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Policy and Built Environment Changes in Bogota and their Importance in Health Promotion
Abstract
There is an increasing interest in establishing the influence of urban environments on health. The importance of changes to environmental policy in order to promote physical activity has been emphasized during recent years. Bogotá, the capital of Columbia, is recognized as a Latin American leader in its creation of a more activity friendly environment. The city has undergone a number of urban and social changes which have resulted in a positive effect on the recovery of public spaces, access to recreational facilities, and promotion of non-motorized and public transportation options. These changes may have enhanced perceptions of quality of life and facilitated increased physical activity. The experience of Bogotá could be used as a potential example for leaders of other cities to encourage similar programs.
... The Cicloruta and Transmilenio systems are the infrastructural complement to the city's commitment to encourage NMT and public transport usage by its inhabitants. The Cicloruta system consists of roughly 300km of bicycle paths though the city, connecting people to employment, education and recreational destinations (Cervero et al., 2009;Parra et al., 2007). The Transmilenio system comprises a network of buses with dedicated lanes to ensure rapid movement through the city even during peak traffic times. ...
... The infrastructural transitions have been mirrored by social initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity and participation in public spaces within the city (Parra et al., 2007). The Ciclovía initiative, which started in 1974 as a protest against shrinking recreational areas and pollution in the city, has developed into a weekly event where up to 117km of roadways are closed to motorised traffic and function as public spaces, encouraging cyclists and communities to use and interact in the temporary public space network (Parra et al., 2007). ...
... The infrastructural transitions have been mirrored by social initiatives aimed at increasing physical activity and participation in public spaces within the city (Parra et al., 2007). The Ciclovía initiative, which started in 1974 as a protest against shrinking recreational areas and pollution in the city, has developed into a weekly event where up to 117km of roadways are closed to motorised traffic and function as public spaces, encouraging cyclists and communities to use and interact in the temporary public space network (Parra et al., 2007). ...
Mobility in the Gauteng City-Region has been written in a remarkable moment in the history of transport development in Gauteng. On the one hand the region appears to be in a new ‘golden era’ of transit infrastructure design and investment, as well as long-term planning for ever-growing commuter transport needs.
On the other hand, the transport difficulties faced by the Gauteng City-Region’s (GCR) fast-growing population, as well as the many financial, spatial, social, economic and environmental challenges that flow from the region-wide architecture of this population’s daily commuting, appear to be growing ever more acute. It is, therefore, important to delineate the existing flows of traffic across the GCR; to understand the challenges of transport efficiency, access and affordability; and to gauge the impact of key transport interventions like the Gautrain Rapid Rail Link, the Gauteng Freeway Improvement Programme and associated e-tolling, and municipal Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) infrastructure.
The report is structured as follows: a summary of recent transport infrastructure projects and key transport challenges are described in Chapter 1 written by Graeme Gotz and Chris Wray. The second and third chapters, by Prof Christo Venter and Willem Badenhorst, provide an in depth analysis of the 2011 Quality of Life survey transport questions, including the generation of a Quality of Transport Index. In Chapter 4, GCRO researcher Guy Trangoš provides a multi-scalar analysis of the public space design around four existing Gautrain stations – valuable research to be considered by authorities should the proposed extensions to the Gautrain go ahead. An often ignored but, from a sustainability perspective, an increasingly important aspect of transport is non-motorised transport (NMT). The report concludes with two NMT chapters by GCRO researcher Christina Culwick, exploring the state of NMT in the GCR and portraying the challenges and potential opportunities for the future of NMT in the city-region.
It is not within the scope of a report such as this to review every strategic intervention, nor critically assess every challenge. However, a wide-ranging analysis of the current ‘state of mobility’ in the GCR, and the impact of key infrastructures – or the consequences of their absence – is warranted. Within the frame of the enormous scale of transport planning and infrastructure development underway, as well as the GCR’s many deep and enduring transport challenges, it is hoped that this report will make a contribution to understanding past and current trends, the impact of and (missed) opportunities in key infrastructure investments, and some of the key current priorities that need more attention in this new ‘golden age’ of transport planning.
... 7,8 Bogotá has been recognized for the implementation of policies and built environment changes that have increased access to recreational programs, as well as for promoting public transportation and active commuting. 4,9 Two of the widely praised approaches the city has implemented are the Ciclovia program and the network of bicycle paths, called Cicloruta. 4 Both initiatives have strong potential to increase PA levels in Bogotá. ...
... 4,9 Two of the widely praised approaches the city has implemented are the Ciclovia program and the network of bicycle paths, called Cicloruta. 4 Both initiatives have strong potential to increase PA levels in Bogotá. 10,11 THE CICLOVIA AND CICLORUTA PROGRAMS The Ciclovia program is a community-based program in which streets are temporarily closed to motorized vehicles to allow exclusive access for pedestrians, cyclists, skaters, and others for active recreation. ...
... The paths connect to public transportation and provide access to many destinations in the city. 4 The exponential growth of Ciclovias around the world, 14 especially in the Americas, 10 and the strong evidence of Cicloruta's international impact 15---17 should be acknowledged. A systematic review conducted in 2008 found 57 Ciclovia programs in the Americas, 38 of which were active and regular, and 9 of which were in the United States. ...
Objectives:
We compared participants from the Ciclovia (streets temporarily closed to motorized vehicles and open for pedestrians) and Cicloruta (bicycle paths) programs in Bogotá, Colombia, to assess associations of program participation with physical activity, safety, social capital, and equity.
Methods:
We conducted 2 cross-sectional studies in October 2009 with intercept surveys: one among 1000 Ciclovia participants and the other among 1000 Cicloruta participants.
Results:
Most Ciclovia participants met the physical activity recommendation in leisure time (59.5%), and most Cicloruta participants met it by cycling for transportation (70.5%). Ciclovia participants reported a higher perception of safety (51.2% regarding traffic and 42.4% about crime) and social capital (odds ratio = 2.0; 95% confidence interval = 1.4, 2.8) than did Cicloruta users. Most Cicloruta users reported living in low socioeconomic status categories (53.1%), had lower educational attainment (27%), and did not own cars (82.9%). Most Ciclovia participants reported living in middle socioeconomic status categories (64%), had low-to-middle educational attainment (51.1%), and did not own cars (66.1%).
Conclusions:
The Ciclovia and Cicloruta programs have the potential to equitably promote physical activity and provide a mobility alternative in complex urban settings such as Bogotá.
... Perhaps, the degree of danger from both crime and tra c in Latin American cities accounts for these observations [5,6]. These relationships may be especially challenging to tease out in Latin America where crime, tra c, and access to public transport vary greatly by neighborhood and where lower income residents must engage in active transport regardless of safety issues because they have no other choice [42,43]. As in previous studies we found that multiple aspects of the built environment are associated with walking for transport or leisure [10,19,37,40]. ...
... These ndings are not surprising given that walking is the most common form of leisure-time PA among adults in all countries, and in most Latin American cities walking is also an essential part of urban mobility [41]. Our results support thoughtful integration of efforts to improve conditions for walking with major public transit development such as Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT) [42,43]. In Latin America, BRT systems have been widely implemented as a cost-effective solution for urban mobility [44], but they also have the potential to stimulate the use of active modes of transport and reduce private car use, thus promoting PA [45]. ...
Background: Characteristics of the neighborhood built environment are associated with physical activity (PA). However, few studies with representative samples have examined environmental correlates of domain-specific PA in Latin America. We examined the associations of the perceived neighborhood built environment with domain-specific PA in a large sample of adults from eight Latin American countries.
Methods: This study examined data from 8185 adults (aged 18–65 years) from eight Latin American countries. The Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Survey - Abbreviated (NEWS-A) scale was used to assess perceptions of land use mix–diversity, land use mix-access, street connectivity, walking/cycling facilities, aesthetics, safety from traffic, and safety from crime. Perceived proximity from home to public open spaces (metropolitan parks, playgrounds, public squares) and to shopping centers was also assessed. Transport-related and leisure-time PA were assessed using the long form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Both logistic and linear regression models were estimated on pooled data.
Results: Perceptions of higher land use mix-access (OR: 1.40; 95% CI: 1.22,1.61), the existence of many alternative routes in the neighbourhood (1.12; 1.04,1.20), slow speed of traffic (1.19; 1.03,1.35) and few drivers exceeding the speed limits (1.09; 1.03,1.15) were associated with greater odds of reporting at least 10 min/week of transport-related PA. Perceptions of higher levels of land use mix-diversity, better aesthetics and greater safety from crime, the presence of crosswalks and pedestrian signals, and greater proximity of shopping centers were associated with more min/week of transport-related PA. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity (1.12; 1.05,1.20), higher land use mix-access (1.27; 1.13,1.43), more walking/cycling facilities (1.18; 1.09,1.28), and better aesthetics (1.10; 1.02,1.18) were associated with greater odds of engaging in at least 10 min/week of leisure-time PA versus none. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity were associated with more min/week of leisure PA.
Conclusions: Different perceived neighborhood built environment characteristics were associated with domain-specific PA among adults from Latin America countries. Interventions designed to modify perceptions of the neighbourhood built environment might influence initiation or maintenance of domain-specific PA.
Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT02226627. Retrospectively registered on August 27, 2014.
... Childhood obesity is a national epidemic. Nearly 1 in 3 children (ages [2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19] in the United States is overweight or obese, putting them at risk for serious health problems. As parents, caregivers, brothers and sisters, leaders in schools, communities and healthcare, we can work together to create a nation where the healthy choice is the easy choice. ...
