of African elephants and black rhinoceroses, and these socio-economic factors explained observed patterns better than any others. Finally, we show that countries rich in species and identified as containing priority areas for conservation have lower governance scores than other nations. These results stress the need for conservationists to develop and implement policies that reduce the effects of political corruption and, in this regard, we question the universal applicability of an influential approach to conservation that seeks to ban international trade in endangered species.
Certainty and severity of punishment for crime are indexed for the states of the U.S., and are related to crime rates. Strong and consistent negative associations are observed between certainty of punishment and crime rates, while a negative association is observed between severity of punishment and crime rates only for homicide. Variations in crime rates by different degrees of certainty and severity of punishment are examined. The observed patterns are discussed and possible explanations are offered. It is concluded that sociologists must take the idea of deterrence seriously and seek to clarify the relationship between various characteristics of reaction to deviance and rates of deviance.
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This article studies law in action as it relates to organized lobster poaching in Canada. It examines the distinct pattern of relationships that constitutes poaching as a business enterprise and analyzes how "living law" operates as an ironic facilitative form for that which it tries to control. We argue that business poachers evade, avoid, and neutralize fishery laws and regulations by creatively using and manipulating the legal boundaries and organizational resources at their disposal. In effect, the law is an enabling structure for blue water illegality. We analyze business poaching activities as a type of workplace crime, and we account for regulatory failure in the lobster fishery.
Certainty and severity of punishment for crime are indexed for the states of the U.S., and are related to crime rates. Strong and consistent negative associations are observed between certainty of punishment and crime rates, while a negative association is observed between severity of punishment and crime rates only for homicide. Variations in crime rates by different degrees of certainty and severity of punishment are examined. The observed patterns are discussed and possible explanations are offered. It is concluded that sociologists must take the idea of deterrence seriously and seek to clarify the relationship between various characteristics of reaction to deviance and rates of deviance.
This article provides an exploration of how the criminological imagination can provide particular insights into the nature of environmental issues. To illustrate the contribution of criminology to such discussions, the article provides a case study of the social, political and economic dynamics surrounding the provision of drinking water. The article demonstrates the complexities in determining the character, extent and impact of environmental harm. It furthermore identifies diverse and at times competing approaches to environmental regulation and to the prevention of environmental harm.
Clarke's classification of situational crime prevention tech- niques is designed to provide a conceptual analysis of situational strategies, and to offer practical guidance on their use in reducing criminal opportunities. It has developed in parallel with a long program of empirical research, conducted by many researchers, on the situ- ational determinants and the prevention of a wide variety of crimes. For this reason the classification has been subject to constant revision and updating, of which Clarke's (1997) version, which lists 16 such techniques, is the latest. Recently, Wortley (2001) has suggested the need to augment the existing classification, which deals with the analysis of situational opportunities, with a complementary analysis of situational precipitators. These are factors within the crime setting it- self that may prompt, provoke, pressure, or permit an individual to of- fend. The present chapter examines the assumptions underlying the development of situational crime prevention, and offers some views about the theoretical and practical significance of Wortley's suggested additions and revisions. It concludes by proposing a revised classifica-
This article examines the question of whether criminal law can protect the environment by functioning as a means of controlling environmentally hazardous activities. The concept of general prevention today dominates in the context of criminalization, and has been particularly emphasized in relation to criminalizations whose objective is environmental protection. The article discusses the conditions for general prevention in the context of environmental criminal law. These conditions include the regulatory acumen of those applying the law, the likelihood of being sanctioned for offences and the severity of sanctions imposed. Further, the article identifies problems faced by the agencies whose task it is to apply environmental criminal law. The most conspicuous of these problems is the dual role of the supervisory which function both as advisers and enforcers in relation to the operations that they monitor. Police and prosecutors are primarily faced with problems of a legal-technical nature, such as difficulties proving offences have been committed and investigating the question of responsibility, and problems of competency. These competency issues include difficulties applying the regulatory framework of the criminal law and a lack of expertise in the area of natural science. Finally, explanations are sought for the problems experienced in applying environmental criminal law. The agencies, article concludes that the fundamental causes of these problems lie in the way the environmental crime legislation is based on the weighing of competing interests against one another, and the unclear role of the supervisory authorities that constitute the first link in the judicial chain. This lack of clarity gives rise to an uneven application of the legislation and causes problems for those applying the law at higher levels within the justice system.
