Content uploaded by Ruckmani Kandasamy
Author content
All content in this area was uploaded by Ruckmani Kandasamy on Feb 23, 2015
Content may be subject to copyright.
Received: 23 February, 2010. Accepted: 20 October, 2010. Research Note
Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology ©2011 Global Science Books
Skin Care with Herbal Exfoliants
Nilani Packianathan1* • Ruckmani Kandasamy2
1 Department of Pharmacognosy, JSS College of Pharmacy, JSS University, Ootacamund, Nilgiris, Tamilnadu, India
2 Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Anna University Tiruchirapalli, Tamilnadu, India
Corresponding author: * p.nilani@js scpooty.org
ABSTRACT
Exfoliation is the process of removal of removing the old, dead skin cells that cling to the skin’s outermost surface. The two types of
exfoliation are mechanical and chemical. People’s opportunities for seeking dermatological assistance for a myriad of conditions,
including acne, rosacea, striae, photodamage, and skin cancers have increased in recent years. Chronological aging is a process of intrinsic
or normal aging of the skin. Chronic exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light leads to photodamage of the skin, which is the leading cause of
extrinsic aging, or alteration of the skin due to environmental exposure. Management options for photodamaged skin include alpha-
hydroxy acids, antioxidants, antiandrogens, moisturizers and exfoliants. Many treatments are available to reverse the damage, but their
efficacy remains to be proven and they may also produce unwanted side effects. Herbal Exfoliant is a cleansing formula and treatment
mask that detoxifies the skin and stimulates its metabolism. It enhances absorption and retention of moisturizing agents and restores the
skin’s own natural moisture factor. Skin exfoliation improves the quality and tone of skin by assisting in the removal of dead skin cells
from the surface. Herbal Exfoliant produces soft, supple, re-energized skin and prevents premature skin aging.
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Keywords: antioxidant, desquamation, keratinocytes, melanocytes
INTRODUCTION
Human skin undergoes modification throughout the course
of life because of physiological and external stimuli. Both
the Intrinsic (chronological) and extrinsic (environmental)
overlap during a person’s lifetime and both are responsible
for dysfunction of the skin’s natural self-protection mecha-
nism and repair capability. Intrinsic aging involves genetic
components, while photoaging or environmental aging is
caused by exposure to unfavorable skin conditions during a
person’s lifetime. To maintain health and beauty as you age,
the skin requires supportive care. Herbal exfoliants (HEs)
alleviate age–related changes and neutralize environmental
attacks by removing dead skin cells from the epidermis,
exposing newly formed skin cells on the surface and stimu-
lating cell growth in the subepidermal layer. This shedding
of the outer dead cell layer also helps to unclog skin pores
and keeps skin clean (Dumas et al. 2008).
As new skin cells are generated, the external layer of
skin cells becomes dense and rigid and loses moisture. This
layer eventually detaches from the skin cells beneath allow-
ing newly formed cells to surface in a process called des-
quamation. Desquamation also eliminates damaged and
contaminated cells that carry body toxins, pollutants and
microorganisms from the environment. These dead skin
cells can take a long time to exfoliate naturally and this
leads to clogging of the skin pores, which in turn causes
skin congestion. The rate at which natural exfoliation takes
place depends on internal factors such as health, age, and
the amount of moisture in the skin, as well as on external
factors such as protective covering, temperature, and wea-
ther conditions (Panda 2001). HEs can help to remove these
dead cells.
SKIN TYPES BENEFITTING FROM EXFOLIATION
Aged and mature skin
In aged skin with a thin epidermis and atrophied dermis, the
fatty tissues of the hypodermis may also decrease. The
texture of the dermal tissue changes as the collagenous
fibers progressively organize in large bundles. Blood cir-
culation decreases in the skin’s microvessels, and sweat
production decreases due to a reduction in the number of
active sweat glands. Sebum production is lower and pig-
mentation changes occurs leading to age spots. In aging
skin the natural sloughing of older cells from the skin
becomes more difficult, causing a dull, thick skin with less
tone. Exfoliation with a formulation containing skin nut-
rients and moisturizers is especially effective on prema-
turely-aged and mature skin, as it stimulates natural cell
renewal (Ostacolo et al. 2007).