... External influences such as marketing by corporations, and expenses of healthy food options create an irregular pattern of unhealthy diet. Additionally, the importance of diet diminishes which correlates to lower physical activity and produces a general idea that nutrition and exercise are not as imperative as lauded to be [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12][13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20]. ...
Obesity is a major threat to children’s health today. The prevalence of obesity has been steadily increasing over the 35 years and the number of obese children has nearly tripled. Obesity means having too much body fat. It is different from being overweight, which means increase too much weight. The process of obesity development is not fully understood, and it is believed to be, a disorder with multiple causes. Family, socio-cultural environmental lifestyle preferences, and cultural environment play pivotal roles in the rising prevalence of obesity worldwide. On the other hand, there are supporting evidence that excessive sugar intake by soft drink, increased portion size, and steady decline in physical activity have been playing major roles in the rising rates of obesity all around the world. Childhood obesity can profoundly affect children’s physical health, social, and emotional well-being, and self-esteem. It is associated with poor academic performance and a lower quality of life experienced by the child. Many co-morbid conditions like metabolic, cardiovascular, orthopedic, neurological, hepatic, pulmonary, and renal disorders are also
... Bogotá, the Colombian capital, has gained a special recognition in the last decade as a leader in public transportation systems and in the promotion of physical activity [9]. Some of the reasons of this recognition is that Bogota has implemented a set of programs such as Ciclorutas and Ciclovias that have been creating changes at the environmental and policy levels to promote physical activity [10]. The Ciclorutas Project [11] is a network of more than 300 km of bicycle paths that was conceived by the government in 1998-2001. ...
... This fact effectively increases the range of the bike and reduces the user´s fatigue barriers, particularly in hilly terrain. These benefits make electric bikes more attractive to casual riders, who might otherwise avoid the traditional bicycle options [10]. ...
This work describes a strategy used in a trip energy expenditure estimation activity by the Presebike system. Presebike is an application prototype for the management of a sharing assisted bicycle system, that was based on a mobile application platform, because this fact facilitates that the users can access the system from its smartphone, tablet or any personal device, reducing the need of any others additional device to pick up a bike. The Presebike system was designed to be able to access bicycles information on a cloud server to develop the following activities: requesting and selecting a system bicycle to get a ride, reserving it for a future use, and finally registering its returned back, once the desired ride was completed.In Presebike, when a user is requesting a bicycle, he will be asked to indicate which route is expected to be covered. The route can be specified making some clicks on a Google Map API screen, selecting the points of origin and the route destination. From these points the system will develop an estimation of the distance that the user will travel and what is the electric power consumption that the user will incur in this specific journey, in order to identify which bicycles have enough electric charge to be able to assist him in the pedaling tasks during the whole route.
... In the period of 1998-2000 the 'Cicloruta' rapidly expanded to 300km. The following city administrations also invested in the constructions of more Ciclorutas but to a less extent (Parra et al. 2017). The objective behind the construction of the 'Ciclorutas' was to improve the mobility of the city by prompting an alternative means of transportation that would contribute to reduce the number of cars on the main roads and the amount of traffic jams, as well as reduce air pollution (Parra et al. 2017). ...
... The following city administrations also invested in the constructions of more Ciclorutas but to a less extent (Parra et al. 2017). The objective behind the construction of the 'Ciclorutas' was to improve the mobility of the city by prompting an alternative means of transportation that would contribute to reduce the number of cars on the main roads and the amount of traffic jams, as well as reduce air pollution (Parra et al. 2017). To a certain extent, the initiative has contributed to meeting these objectives and has been successful in increasing the use of the bicycle for transportation purposes (Ramirez-Velez et al. 2016). ...
The public network of bicycle lanes in Bogota Colombia, known as ‘Cicloruta’, is the largest in Latin America. Despite its success, disparities in regards to the distribution of routes by socioeconomic status (SES) of neighborhoods have not been examined. This exploratory analysis sought to assess the distribution and distance to the city network of bicycle lanes by neighborhood SES in urban blocks located in flat terrains. We conducted a spatial ecological analysis using secondary data obtained through geographic information systems from official databases. We calculated the shortest route from the centroid of each urban neighborhood block to the closest access point of the bicycle lane network. The median distance to the bicycle lane network from urban block centroids was 444m. This median distance ranged from 1,062m for the most disadvantaged areas to 315m for the wealthiest, showing a clear difference in the spatial distribution. Results show wide variation in the distribution of bicycle lanes by SES, but particularly for the most disadvantaged areas. Improving the conditions for cycling in a more equitable manner may involve expanding the network of bicycle lanes for populations living in less advantaged areas.
... Both cities have been internationally recognized for that reason and currently rank high in environmental perform- ance [24]. Bogotá's transformations include the recovery of public space, improvement of public transportation, and promotion of non-motorized transport (including the construction of bicycle paths, and an increase in green areas per inhabitant) [4, 25]. Bogotá is the capital city of Colombia. ...
... Yet despite these problems, the community continued closing and using the streets. From 1995 to 2003, a succession of mayors promoted new cultural practices, improved infra- structure [4, 25, 36], and strengthened the Ciclovía, and in 1996, program management was reassigned to the District Institute of Recreation and Sports [35]. This decision was accompanied by a new approach to the program, one aimed at recreation, the promotion of well-being, PA, and the provision of healthy options for leisure time. ...
The growing evidence of the influence of urban environment on physical activity (PA) underscore the need for novel policy solutions to address the inequality, lack of space, and limited PA resources in rapidly growing Latin American cities. This study aims to better understand the PA policy process by conducting two case studies of Bogotá's Ciclovía and Curitiba's CuritibAtiva. Literature review of peer- and non-peer-reviewed documents and semi-structured interviews with stakeholders was conducted. In the cases of Ciclovía and CuritibAtiva, most policies conducive to program development and sustainability were developed outside the health sector in sports and recreation, urban planning, environment, and transportation. Both programs were developed by governments as initiatives to overcome inequalities and provide quality of life. In both programs, multisectoral policies mainly from recreation and urban planning created a window of opportunity for the development and sustainability of the programs and environments supportive of PA.
... These reforms and other social factors have enabled Bogotá to undertake important social and physical urban changes that have started to be implemented since 1990. 27 Changes intended to promote urban mobility include the development of a mass transit system using buses that operate in exclusive lanes (TransMilenio), a network of bike-paths throughout the city (Ciclorutas), and strategies to restrict public and private car use such as "Car free day" and other car use restriction policies. Complementing TransMilenio, the city has begun an extensive project involving the creation of a network of approximately 316 km of Ciclorutas ( Figure 1). ...
... During 2004 to 2007, at least 74,108 new motorcycles were registered in the city; 31 in 1995, the city had 82.6 cars per 1000 inhabitants, a rate that increased to 84.7 in 2005. 27 Current trends of increasing number of motorcycles and motor vehicles may produce a negative influence on the likelihood of bicycle use . ...
The health benefits of physical activity are well documented in scientific literature. Bicycling for transportation is a modality of physical activity that people can incorporate easily into their daily lives.
A qualitative study using 11 semi-structured individual interviews and 5 focus groups was conducted among 31 male and 13 female adult residents of Bogotá, Colombia in 2006, to explore barriers and facilitators of bicycle use for transportation purposes. People were selected based on socioeconomic status, age, and gender. Thematic analysis complemented with thematic network analysis was used to analyze the data.
Six main themes emerged from the study: 1) general acknowledgment of individual and collective benefits of bicycle use, 2) built environment conditions were linked with bicycle use, 3) some social factors affect bicycling negatively, 4) people perceived conflicts over public space related to the use of bike-paths, 5) general negative public perception of bicyclists, and 6) gender differences influence patterns of bicycle use.
The findings from this qualitative study show that various social and physical barriers must be addressed to increase bicycle use as a means of transportation in Bogotá.
... Some Latin American countries have implemented programs to positively influence physical activity. Bus Rapid Transit (BRT) systems, car use restriction measures, "Ciclovía" programs, and the construction of cycle paths [32,[38][39][40]. For example, BRT systems have been widely implemented as a cost-effective solution for urban mobility [41], but they also can stimulate the use of active modes of transport and reduce private car use, thus promoting physical activity [42]. ...
This study aimed to examine the associations between active transportation and public transport and the objectively measured meeting of moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) and steps per day guidelines in adults by sex from eight Latin American countries. As part of the Latin American Study of Nutrition and Health (ELANS), data were collected from 2524 participants aged 18–65 years. MVPA and steps per day were evaluated using Actigraph GT3X accelerometers. The mode of transportation, its frequency and duration were collected using a self-reported questionnaire. The average time dedicated to active transportation was 12.8 min/day in men (IQR: 2.8–30.0) and 12.9 min/day in women (IQR: 4.3–25.7). A logistic regression analysis was conducted, showing that active transportation (≥10 min) was associated with higher odds of meeting MVPA guidelines (men: OR: 2.01; 95%CI: 1.58–2.54; women: OR: 1.57; 95%CI: 1.25–1.96). These results show a greater association when considering active transportation plus public transport (men: OR: 2.98; 95%CI: 2.31–3.91; women: OR: 1.82; 95%CI: 1.45–2.29). Active transportation plus public transport was positively associated with meeting steps per day guidelines only in men (OR: 1.55; 95%CI: 1.15–2.10). This study supports the suggestion that active transportation plus public transport is significantly associated with meeting the MVPA and daily steps recommendations.