This article considers a variety of arguments about why theory and research on animal abuse should be developed by criminologists. These include, with more or less satisfaction, the status of animal abuse as (1) a signifier of actual or potential interhuman conflict, (2) an existing object of criminal law, (3) an item in the utilitarian calculus on the avoidance of pain and suffering, (4) a violation of rights, and (5) one of several oppressions identified by feminism as an interconnected whole. The article concludes that animal abuse is an important object of study for criminology not only sui generis but also because its presence may indicate or predict situations of interhuman violence.
The Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) secured an agreement in 1989 among its member states to
ban the international trade in ivory. This disruption of the international ivory market was intended to reverse a sharp decline
in the African elephant population, which resulted from widespread poaching for ivory in the previous decade. The continent's
overall population of elephants increased after the ban, but an analysis of elephant population data from 1979 to 2007 found
that some of the 37 countries in Africa with elephants continued to lose substantial numbers of them. This pattern is largely
explained by the presence of unregulated domestic ivory markets in and near countries with declines in elephant populations.
We develop a model of hunting, farming and defensive action to study the environmental and economic consequences of introducing a program to compensate peasants of a small economy for the damage caused by wildlife. We show that the widespread belief that compensation induces wildlife conservation may be erroneous. Compensation can lower the wildlife stock, and may result in a net welfare loss for local people.
In 1973 the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES) was implemented in response to growing concerns about the impacts international trade in endangered species was having on a wide range of species. The objective of CITES is to ensure that species threatened with extinction do not become extinct as a result of trade and that any species which are not now threatened with extinction do not become so threatened as a result of trade. CITES attempts to achieve these objectives through the use a system of listing species according to their vulnerability to the trade. CITES makes provision for three different categories of vulnerability; the species in these categories are listed on appendices. The degree of regulation over trade depends on which Appendix species are listed. This project aims to evaluate the effectiveness of CITES and develop strategies to improve effectiveness. The research asks the fundamental question: in what ways can the effectiveness of CITES be improved? In order to answer this question the following sub-questions are asked. What are the causes of trade in endangered species? How does CITES address trade? What are the key weaknesses which can be manipulated to produce significant events or a chain of significant events (pressure points)? How can these be addressed? CITES is considered by many to be one of the most effective wildlife protection treaties. Its strengths are the cooperative enforcement provisions and the sophisticated administration. However there is absolutely no reason to be complacent; trade still threatens many species with extinction. The effectiveness of CITES in addressing some of these threats can be improved.
There is growing concern that the traditional ¿protectionist¿ approach to conservation is expensive and insufficient to deliver the desired environmental outcomes. ¿Supply side¿ policies to conserve endangered species have drawn support. By generating supplies from captive-bred animals, wildlife commodity prices are expected to fall, thereby lowering the incentive to poach species in the wild. Supply side policies, however, often neglect the institutional framework within which the wildlife trade takes place, and ignore the potential strategic responses of economic agents. Adopting a model that captures imperfect competition between traders and farmers, we analyze the effect of supply side policies and conclude that under some circumstances these policies may contribute to further devastation of wild stocks. We derive conditions under which captive breeding contributes to conservation, and discuss implications for policy makers.
Book description: This volume provides the first comprehensive and comparative international overview of effective approaches to 'designing out' crime from products and services. Prominent criminologists and scholars of design analyse the lessons of a wide range of successful design-against-crime initiatives in Europe, North America, Australia and elsewhere.
Chapter topics include: government's role in modifying criminogenic products; the role of the corporate sector in preventing crime; promoting new design-against-crime programmes; the fundamentals of crime-proofing design; designing out crime from the UK vehicle licensing system; and the security coding of electronic products.