Acneic skin
Acneic skin produces five times more dead skin cells than
occur in other skin conditions and exfoliation can have
great benefits for acneic skin. Hydroxy acids are effective
in preventing dead skin cells from clogging hair follicles
and contributing to acne.
Hyperpigmentation
Hyperpigmentation is a darkening of skin color caused by
either an increase in melanin or melanocytes, or from depo-
sition of a colored substance in the skin. Exfoliation helps
to shed these pigmented cells more quickly and lighten age
spots. Special ingredients in the exfoliant allow it to effec-
tively penetrate a hyper-pigmented area at its source (Asha-
wat et al. 2008).
Dehydration
In dehydrated skin, the lack of moisture leads to fractures in
the cellular barrier, leaving skin tight and stretched. Over-
moisturization leads to a dull, uneven skin tone. By apply-
ing an exfoliant, the dying skin cells are effectively re-
moved and moisturizing and hydrating ingredients can pen-
etrate deeper into skin to help ease dry skin conditions (Sahl
et al. 1994).
®
Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology 5 (Special Issue 1), 94-97 ©2011 Global Science Books
Photodamage
Exposure of the epidermis and dermis to UV radiation from
sunlight causes photodamage. UV radiation can induce
acute and chronic changes in the DNA, protein and lipid
building blocks. Acute effects include sunburn, photo
toxicity, photo-allergy, cutaneous degeneration and actinic
elastosis. Photodamaged skin appears thicker (actinic kera-
tosis) and less elastic due to hypertrophy of elastic tissues
and alterations in collagen fibers (Hawk 2001). Exfoliation
may help people with sun-damaged skin containing poten-
tially abnormal cells to eliminate these cells before they
become dangerous, and this may help prevent skin cancer.
Mechanism
Human skin is comprised of three layers, the epidermis, the
dermis, and the subcutaneous layer. Skin varies in com-
position and thickness throughout the body. The process of
exfoliation and skin cell renewal takes place in the epider-
mis, the outer layer, which is 0.5-1.0 mm thick. Skin con-
tains about 70% water, 25% protein and 2% lipids, with the
remaining 3% consisting of trace minerals, nucleic acids,
glycosoaminoglycans, proteoglycans and various other che-
micals.
The cells of the uppermost layer of the epidermis, the
stratum corneum or ‘horny layer’ comprise a protective
layer of continually shedding dead cells known as keratino-
cytes, (the primary type of epidermal cells), hardened pro-
teins known as keratins (protect against harmful substances),
and lipids. Fibroblasts are connective tissue cells found in
the dermis layer of the skin. These cells synthesize col-
lagen, elastin and other structural molecules, and their pro-
per functioning is crucial to overall skin health. After about
fifty divisions, fibroblasts undergo cellular senescence in
which they lose the ability to divide and their metabolic
activity decreases. They tend to enlarge and accumulate
lipofuscin, the pigment responsible for age spots (Hawk
2001).
The middle layer of the epidermis contains vital living
keratinocytes, or squamous cells, which do the main work
of protecting the body. The inner layer of the epidermis, the
basal layer, consists of basal cells, which continually divide
to form new keratinocytes. As they differentiate, they mig-
rate into the middle layer to perform their protective func-
tions. As they mature, keratinocytes lose water, flatten out
and move upward, eventually reaching the stratum corneum
where they are then shed, to be replaced by new cells
moving upward from the middle layer (Tadokoro et al.
2008).
Epidermal cells adhere to each other on the tops, sides
and bases of the cells via calcium-dependent desmosomes.