... La AF varía en función de la edad y el sexo, entre otras variables sociodemográficas, así como factores biológicos, que están asociados con la cantidad y los tipos de AF en jóvenes y adultos. (35) Según Ajzen, citado por Sallis, et al. (31) "La Teoría del Comportamiento Planeado también tiene bases psicológicas. Se diferencia de la anterior en que no solo tiene en cuenta las creencias personales, sino también las influencias de las percepciones de otros sobre el comportamiento; esta teoría a veces se aplica en intervenciones de comunicación masiva, dirigidas a modificar actitudes". ...
Introducción:
Diversos estudios a través del tiempo han demostrado los potenciales beneficios de la práctica de la Actividad Física (AF); sin embargo, también se han identificado algunos de sus moduladores conocidos como determinantes que modifican su práctica.
Objetivo:
Recopilar y resumir la información disponible sobre la importancia de la actividad física, su definición, determinantes y métodos de evaluación en adultos, así como establecer el desarrollo de las recomendaciones a lo largo del tiempo.
Material y Métodos:
Se realizó una búsqueda en bases de datos entre el período comprendido entre 1996 y 2019, con términos de búsqueda en inglés y español de actividad física, recomendaciones, determinantes. Se incluyeron artículos relacionados con adultos y se excluyeron aquellos sobre niños y adolescentes.
Desarrollo:
Las recomendaciones han evolucionado desde 1978 del Colegio Americano de Medicina Deportiva (ACSM) con unas especificaciones muy generales como prácticas AF de 3 a 5 días por semana con una intensidad de 60 % al 90 % de la Frecuencia Cardíaca de Reserva (FCR) hasta las más recientes recomendaciones de 2018 realizadas por el Centro para el Control y la Prevención de Enfermedades (CDC). Dentro de los métodos de evaluación se encuentra criterio, objetivos y subjetivos.
Conclusiones:
La práctica regular de AF es una estrategia eficiente para disminuir los factores de riesgo asociados con Enfermedades No Transmisibles (ENT). Asimismo, se identifican métodos criterio, objetivos y subjetivos para su evaluación; las recomendaciones han evolucionado desde 1978 hasta 2018, y establecen que los adultos deberán practicar entre 150 a 300 minutos/semana de AF.
... La AF varía en función de la edad y el sexo, entre otras variables sociodemográficas, así como factores biológicos, que están asociados con la cantidad y los tipos de AF en jóvenes y adultos. (35) Según Ajzen, citado por Sallis, et al. (31) "La Teoría del Comportamiento Planeado también tiene bases psicológicas. Se diferencia de la anterior en que no solo tiene en cuenta las creencias personales, sino también las influencias de las percepciones de otros sobre el comportamiento; esta teoría a veces se aplica en intervenciones de comunicación masiva, dirigidas a modificar actitudes". ...
Diversos estudios a través del tiempo han demostrado los potenciales beneficios de la práctica de la Actividad Física (AF); sin embargo, también se han identificado algunos de sus moduladores conocidos como determinantes que modifican su práctica. Objetivo: Recopilar y resumir la información disponible sobre la importancia de la actividad física, su definición, determinantes y métodos de evaluación en adultos, así como establecer el desarrollo de las recomendaciones a lo largo del tiempo.
... These ndings are not surprising given that walking is the most common form of leisure-time PA among adults in all countries, and in most Latin American cities walking is also an essential part of urban mobility [39]. Our results support thoughtful integration of efforts to improve conditions for walking with major public transit development such as Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT) [40,41]. We hypothesized that PA for transport could be associated with BRT use possibly because BRT is the fastest mode of transport, it has xed stations, and its implementation is related to built-environment transformations. ...
Background: Characteristics of the neighborhood built environment are associated with physical activity (PA). However, few studies with representative samples have examined environmental correlates of domain-specific PA in Latin America. We examined the associations of the perceived neighborhood built environment with domain-specific PA in a large sample of adults from eight Latin American countries.
Methods: This study examined data from 8185 adults (aged 18–65 years) from eight Latin American countries. The Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Survey - Abbreviated (NEWS-A) scale was used to assess perceptions of land use mix–diversity, land use mix-access, street connectivity, walking/cycling facilities, aesthetics, safety from traffic, and safety from crime. Perceived proximity from home to public open spaces (metropolitan parks, playgrounds, public squares) and to shopping centers was also measured. Transport-related and leisure-time PA were assessed using the long form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Both logistic and linear regression models were estimated on pooled data.
Results: Perceptions of higher land use mix-access (OR: 1.40; 95% CI: 1.22,1.61), the existence of many alternative routes in the neighbourhood (1.12; 1.04,1.20), slow speed of traffic (1.19; 1.03,1.35) and few drivers exceeding the speed limits (1.09; 1.03,1.15) were associated with greater odds of reporting at least 10 min/week of transport-related PA. Perceptions of higher levels of land use mix-diversity, better aesthetics and greater safety from crime, the presence of crosswalks and pedestrian signals, and greater proximity of shopping centers were associated with more min/week of transport-related PA. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity (1.12; 1.05,1.20), higher land use mix-access (1.27; 1.13,1.43), more walking/cycling facilities (1.18; 1.09,1.28), and better aesthetics (1.10; 1.02,1.18) were associated with greater odds of engaging in at least 10 min/week of leisure-time PA versus none. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity were associated with more min/week of leisure PA.
Conclusions: Different perceived neighborhood built environment characteristics were associated with domain-specific PA among adults from Latin America countries. Interventions designed to modify perceptions of the neighbourhood built environment might influence initiation or maintenance of domain-specific PA.
Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.Gov NCT02226627. Retrospectively registered on August 27, 2014.
... These findings are not surprising given that walking is the most common form of leisure-time PA among adults in all countries, and in most Latin American cities walking is also an essential part of urban mobility [41]. Our results support thoughtful integration of efforts to improve conditions for walking with major public transit development such as Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT) [42,43]. We hypothesized that PA for transport could be associated with BRT use possibly because BRT is the fastest mode of transport, it has fixed stations, and its implementation is related to built-environment transformations. ...
Background: Characteristics of the neighborhood built environment are associated with physical activity (PA). However, few studies with representative samples have examined environmental correlates of domain-specific PA in Latin America. We examined the associations of the perceived neighborhood built environment with domain-specific PA in a large sample of adults from eight Latin American countries.
Methods: This study examined data from 8185 adults (aged 18–65 years) from eight Latin American countries. The Neighbourhood Environment Walkability Survey - Abbreviated (NEWS-A) scale was used to assess perceptions of land use mix–diversity, land use mix-access, street connectivity, walking/cycling facilities, aesthetics, safety from
traffic, and safety from crime. Perceived proximity from home to public open spaces (metropolitan parks, playgrounds, public squares) and to shopping centers was also measured. Transport-related and leisure-time PA were assessed using the long form of the International Physical Activity Questionnaire. Both logistic and linear regression models were estimated on pooled data.
Results: Perceptions of higher land use mix-access (OR: 1.40; 95% CI: 1.22,1.61), the existence of many alternative routes in the neighbourhood (1.12; 1.04,1.20), slow speed of traffic (1.19; 1.03,1.35) and few drivers exceeding the speed limits (1.09; 1.03,1.15) were associated with greater odds of reporting at least 10 min/week of transportrelated PA. Perceptions of higher levels of land use mix-diversity, better aesthetics and greater safety from crime, the presence of crosswalks and pedestrian signals, and greater proximity of shopping centers were associated with more min/week of transport-related PA. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity (1.12; 1.05,1.20), higher land
use mix-access (1.27; 1.13,1.43), more walking/cycling facilities (1.18; 1.09,1.28), and better aesthetics (1.10; 1.02,1.18) were associated with greater odds of engaging in at least 10 min/week of leisure-time PA versus none. Perceptions of higher land use mix-diversity were associated with more min/week of leisure PA.
Conclusions: Different perceived neighborhood built environment characteristics were associated with domainspecific PA among adults from Latin America countries. Interventions designed to modify perceptions of the neighbourhood built environment might influence initiation or maintenance of domain-specific PA.
... Several cities have implemented policies and programs aimed promoting walking and cycling for transport. Some of the most relevant and commonly implemented programs are the Ciclovia Recreativa Programs, and the implementation of Bus Rapid Transit systems (BRT) projects [44,46]. In Latin America, BRT systems have been implemented in Brazil, Ecuador, Peru, Mexico, and Colombia where they are considered an efficient and cost-effective solution for urban mobility [47]. ...
Purpose:
This study aimed to examine the associations of the perceived neighborhood built environment with walking and cycling for transport in inhabitants from Latin American countries.
Methods:
This cross-sectional study involved 9218 participants (15-65 years) from the Latin American Study of Nutrition and Health, which included a nationally representative sample of eight countries. All participants completed the International Physical Activity Questionnaire-Long Form for measure walking and cycling for transport and the Neighborhood Environment Walkability Scale-Abbreviated. Furthermore, perceived proximity from home to public open spaces and shopping centers was assessed.
Results:
Perceived land use mix-access (OR: 1.32; 95%CI: 1.16,1.50) and the existence of many alternative routes in the neighbourhood (1.09 1.01,1.17) were associated with higher odds of reporting any walking for transport (≥10 min/week). Perceived slow speed of traffic (1.88 1.82,1.93) and few drivers exceeding the speed limits (1.92; 1.86,1.98) were also related to higher odds of reporting any walking for transport. The odds of reporting any cycling for transport (≥10 min/week) were higher in participants perceiving more walking/cycling facilities (1.87 1.76,1.99), and better aesthetics (1.22 1.09,1.38).