Environmental criminal law in England and Wales is dominated by strict liability offences with prosecutions generally undertaken by the Environment Agency in front of local lay magistrates. Legal convention and the nature of the offences give considerable leeway to defence lawyers to construct mitigation arguments designed to extract sympathy from the courts where guilty pleas are entered. A recent study of environmental cases reveals the range of arguments considered by lawyers most likely to influence magistrates. These include blaming misfortune or third parties, suggesting unjustified restraint on trade, and disputing the environmental significance and consequences of their clients' actions. Mitigation arguments are an inherent element of the adversarial process, but affect the social construction of environmental crime and need to be seen in the light of current concern over low sentencing practice. It is arguable that the type of aggressive mitigation seen in practice undermines the efficiency of adjudication by a non-specialised court, and strengthens the case for reconsidering the most appropriate forum for dealing with these types of cases.
Two recent developments related to the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species (CITES, 1973) which occurred during the month of June 1997, have major implications for the progress of both International and EC environmental law on the subject of international trade in endangered species. They are first, the decision to move the African elephant from its current listing in Appendix I to Appendix II at the latest (tenth) biennial Conference of Parties in Harare, Zimbabwe on 19 June 1997 and secondly, new EC legislation in the form of a new Council Regulation ((EC) 338/97) which entered into force 1 June 1997 on the protection of species of wild fauna and flora by regulating trade therein, implementing CITES throughout the European single market. This article considers the implications of these recent developments on the international and EC fronts. It reaches the conclusion that despite the apparent relaxation of controls over trade in endangered species both in the case of the African elephant and the new CITES legal regime in the EC, an argument can be made to the effect that these controls are now better focused and therefore more likely to achieve the goal of sustainable development. As always however much depends on the effective implementation of these new regimes in order to achieve the balance between progressive human socio-economic development and the conservation of natural wildlife for the benefit of later generations.
Spending Review London: The Stationery Office. rWildlife Crime Melanie Wellsmith DRAFT PLEASE DO NOT QUOTE OR CIRCULATE WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR 27 The deterrent effect of capital punishment; A review of the research evidence
- Chancellor
Chancellor of the Exchequer (2010). Spending Review 2010. London: The Stationery Office. rWildlife Crime Melanie Wellsmith DRAFT PLEASE DO NOT QUOTE OR CIRCULATE WITHOUT PERMISSION OF THE AUTHOR 27 Chan, J. and Oxley, D. (2004). The deterrent effect of capital punishment; A review of the research evidence. Crime and Justice Bulletin. Sydney: New South Wales Bureau of Crime Statistics and Research
Smart Regulation; Designing environmental policy Oxford: Clarendon Press Cited in: R. White (2003) Environmental Issues and the Criminological Imagination
- N Gunningham
- P Grabosky
Gunningham, N. and Grabosky, P. (1998). Smart Regulation; Designing environmental policy. Oxford: Clarendon Press. Cited in: R. White (2003) Environmental Issues and the Criminological Imagination. Theoretical Criminology, 7(4), 483-506
Environmental Crime; A reader
- R White
White, R. (Ed.). (2009). Environmental Crime; A reader. Cullompton: Willan.
The Thin Green Line; The challenges of policing wildlife crime in Scotland
- N Fyfe
- A Reeves
Fyfe, N., & Reeves, A. (2008). The Thin Green Line; The challenges of policing wildlife crime in Scotland. Stockholm, Sweden: Presentation to the Stockholm Criminology Symposium.
First Choice or Fall Back; An examination of issues relating to Appendix III of CITES to marine species UK's Wildlife Crime Unit endangered
- A Willock
- M Burgener
- A Sancho
Willock, A., Burgener, M., & Sancho, A. (2004). First Choice or Fall Back; An examination of issues relating to Appendix III of CITES to marine species. Cambridge: Traffic International. World Wildlife Fund (WWF) (2010). UK's Wildlife Crime Unit endangered [online] available at http:// beta.955wwf.org.uk/wwf_articles.cfm?unewsid=4261 (accessed 29 October 2010).
Issues in Green Criminology Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation Combatting international environmental crime
- P Beirne
- South
Beirne, P., & South, N. (Eds.). (2007). Issues in Green Criminology. Cullompton: Willan. Braithwaite, J. (2002). Restorative Justice and Responsive Regulation. New York: Oxford University Press. Brack, D. (2002). Combatting international environmental crime. Global Environmental Change, 12, 142-7.