Conclusions:
Dissimilar perceived neighborhood built environment characteristics were associated with walking and cycling for transport among inhabitants from Latin America.
... The physical environment of cities can be improved though various municipal processes, including urban planning, infrastructure development, energy and transportation planning, and public health. In cities in Brazil and Colombia, implementation of extensive bus rapid transit systems with features including at-level boarding, prepayment, and articulated busses led to reductions in traffic congestion, travel time, and energy consumption at a fraction of the cost of proposed alternatives, including road and highway expansion [113][114][115]. Beijing introduced rationing policies to reduce traffic congestion, including driving restrictions (i.e., certain vehicles cannot be used at certain times) [116] and a vehicle quota system that restricted the number of license plates allocated to residents [117]. ...
Background:
As low- and middle-income countries urbanize and industrialize, they must also cope with pollution emitted from diverse sources.
Main text:
Strong and consistent evidence associates exposure to air pollution and lead with increased risk of cardiovascular disease occurrence and death. Further, increasing evidence, mostly from high-income countries, indicates that exposure to noise and to both high and low temperatures may also increase cardiovascular risk. There is considerably less research on the cardiovascular impacts of environmental conditions in low- and middle-income countries (LMICs), where the levels of pollution are often higher and the types and sources of pollution markedly different from those in higher-income settings. However, as such evidence gathers, actions to reduce exposures to pollution in low- and middle-income countries are warranted, not least because such exposures are very high. Cities, where pollution, populations, and other cardiovascular risk factors are most concentrated, may be best suited to reduce the cardiovascular burden in LMICs by applying environmental standards and policies to mitigate pollution and by implementing interventions that target the most vulnerable. The physical environment of cities can be improved though municipal processes, including infrastructure development, energy and transportation planning, and public health actions. Local regulations can incentivize or inhibit the polluting behaviors of industries and individuals. Environmental monitoring can be combined with public health warning systems and publicly available exposure maps to inform residents of environmental hazards and encourage the adoption of pollution-avoiding behaviors. Targeted individual or neighborhood interventions that identify and treat high-risk populations (e.g., lead mitigation, portable air cleaners, and preventative medications) can also be leveraged in the very near term. Research will play a key role in evaluating whether these approaches achieve their intended benefits, and whether these benefits reach the most vulnerable.
Conclusion:
Cities in LMICs can play a defining role in global health and cardiovascular disease prevention in the next several decades, as they are well poised to develop innovative, multisectoral approaches to pollution mitigation, while also protecting the most vulnerable.
... Moreover, the number of PMVs in mega cities such as Delhi are growing at a higher pace than that of the population (DES 2014). Several studies (Kennedy 2002;Parra et al. 2007; Kottenhoff and Freij 2009;Goldman and Gorham 2006;Ibrahim 2003) also recommend that a good PT system can efficiently address these externalities. Therefore, there is an urgent need to improve the modal share of PT through interventions to incentivize its use. ...
Mathematical models have been developed to address overcrowding in buses to incentivize their use. The models capture real-life requirements of bus planning, are computationally tractable, and easy to understand by decision makers. First, the current level of bus services on the given network is assessed. Then the models are developed to allocate the existing buses optimally and determine the minimum number of buses needed to satisfy the existing and future demand. Our results demonstrate that significant benefits can be obtained by the use of these models. The models also incorporate decision-making flexibility by allowing policy makers to adjust the policy parameters according to their requirements. As a result, they can be useful decision-making tools for city transport anywhere in the world, especially Delhi and other cities with similar problems.
... In the discipline of urban cycling governance, the issue of 'how to promote cycling' occupies an outstanding position. For instance, there are many studies focusing on how to change infrastructures (Parra et al. 2007;Pucher and Buehler 2009), built environments (Nkurunziza et al. 2012) and 'soft policies' (Jones and Novo de Azevedo 2013) in order to promote cycling in a certain city or country. Most of them focus on measures to promote cycling but they usually overlook the starting points of cycling promotion in a given city and simplify the contentious process by which cycling gains cultural and sociopolitical legitimacy. ...
This chapter examines the changes in cycling advocacy and governance in Hong Kong to identify the main constraints experienced in their attempts to promote urban bicycle mobility. First, we find out that other global cities’ demonstration effect and the problems rooted in the dual-structure traffic system contribute to the emergence of cycling activists. Through both online and offline frequent interactions, emerging activists build both individual and organisational connections with each other. They also interact with other influential actors in the urban cycling field and attempt to form resonances in shaping the legitimacy of alternative cycling images and policy proposals. To some extent, they successfully transformed from invisible to visible the urban cycling issue and are becoming increasingly influential within the field. However, Hong Kong’s ‘no cycling’ history results in a mixture of recreational and utilitarian cycling activists. Among them, there is a division based on their views of urban cycling that has been exposed and expanded during the interactions with the government. Therefore, activists concentrate on short-term goals rather than on a shared long-term vision, which partially explains why this dynamic of social interactions has not yielded a significant advancement of urban cycling yet.
... In the discipline of urban cycling governance, the issue of 'how to promote cycling' occupies an outstanding position. For instance, there are many studies focusing on how to change infrastructures (Parra et al. 2007;Pucher and Buehler 2009), built environments (Nkurunziza et al. 2012) and 'soft policies' (Jones and Novo de Azevedo 2013) in order to promote cycling in a certain city or country. Most of them focus on measures to promote cycling but they usually overlook the starting points of cycling promotion in a given city and simplify the contentious process by which cycling gains cultural and sociopolitical legitimacy. ...
Within the new neoliberal wave in Europe while progressive food activists adopted a more cooperative relationship with their local states demanding ‘sustainable healthy inclusive and democratic food system’ (see Milan Urban Food Plan), in the city of Athens a trend of food activists engaged in non-state-centric politics challenging the resulting crisis of social reproduction and the rise of far-right activism. Thus, in this paper, we explore the activists’ efforts in the city of Athens towards autonomous and anti-fascist politics in organising social reproduction: the food geography (urban gardens, farmers markets, collective kitchens, etc.); the politics of caregiving and food provisioning; as well as the tensions emerged between activists’ ‘politics of autonomy’ and their more institutional ‘social and solidarity economies’.
... 109 For built environment interventions to successfully provide a range of benefits, they require collaboration from multiple sectors of policy makers including housing, transport, land use, health, and urban planning. 88,99,111,112 Similarly, socioecological problems addressed in urban health research require complex interventions across multiple levels of influence. 113 Researchers also need to become more sophisticated in their understanding of the policy environment. ...
... Researchers should consider relevant physical environment factors that may influence physical activity in each country. Factors that are often overlooked in developed countries, such as heat and humidity, 58,120 air pollution, 119,194,195 and stray animals, 55 may matter. Researchers should also consider cultural differences in relationships between physical environments and physical activity. ...
Background:
Noncommunicable diseases and obesity are considered problems of wealthy, developed countries. These conditions are rising dramatically in developing countries. Most existing research on the role of the physical environment to support physical activity examines developed countries only.
Objectives:
This review identifies physical environment factors that are associated with physical activity in developing countries.
Methods:
This review is modeled on a highly cited review by Saelens and Handy in 2008. The current review analyzes findings from 159 empirical studies in the 138 developing countries.
Results:
Results discuss the association of physical environment features and physical activity for all developing countries and identify the patterns within regions. The review supports the association of traffic safety with physical activity for transportation. Rural (vs urban) residence, distance to nonresidential land uses, and "composite" features of the physical environment are associated with general physical activity. Rural (vs urban) residence is associated with physical activity for work.
Conclusions:
More research is needed on associations between the physical environment and physical activity in developing countries. Research should identify specific physical environment features in urban areas that are associated with higher activity levels.
... At a time where the U.S. economy is stagnant, it is understandable that Federal agencies like the CDC would want to focus their funding and attention on domestic matters; however, there are clear examples of how lessons learned internationally can also help the U.S. population, especially among the growing Hispanic population 24 . For instance, there are now 70 replications of Ciclovias in the United States, also known as "open streets" initiatives 25 , a program that started in Bogota, Colombia which seeks to promote the use of public space, that would otherwise be occupied by cars, for bicycling, walking, and other recreational activities 26 . Moreover, the program Academia da Cidade, discussed earlier, has also been replicated among Latino populations in San Diego California, as part of a translational grant 27 . ...
... At a time where the U.S. economy is stagnant, it is understandable that Federal agencies like the CDC would want to focus their funding and attention on domestic matters; however, there are clear examples of how lessons learned internationally can also help the U.S. population, especially among the growing Hispanic population 24 . For instance, there are now 70 replications of Ciclovias in the United States, also known as "open streets" initiatives 25 , a program that started in Bogota, Colombia which seeks to promote the use of public space, that would otherwise be occupied by cars, for bicycling, walking, and other recreational activities 26 . Moreover, the program Academia da Cidade, discussed earlier, has also been replicated among Latino populations in San Diego California, as part of a translational grant 27 . ...
Brazil is one of the few countries around the world that has recognized the important priority of physical activity promotion and has granted it a prominent place on the national agenda. The Brazilian government, along with other important non-governmental organizations and academic institutions, are working together to support research, practice, and policy for promoting physical activity. The Ministry of Health of Brazil has supported the creation of a national network of researchers and practitioners organized around the promotion and development of infrastructure that supports the adoption of healthy lifestyles, including the practice of community based physical activity 1 . One of the most recent groundbreaking initiatives is the creation of the Academia da Saude, a national program that expands a physical activity intervention to 4,000 new municipalities around the country over the next 5 years 2 Academia da Saude is based on the successful experience of the program Academia da Cidade which began in the city of Recife 3 and has been eff ectively implemented and evaluated in other cities from Brazil 4-6 . The program off ers physical activity classes (e.g., aerobics, yoga, tai chi, dance, stretching) as well as assessment, nutrition counseling and chronic disease prevention. The Academia programs are delivered by trained professionals, and importantly, they are free of charge to participants. Academia da Cidade was fi rst evaluated by Project GUIA, a collaboration between national and international government and academic institutions from the United States (U.S.) and Brazil, including the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), the Prevention Research Center in St. Louis, and the Ministry of Health of Brazil 7 Project GUIA has been highly successful and serves as an example for cross national and transdisciplinary collaboration 8 . Another exemplary initiative around physical activity taking place in Brazil is the Bra
... Crear comunidades que cuentan con una diversidad de opciones de movilidad humana reduce enormemente la dependencia de los automóviles privados, fomenta el uso del transporte público y aumenta la conciencia sobre medios de transporte no motorizados, como trasladarse a pie y en bicicleta, que no solo permiten movilizarse sino que también aportan beneficios importantes para salud personal (71). ...
... For Ciclovía, 97 km of main roads are closed for motorized transportation during seven daylight hours on Sundays and holidays. As a co-benefit to promoting physical activity, participants of the Ciclovía are more likely to use a bicycle for commuting (Parra et al. 2007;Torres et al. 2013). ...
To enhance social equity, three important sustainable transportation initiatives have been introduced in Bogotá. Spatial information and GIS have been used to analyze levels of inequality in access to these initiatives. The results show that the TransMilenio BRT offers equal access for all socio-economic strata (SES). Nonetheless, its modal share is low for the poor due to affordability issues. The Cicloruta bicycle network and Ciclovía recreational program do not offer equal access for all SES, especially for the lower SES. Their users, however, mainly come from low and middle income SES. Marginal network extensions can improve equality in access.
... Desafortunadamente, muchas ciudades latinoamericanas tienen grandes inequidades ambientales en la distribución de las áreas verdes de uso público, lo cual se debe en parte, a los acelerados y poco planeados procesos de desarrollo urbano que responden a las altas cifras de población migrante (36). En Bogotá, a pesar de los importantes esfuerzos emprendidos entre 2001 y 2003, la mayoría de las áreas residenciales de la ciudad cuenta con una baja disponibilidad de áreas verdes públicas, siendo esta situación especialmente crítica en los sectores más pobres (37). ...
Resumen
Colombia, al igual que la mayoría de los países de América Latina, ha experimentado una rápida transición nutricional, la cual se ha dado en un contexto caracterizado por altos niveles de pobreza, inequidad y exclusión social; sumado a acelerados procesos de globalización y una creciente influencia política y mediática de las grandes corporaciones de bebidas y alimentos ultra-procesados. Esta situación tiene un impacto potencialmente negativo en la salud infantil, al afectar sus patrones de actividad física y alimentación. Existen acciones poblacionales efectivas para la promoción de la actividad física y la alimentación saludable en niños, niñas y adolescentes, que podrían implementarse en Colombia si se contara con la voluntad política del gobierno y la participación activa de la sociedad civil.
... Additionally, metropolitan cities have an increasing number of cars on the streets and a high rate of growth in new car ownership. These factors cause many mobility problems for residents and therefore, local governments have to implement car restriction and disincentive policies to reduce traffic density and diminish environmental and noise pollution (Parra et al. 2007;Prud'homme and Bocarejo 2005). ...
Parking lots in most major cities service at least two very distinct types of (market) segments: the first one, comprised of non-subscribed (drive-in) customers that pay variable (higher) fees according to their time in the lot; and the second one, comprised of subscribed customers who pay a fixed (flat) discounted rate. Thus, parking lot operators face the decision of how many subscriptions to sell in order to maximize their revenue, taking into account that denial of service (lack of available parking spots) produces negative effects on their long-term success. In this paper, we develop an approximate solution for this problem based on integer programming and discrete-event simulation techniques and apply our approach to a case study in the city of Bogotá.
... Bogotá is the capital of Colombia and has 7,363,782 inhabitants. The city has been undergoing an important process of urban change since 1990 64 and, as a result of a decentralization process that began in the mid-1980s, municipalities were granted new authority, including control over urban planning regulations. These changes included the implementation of a mass transport system based on the BRT system called TransMilenio which began operating in 2000 and is projected to cover 80% of the city by 2031. ...
Transport is associated with environmental problems, economic losses, health and social inequalities. A number of European and US cities have implemented initiatives to promote multimodal modes of transport. In Latin America changes are occurring in public transport systems and a number of projects aimed at stimulating non-motorized modes of transport (walking and cycling) have already been implemented. Based on articles from peer-reviewed academic journals, this paper examines experiences in Bogotá (Colombia), Curitiba (Brazil), and Santiago (Chile), and identifies how changes to the transport system contribute to encourage active transportation. Bus rapid transit, ciclovias, bike paths/lanes, and car use restriction are initiatives that contribute to promoting active transportation in these cities. Few studies have been carried out on the relationship between transport and physical activity. Car ownership continues to increase. The public health sector needs to be a stronger activist in the transport policy decision-making process to incorporate health issues into the transport agenda in Latin America.
... The city of Bogotá (Colombia) is one of the largest cities in Latin America, with an estimated population of about eight million inhabitants in 2007 and likely to reach ten million by 2025 (Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística de Colombia (DANE), 2007;United Nations, 2007). The city has implemented a number of urban changes that have included recovery of public spaces and the improvement of public parks (Parra et al., 2007). In Bogotá, parks are classified as one of four types by the Instituto Distrital de Recreación y Deporte -IDRD (Recreation and Sports Institute of Bogotá): pocket, neighborhood, zonal, and metropolitan. ...
In rapidly urbanized and dense cities public parks, open green spaces, and recreational infrastructure have been associated
with physical and mental health, quality of life (Sarmiento etal., 2010), promotion of healthy life style, and social, economic,
and environmental benefits (Li, Wang, Paulussen, & Liu, 2005; Coley, Kuo, & Sullivan, 1997). Urban parks promote healthy lifestyles
including physical activity (Gómez etal.2010a, 2010b; Humpel, Owen, & Leslie, 2002; Bedimo-Rung, Mowen, & Cohen, 2005), contributing
to the prevention of chronic diseases (Andersen, Schnohr, Schroll, & Hein, 2000; Cohen et al., 2007; Yancey et al., 2007;
Floyd, Spengler, Maddock, Gobster, & Suau, 2008). In addition, urban parks also offer communities a space to socialize (Gobster,
1998; Seeland, Dübendorfer, & Hansmann, 2009), experience nature, relax, and even contribute to climate stabilization (Chiesura,
2004; Nilsson etal., 2007 del Saz & García, 2007).
... During recent decades, Bogotá has engaged in important urban and social transformations, such as the implementation of new motorized and non-motorized transportation systems, investments in recreational facilities and public parks, and recovering of public space. These transformations might influence physical activity ( Parra et al., 2007), and potentially health related quality of life (HRQOL) of older adults. Despite advances of the rapid bus transit system (Transmilenio), the public transportation system continues to have important deficiencies. ...
Studies assessing the association between health-related quality of life (HR-QOL) with physical activity (PA) and built environment (BE) characteristics are limited.
A cross-sectional study was conducted among 1,334 adults from Bogotá, to assess the associations between HR-QOL with PA and BE characteristics. HR-QOL was measured using the World Health Organization and the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention instruments. PA was measured using the International PA Questionnaire. BE characteristics included the dimensions of density, diversity, design, and access to mass-transit. Analysis included multilevel modeling.
Adults who reported meeting PA recommendations and participating in the Ciclovía were more likely to have a high mean score of HR-QOL and were more likely to perceive their health status as good/excellent. Adults who reported biking for transportation were more likely to have a high mean score of HR-QOL. Regarding BE characteristics, land-use heterogeneity was associated with HR-QOL, perceived good health status and being positive about the future. Park density was associated with HR-QOL, perceived health status good/excellent and being positive about the future. Mass-transit stations availability was negatively associated with HR-QOL.
This study provides preliminary evidence that HR-QOL is associated with PA and BE characteristics among adults in an urban setting of the developing world.
... During recent decades, Bogotá has engaged in important urban and social transformations, such as the implementation of new motorized and non-motorized transportation systems, investments in recreational facilities and public parks, and recovering of public space. These transformations might influence physical activity ( Parra et al., 2007), and potentially health related quality of life (HRQOL) of older adults. Despite advances of the rapid bus transit system (Transmilenio), the public transportation system continues to have important deficiencies. ...
This study examines associations between neighborhood environment attributes and health related quality of life (HRQOL) and self-rated health (SRH) among older adults (60 years and over) in Bogotá, Colombia. Perceived and objective neighborhood environmental characteristics were assessed in a cross sectional multilevel design with 1966 older adults within 50 neighborhoods. Outcome variables included HRQOL (physical and mental dimensions) and SRH measured with the Spanish version of the Short Form 8 (SF-8). Independent variables included perceived and objective neighborhood characteristics as well as self-reported levels of walking. Hierarchical linear and logistic regression models were used for the analysis. Among perceived neighborhood characteristics, safety from traffic was positively associated with both HRQOL dimensions and SRH. Having safe parks was positively associated with the mental dimension of HRQOL and with SRH. Street noise was negatively associated with both HRQOL dimensions. Regarding objective neighborhood characteristics, residing in areas with more than eight percent of land covered by public parks was positively associated with SRH. Objective and perceived neighborhood characteristics could provide insight into potential interventions among older adults from rapidly urbanizing settings in Latin America.
... Bogota has the world's largest ciclovia, with 123 km of streets closed to cars and 700,000 to 1 million participants. Bogota's bicycle mode share has tripled as the popularity of the ciclovia has grown, but the scale of this ciclovia makes it an exceptional case (Parra et al., 2007;IDRD, 2004;IDU, 2009;Montezuma, 2005;Despascio, 2008). ...
To assess existing research on the effects of various interventions on levels of bicycling. Interventions include infrastructure (e.g., bike lanes and parking), integration with public transport, education and marketing programs, bicycle access programs, and legal issues.
A comprehensive search of peer-reviewed and non-reviewed research identified 139 studies. Study methodologies varied considerably in type and quality, with few meeting rigorous standards. Secondary data were gathered for 14 case study cities that adopted multiple interventions.
Many studies show positive associations between specific interventions and levels of bicycling. The 14 case studies show that almost all cities adopting comprehensive packages of interventions experienced large increases in the number of bicycle trips and share of people bicycling.
Most of the evidence examined in this review supports the crucial role of public policy in encouraging bicycling. Substantial increases in bicycling require an integrated package of many different, complementary interventions, including infrastructure provision and pro-bicycle programs, supportive land use planning, and restrictions on car use.
Ciclovia, also known as Open Streets initiatives in other countries, are city streets that are closed to motorized traffic and opened during certain times to residents for engaging in physical activity (PA). These initiatives are viewed by policy makers and health and community advocates as being beneficial to social, environmental, and community health. This study explores the geographic distribution of Ciclovia and Recreovia and the differences in geographic access assessed via distance-based measures, based on the socioeconomic status (SES) of the area. Results from this study show that the median distance to the Ciclovia according to SES ranges from 2930 m for SES 1 (most disadvantaged) to 482 m for SES 6 (wealthiest). The median distance to the Recreovia sites ranges from 5173 m for SES 1 to 3869 m for SES 6. This study found revealing urban inequities in the distribution of Ciclovia, whereas there was less inequalities within the Recreovia sites. This study shows that urban interventions are needed to promote recreational activity and reduce health disparities in under resourced, low SES areas.
Libro sobre inacciones de prevención Enfermedades Cardiovasculares
Urban air pollution has myriad sources that range from highly localized to regional and national, and even international.
Characteristics of the built environment, particularly with regard to roadways and traffic exposure, have critical implications for air pollution exposures of urban dwellers.
In high-income countries, air pollution remains a public health threat to urban dwellers. Worldwide, air pollution is an ever greater threat to public health because of increasing population concentrations, rising industrialization, and expanding vehicle fleets.
As urban environments continue to grow, their design needs to address exposures to traffic and to industrial pollution.
Measures taken to reduce greenhouse gas emissions should have the co-benefit of reducing mobile source emissions. However, climate change may increase regional pollution by increasing the demand for space heating and cooling, requiring more power generation.
The Ciclovia program (CP) has emerged as an effective initiative to promote active living in urban spaces in Latin America. This study assessed the association between social conditions, the urban environment and participation in the CP among adults living in the city of Cali, Colombia. A cross-sectional study was conducted in 2011 and 2012 among 719 adults aged 18 to 44. Urban environment measures were obtained using Geographic Information Systems. A multilevel logistic regression was used for the analysis. Slightly more than 7% of participants had participated in the CP in the previous four weekends. Being male and having a high school degree were positively associated with participation in the CP. Participation in the CP was positively associated with living in neighborhoods with Ciclovia lanes. In contrast, a negative association was found among those living in neighborhoods with a presence of traffic fatalities. This study provides new insights about a recreational program that has potential health benefits in a region marked by urban inequalities in terms of opportunities for physical activity.
Purpose:
Two crucial aspects of obesity prevention are early childhood and school-based interventions. The main purpose of this systematic review wass to evaluate the efficacy and the feasibility of school-based interventions performed in primary schools.
Methods:
All pertinent data from the literature have been critically examined and reviewed to evaluate the efficacy and the feasibility of different strategies of interventions. In particular, many studies have been performed in school-aged children.
Results:
Data from literature suggest that educational interventions toward healthy eating habits and physical activity at school could be a key strategy in the prevention of obesity, because it has been shown that is difficult to treat obesity in adults through changes in the lifestyle rather than during childhood. Recent advances in technology, especially web-based interventions, have been used to provide a specific content addressing healthy lifestyle with regard diet and exercise. These data suggest the opportunity to use web-interactive programs as a new challenging technique of communication in order to promote healthy behaviors.
Conclusions:
The early detection and treatment of obesity in children may be the best approach to prevent future increases in morbidity, as well as healthcare costs that will likely occur as overweight and obese children age.
Pan American Health Organization. Regional consultation: priorities for cardiovascular health in the Americas. Key messages for policy makers. Ordúñez García P, Campillo Artero C, eds. Washington, D.C.: OPS; 2011.
Recent medical studies have revealed that the physical activity for active ageing is very important for health and well-being of elderly’s life. This study aims to identify the current situation of public exercise environments where the elderly in urban areas exercise daily, and to research how public exercise environments could influence the physical activities for the active ageing of the elderly. The site of this study is an underprivileged urban area where the low-income elderly population is dominant. Through field observations, and through direct interviews using questionnaire form for 180 subjects over a period in October to November 2011, data on the elderly’s physical activity were collected. The result of this study revealed that the elderly in underprivileged urban areas were using the public exercise environment regardless of their perceived health, and that the older residents would undertake less vigorous physical activities. The regular users of these public facilities would tend to be more active than those who do not. The research illustrates the significance of public exercise environments which should have a role in health promotion. Therefore, availability of public places, such as small neighbourhood gardens and parks, should be part of a nation’s strategy to encourage active ageing for the elderly, particular in low-income areas.
Objective:
This study was aimed at comparing cardiorespiratory fitness (CF), measured as VO2 max, amongst school children exposed to varying levels of particulate matter (PM10), and air pollution in Bogotá, Colombia.
Methods:
This was a cross-sectional study; it involved 1,045 children aged 7-12 attending four public schools served by different public transit routes and systems. Three schools were classified as being highly polluted (HP) and one slightly polluted (SP). The children and their parents were surveyed to collect data regarding their socio-demographic characteristics, physical activity habits and respiratory disease background. Objective measurements of weight and height were used to calculate the body mass index. VO2max was estimated using the 20-meter shuttle-run test, previously validated for Bogotá. Spirometry was performed on 435 children.
Results:
After adjustment for covariates, no difference was found in VO2max between children attending SP or HP schools (girls SP 45.8 ml/kg/min vs HP 44.6 ml/kg/min, p=0.11; boys SP 47.2 ml/kg/min cf HP 48.2 ml/kg/min, p=0.41).
Conclusions:
VO2max levels did not differ amongst children attending schools exposed to high compared to low levels of air pollution and PM. A longitudinal study assessing children's VO2max levels in relation to exposure to highly-polluted areas is warranted.
Objective This study was aimed at comparing cardiorespiratory fitness (CF), measured as VO 2 max, amongst school children exposed to varying levels of particulate matter (PM 10), and air pollution in Bogotá, Colombia. Methods This was a cross-sectional study; it involved 1,045 children aged 7-12 attending four public schools served by different public transit routes and systems. Three schools were classified as being highly polluted (HP) and one slightly polluted (SP). The children and their parents were surveyed to collect data regarding their socio-demographic characteristics, physical activity habits and respiratory disease
This symposium addressed the importance of selective partnering between public health and other sectors in order to enhance physical activity promotion. The speakers reviewed the potential benets of partnering, common partnering concerns and their remedies, and important tasks for developing successful partnerships. Key leadership practices and a framework for convening conversations with potential partners were presented. Motivations for industry, trade associations, and other partners to engage with public health to promote physical activity were discussed, and the importance of using stakeholder relationship management to engage partners was emphasized.
This paper provides a review of the building environmental schemes for rating of indoor air quality which could have an important impact on health and wellbeing of occupants in sustainable homes. The majority of the building environmental assessment schemes introduced in different countries of the world are based on the BREEAM and LEED model. BREEAM has a major emphasis on energy efficiency whereas "Indoor Environmental Quality" and "Health and Wellbeing" are the most central issues for LEED. The criteria included in BREEAM, LEED and HK BEAM rating systems for assessment of indoor air quality are illustrated. There should be an IAQ management plan for any housing or building development, which should include a certification of the IAQ of the living spaces prior to occupancy and that low emitting materials should be used in the new build. There should also be an ongoing maintenance of the ventilation and HVAC system for the building and this should be part of an indoor air quality management plan for the building operation and maintenance.
Aging in Latin-America has been characterised by its rapid pace which, in turn, has been accompanied by growing urbanisation and globalisation. These processes have been linked to the prevalence of physical inactivity thereby contributing to the appearance of chronic diseases, these being the primary cause of mortality in the region. The influence of public urban environment intervention policy on physical activity has been emphasised recently. This evidence comes mainly from studies conducted in the USA and Australia. However, this topic has scarcely been studied in Latin-America which has particular characteristics regarding aging and urban development. Cities, such as Curitiba and Bogota, have undergone significant urban changes which may be linked to physical activity and the quality of life, especially in older adults. Considering the particularities of urban development in Latin-America, it is thus concluded that multidisciplinary studies should be carried out thereby leading to better understanding of the links between urban environments and physical activity in older adults.
Examine the associations between selected built environment (BE) attributes and perceived active park use among older adults in Bogota.
A cross-sectional multilevel study was conducted. Participants included 1966 older adults in 50 neighborhoods. Socio-demographic covariates and BE attributes were measured. Multilevel logistic regression models were used for the analyses.
Residents from areas with higher park density and high land-use mix were more likely to report active park use while those from areas with high connectivity were less likely.
This study suggests that objective attributes of the residential BE are associated with perceived active park use. However, our study also points to the importance of surrounding environment, with the result of an inverse relationship between connectivity and physical activity, which highlights the potentially necessary interventions in the realm of traffic and pedestrian safety.
Even though there is increasing evidence that the built environment (BE) has an influence on leisure-time physical activity (LTPA), little is known about this relationship in developing countries. The objective of this study was to assess the associations between objective built environment characteristics and LTPA.
A cross-sectional multilevel study was conducted in 27 neighborhoods in which 1315 adults aged 18-65 years were surveyed. An adapted version of the IPAQ (long version) was used to assess LTPA. Objective BE characteristics were obtained using Geographic Information Systems. Associations were assessed using multilevel polytomous logistic regression.
Compared with inactive people, those who resided in neighborhoods with the highest tertile dedicated to parks (7.4% to 25.2%) were more likely to be regularly active (POR = 2.05, 95% CI = 1.13-3.72; P = 0.021). Those who resided in neighborhoods with presence of TransMilenio stations (mass public transportation system) were more likely to be irregularly active (POR = 1.27, 95% CI = 1.07-1.50, P = 0.009) as compared with inactive people.
These findings showed that park density and availability of TransMilenio stations at neighborhood level are positively associated with LTPA. Public health efforts to address physical inactivity should consider the potential influences of urban planning and mass public transportation systems on health.
The Ciclovía-Recreativa is a free, community-based program in which streets are closed temporarily to motorized transport, allowing access to walkers, runners, rollerbladers, and cyclists only. We assessed existing information about the Ciclovía as a public health strategy and proposed next steps for research and public health practice.
We conducted a systematic search of peer-reviewed and other literature, which was complemented by expert interviews and consultation.
We reviewed 38 Ciclovías from 11 countries. Most programs (84.2%) take place in urban settings. The programs range from 18-64 events per year (54 + or - 24.6; 52 [mean + or - standard deviation; median]) with events lasting from 2-12 hours (6 + or - 2.4; 6). The length of the streets ranges from 1-121 km (14.6 + or - 22.1; 7), and the estimated number of participants per event ranges from 60-1,000,000 persons (61,203 + or - 186,668; 3810). Seventy-one percent of the programs include physical activity classes and in 89% of the Ciclovías, the streets are connected with parks.
Ciclovías have potential for positive public health outcomes, but evidence on their effectiveness is limited. The different stages of new and established programs offer a unique opportunity for transnational studies aimed at assessing their public health impact.
There is increasing evidence that the built environment has an influence on physical activity; however, little is known about this relationship in developing countries.
This study examined the associations between attributes of the built environment and walking patterns among the elderly.
A multilevel cross-sectional study was conducted in 2007. Fifty neighborhoods were selected and 1966 participants aged > or =60 years were surveyed. Objective built environment measures were obtained in a buffer of 500 m using GIS. Environmental perceptions were assessed via questionnaire.
People who lived in areas with middle park area (4.53%-7.98% of land) were more likely to walk for at least 60 minutes during a usual week (prevalence OR [POR]=1.42, 95% CI=1.02, 1.98). Those who lived in areas with the highest connectivity index (1.81-1.99) were less likely to report walking for at least 60 minutes (POR=0.64, 95% CI=0.44, 0.93). Participants who reported feeling safe or very safe from traffic were more likely to report walking for at least 60 minutes (POR=1.50, 95% CI=1.11, 2.03). The presence of Ciclovía (recreational program) was marginally associated with having walked at least 150 minutes in a usual week (POR=1.29, 95% CI=0.97, 1.73).
This study showed that certain built and perceived environment characteristics were associated with walking among older adults living in Bogotá. Further studies should be conducted to better understand the potential influence of the built environment on physical activity among the elderly population in the context of Latin American cities.
Background
Utilitarian physical activity confers health benefits, but little is known about experiences in developing countries. The objective was to examine the prevalence and factors associated with walking and bicycling for transport in adults from Bogotá.
Methods
A cross-sectional study including 1464 adults age 18 to 29 y during the year 2002.
Results
16.7% reported bicycling for at least 10 min during the last week and 71.7% reported walking for at least 90 min during the last week. Bicycling was more likely among adults living in Tunjuelito (flat terrain), who use the “ciclovía” (car-roads for recreational bicycling on holidays/Sundays) or reporting physical activity during leisure-time and less likely among women, or adults with college education. Walking was more likely among adults reporting physical activity during leisure time and less likely among housewives/househusbands or those living in Tunjuelito.
Conclusion
Programs that promote walking or bicycling in Bogotá should consider differences in individual and environmental factors.
Background: Promoting physical activity is a public health priority, and changes in the environmental contexts of adults’ activity choices are believed to be crucial. However, of the factors associated with physical activity, environmental influences are among the least understood.Method: Using journal scans and computerized literature database searches, we identified 19 quantitative studies that assessed the relationships with physical activity behavior of perceived and objectively determined physical environment attributes. Findings were categorized into those examining five categories: accessibility of facilities, opportunities for activity, weather, safety, and aesthetic attributes.Results: Accessibility, opportunities, and aesthetic attributes had significant associations with physical activity. Weather and safety showed less-strong relationships. Where studies pooled different categories to create composite variables, the associations were less likely to be statistically significant.Conclusions: Physical environment factors have consistent associations with physical activity behavior. Further development of ecologic and environmental models, together with behavior-specific and context-specific measurement strategies, should help in further understanding of these associations. Prospective studies are required to identify possible causal relationships.
Our review focuses on all articles in the English language that provide sufficient data to calculate a relative risk or odds ratio for CHD at different levels of physical activity. The inverse association between physical activity and incidence of CHD is consistently observed, especially in the better designed studies; this association is appropriately sequenced, biologically graded, plausible, and coherent with existing knowledge. Therefore, the observations reported in the literature support the inference that physical activity is inversely and causally related to the incidence of CHD. The two most important observations in this review are, first, better studies have been more likely than poorer studies to report an inverse association between physical activity and the incidence of CHD and, second, the relative risk of inactivity appears to be similar in magnitude to that of hypertension, hypercholesterolemia, and smoking. These observations suggest that in CHD prevention programs, regular physical activity should be promoted as vigorously as blood pressure control, dietary modification to lower serum cholesterol, and smoking cessation. Given the large proportion of sedentary persons in the United States (91), the incidence of CHD attributable to insufficient physical activity is likely to be surprisingly large. Therefore, public policy that encourages regular physical activity should be pursued.
This study examined (1) descriptive patterns in perceived environmental and policy determinants of physical activity and (2) associations between these factors and behavior.
A cross-sectional study was conducted from 1999 to 2000 among US adults; individuals at lower income levels were oversampled.
Availability of areas for physical activity was generally higher among men than among women. The 4 most commonly reported personal barriers were lack of time, feeling too tired, obtaining enough exercise at one's job, and no motivation to exercise. Neighborhood characteristics, including the presence of sidewalks, enjoyable scenery, heavy traffic, and hills, were positively associated with physical activity. There was a high level of support for health policy-related measures. Up to one third of individuals who had used environmental supports reported an increase in physical activity.
An array of environmental and policy determinants, particularly those related to the physical environment, are associated with physical activity and should be taken into account in the design of interventions.
This study evaluated a neighborhood environment survey and compared the physical activity and weight status of the residents in 2 neighborhoods.
On 2 occasions, 107 adults from neighborhoods with differing "walkability" were selected to complete a survey on their neighborhood environment. Physical activity was assessed by self-report and by accelerometer; height and weight were assessed by self-report.
Neighborhood environment characteristics had moderate to high test-retest reliabilities. Residents of high-walkability neighborhoods reported higher residential density, land use mix, street connectivity, aesthetics, and safety. They had more than 70 more minutes of physical activity and had lower obesity prevalence (adjusted for individual demographics) than did residents of low-walkability neighborhoods.
The reliability and validity of self-reported neighborhood environment subscales were supported. Neighborhood environment was associated with physical activity and overweight prevalence.
We evaluated perceived social and environmental supports for physical activity and walking using multivariable modeling. Perceptions were obtained on a sample of households in a southeastern county. Respondents were classified according to physical activity levels and walking behaviors. Respondents who had good street lighting; trusted their neighbors; and used private recreational facilities, parks, playgrounds, and sports fields were more likely to be regularly active. Perceiving neighbors as being active, having access to sidewalks, and using malls were associated with regular walking.
This study measured the prevalence of leisure-time physical activity in women from 18 to 69 years of age and identified correlated social factors in the neighborhood of Santafe, Bogotá, Colombia. Levels of physical activity were calculated through a population survey (n = 1,045). Logistic regression modeling identified factors associated with inactivity. Some 79.1% of respondents reported being inactive; 15.7% practiced physical exercise irregularly; and 5.2% regularly practiced physical exercise. After adjustment of covariates, physical inactivity was associated with not participating in recreational weekend activities on Sundays and not planning to lose weight. The results of this study show the high proportion of physically inactive women in a community in Bogotá Intervention strategies should be developed to reinforce recreational weekend activities on promoted by the municipality.
In 1998 the mayor's office and the District Institute for Sports and Recreation created Muevete Bogota, a physical activity and health promotion programme for the capital city of Colombia. Muevete means to move or to be active, and this campaign to promote physical activity was designed to improve the health and quality of life of the citizens of Bogota through regular physical activity. The programme is based on the 1995 recommendations on physical activity of the U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention and the American College of Sports Medicine (Pate el al., 1995), and was developed in close consultation with the Agita Sao Paulo programme in Brazil (Matsudo el al., 2003). Muevete Bogota couples a mass media campaign with programmes targeted to change physical activity behaviour. The interventions, which are conducted at work sites, schools, health care centers and in community settings rely on partnerships created among professionals in areas of education and health, business officials and personnel, and community members, to deliver the programmes in each of these settings and populations.
Like many developing countries, Colombia suffers from a growing epidemic of chronic diseases. In 1993 35.7% of total mortality in the city of Bogota was due to chronic diseases (Espinosa, 1993). In 2002 cardiovascular diseases accounted for 40.3% of mortality among the population aged 60 years or older and 26.8% for persons 45 to 59 years of age. (Cardona, 2002)
Bogota has implemented extensive physical and social environmental changes over the last decade, which has increased opportunities for physical activity, but sedentary lifestyle continues to be a significant public health problem in the city. Programmes such as Muevete Bogota that educate and motivate the population to become more physically active appear to be needed to complement the underlying environmental and policy changes. Muevete Bogota provides an example of successful implementation of a comprehensive multi-sectoral approach to physical activity promotion in a large metropolitan area. This model may be used as an exemplary effort elsewhere in Latin America and in urban areas in developing countries around the world.
Background:Because most adults in industrialized countries do not meet physical activity guidelines, population-wide interventions are needed. Environmental and policy interventions are based on ecological models of behavior and have the potential to influence entire populations. Ecological models are particularly applicable to physical activity because the behavior must be done in specific physical settings. Cross-sectional data indicate that environmental and policy variables are associated with physical activity behaviors of young people and adults.Method: Seven published evaluations of environmental and policy interventions to increase physical activity were reviewed.Results: Two studies showed that placing signs encouraging stair use can be effective. Quasi-experimental evaluations provided limited evidence that broad environmental changes can be effective. Large-scale policy interventions are currently being conducted in several countries.Proposed Model: A model describing the development of policy and environmental interventions is proposed, in the hope of stimulating more research in this area. Advocacy or planning groups identify and work with agencies that control policies and environments that can be altered to increase physical activity. Educational and policy/environmental interventions are seen as complementary.Conclusion: Lack of conceptual models and the inherent difficulties of evaluation have hampered research on environmental and policy interventions. Further research is needed, and practitioners and researchers should work together to evaluate programs.
Outdoor beautification and varied spatial positions and sensations of colours in the built environment create visual contrasts which contribute to urban aesthetic development. The perception of the dynamics of colours and their “chroma value” can have a considerable effect on the character of an environment. Colour in an urban environment is a function of the paint and other coverings used, and it is the effect of the surface colour that results, which is explored in this paper. To understand urban aesthetics the interaction and interdependence of the complex environment need to be considered separately. The physical environment, the biological environment and the socio-cultural environment each make their contribution to the whole. Trying to beautify an environment is a complex problem which can be helped by legislation but this must be underpinned by education which can aid compliance. Nigeria is a multi-cultural society the various elements of which see and use colour differently from each other. It is the role of designers to lead builders, and help in the education of the disparate city dwellers, with the aim of producing an environment aesthetically pleasing to all. Nothing should be excluded from consideration whether sculptural decoration or the humble streetlight.
Because most adults in industrialized countries do not meet physical activity guidelines, population-wide interventions are needed. Environmental and policy interventions are based on ecological models of behavior and have the potential to influence entire populations. Ecological models are particularly applicable to physical activity because the behavior must be done in specific physical settings. Cross-sectional data indicate that environmental and policy variables are associated with physical activity behaviors of young people and adults.
Seven published evaluations of environmental and policy interventions to increase physical activity were reviewed.
Two studies showed that placing signs encouraging stair use can be effective. Quasi-experimental evaluations provided limited evidence that broad environmental changes can be effective. Large-scale policy interventions are currently being conducted in several countries. PROPOSED MODEL: A model describing the development of policy and environmental interventions is proposed, in the hope of stimulating more research in this area. Advocacy or planning groups identify and work with agencies that control policies and environments that can be altered to increase physical activity. Educational and policy/environmental interventions are seen as complementary.
Lack of conceptual models and the inherent difficulties of evaluation have hampered research on environmental and policy interventions. Further research is needed, and practitioners and researchers should work together to evaluate programs.
Physically active lifestyles are regularly associated with improved health and quality of life. Differences in lifestyles in society can partly be understood through the differences in the social and physical environment. This study examines the relationships between reported physical activity, and the extent of perceived support for physical activity in the physical and policy environment (e.g. facilities, programmes and other opportunities), and in the social environment. The data for the study come from a cross-cultural health policy study called MAREPS. In total, 3342 adults, 18 years or older, from six countries (Belgium, Finland, Germany, The Netherlands, Spain, Switzerland) were interviewed via telephone. Respondents were categorised as active or inactive according to self-reported physical activity. Social environmental factors and physical and policy environmental factors were also assessed. The analysis of the data was informed by social cognitive theory, although the study was not originally designed for this purpose. Sixty-eight percent of females and 70% of males were active. The proportions of active and inactive varied by countries to a great extent. The strongest independent predictor of being physically active was social environment. Those who perceived low social support from their personal environment (i.e. family, friends, school and workplace) were more than twice as likely to be sedentary compared to those who reported high social support from their personal environment. Specific knowledge of the programmes and actions for physical activity and sport was also a strong predictor of being active. A supportive physical and policy environment was not associated with participation in physical activity as strongly as had been anticipated. The variation between countries was stronger predictor of being active than the physical and policy environment variables. This study generates the hypotheses and raises the questions that in a preliminary way, there appears to be some relationships between aspects of physical and social environment and physical activity participation. However, future research is needed to refine and clarify this.
Promoting physical activity is a public health priority, and changes in the environmental contexts of adults' activity choices are believed to be crucial. However, of the factors associated with physical activity, environmental influences are among the least understood.
Using journal scans and computerized literature database searches, we identified 19 quantitative studies that assessed the relationships with physical activity behavior of perceived and objectively determined physical environment attributes. Findings were categorized into those examining five categories: accessibility of facilities, opportunities for activity, weather, safety, and aesthetic attributes.
Accessibility, opportunities, and aesthetic attributes had significant associations with physical activity. Weather and safety showed less-strong relationships. Where studies pooled different categories to create composite variables, the associations were less likely to be statistically significant.
Physical environment factors have consistent associations with physical activity behavior. Further development of ecologic and environmental models, together with behavior-specific and context-specific measurement strategies, should help in further understanding of these associations. Prospective studies are required to identify possible causal relationships.
Understanding how environmental attributes can influence particular physical activity behaviors is a public health research priority. Walking is the most common physical activity behavior of adults; environmental innovations may be able to influence rates of participation.
Review of studies on relationships of objectively assessed and perceived environmental attributes with walking. Associations with environmental attributes were examined separately for exercise and recreational walking, walking to get to and from places, and total walking.
Eighteen studies were identified. Aesthetic attributes, convenience of facilities for walking (sidewalks, trails); accessibility of destinations (stores, park, beach); and perceptions about traffic and busy roads were found to be associated with walking for particular purposes. Attributes associated with walking for exercise were different from those associated with walking to get to and from places.
While few studies have examined specific environment-walking relationships, early evidence is promising. Key elements of the research agenda are developing reliable and valid measures of environmental attributes and walking behaviors, determining whether environment-behavior relationships are causal, and developing theoretical models that account for environmental influences and their interactions with other determinants.
The purpose of this paper is to clarify the nature of the on-going urban transition in developing countries, the quality of the available data, and the uncertainty of existing urban forecasts. Although the recently released United Nations’ publication World Urbanization Prospects is an invaluable resource for those interested in studying urban change, the data in the report are somewhat deceptive in their apparent completeness and beyond the narrow confines of technical demography there is a great deal of misunderstanding and misreporting about what these data mean and how they should be interpreted. For example, while the scale of urban change is unprecedented and the nature and direction of urban change is more dependent on the global economy than ever before, many aspects of the traditional distinction between urban and rural are becoming redundant. This paper provides a broad overview of the available evidence on patterns and trends in urban growth in developing countries, highlighting regional differences where appropriate. The paper also examines the quality of past urban population projections and finds that there has been considerable diversity in their quality by geographic region, level of development, and size of country.
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