As the cells move upward from the deeper layers of the epi-
dermis to the outermost layers of the stratum corneum, the
desmosome attachments become weaker.
This weakening is accelerated by enzymes, found only
in skin and hair follicles that break the bonds of the desmo-
somes and free the cells to slough off (Hawk 2001).
While the exact mechanism is unknown, it is believed
that cells are programmed when they are young and resi-
ding in the lower layers of the epidermis. Each cell has an
internal clock that ensures that it is linked to other cells for
a certain period of time. When the clock runs down, cell
cohesion decreases and the cells slough off. Although the
mechanism controlling the activation process is not well
understood, the enzyme responsible for weakening the
bonds between cells is inactive in the skin until activated by
another enzyme. The complex process known as keratiniza-
tion commences with the birth of a new daughter cell in the
basal cell layer (stratum germinativum) and its progression
upward until it is shed as a stratum corneum corneocyte.
This normally takes about four weeks; however, it can take
as much as seventy-five days depending on age and the
condition of the skin. As expected, younger skin is more
efficient than aged skin at this process of desquamation,
which stimulates the growth of new cells at a deeper level
(Nina et al. 2009).
As we age, the glue-like intercellular cement holding
the cells together becomes denser, causing a build up in the
layers of cells; cell sloughing becomes more difficult resul-
ting in a skin that appears dull, thick and with less tone.
This may be exacerbated by environmental factors like ex-
posure to sunlight, hormonal influences (androgens, estro-
gens, and epidermal growth factor) and deficiencies in vari-
ous vitamins like A and D. With all of these influences af-
fecting the desquamation process, it is apparent why exfo-
liation is so important to the skin. Removing this buildup of
dead, damaged skin cells stimulates the regeneration of new
cells improving the skin’s appearance, feel and texture (Sahl
1994).
EXFOLIATION METHODS
Manual/mechanical skin exfoliation
Manual skin exfoliation refers to any type of topical skin
exfoliation that is applied to the skin manually with fingers
or applicator. It is suitable for normal skin. Mechanical ex-
foliation involves physically scrubbing the skin with a mild
abrasive such as micro-fiber cloths, adhesive exfoliation
sheets, micro-bead facial scrubs, crepe paper, crushed apri-
cot kernels or almond shells, sugar or salt crystals, or
pumice, or using abrasive sponges and brushes. Mechanical
friction with abrasives exfoliates the outer corneocytes that
comprise the stratum corneum layer and results will vary
depending on the amount of friction and the nature of the
abrasive used (Chattopadhyay 1998). As a mechanical pro-
cess, gentle exfoliation can be achieved with micro-bead
face scrubs that will remove the top layer of skin. A more
extreme level of exfoliation is provided by dermabrasion
which entails the use of a laser to remove upper layers of
skin. Prior to the advent of laser technology, micro-sanders
were used (under anesthesia) to aggressively abrade the
skin surface.
Chemical/herbal exfoliation
This type of exfoliation includes use of creams, lotions and
gels. Chemical exfoliants include scrubs containing salicy-
lic acid, glycolic acid, fruit enzymes, citric acid, or malic
acid which may be applied in high concentrations by a der-
matologist, or in lower concentrations in over-the-counter
products (Ostacolo et al. 2007).
Chemical exfoliation may involve the use of products
that contain alpha hydroxy acid (AHA) or beta hydroxy
acids (BHAs) or enzymes that act to loosen the glue-like
substance that holds the cells together allowing them to
slough off. This type of exfoliation is recommended for
people treating acne.
While the precise mechanism of action of hydroxy acids
is still open to debate, there is a general consensus that ex-
foliating the outermost layers of the stratum corneum (the
stratum disjunctum) results in improved skin texture, and a
reduction in fine lines and hyperpigmentation.
It is thought that AHAs primarily affect the skin by nor-
malizing cell turnover in the epidermis. This stimulates the
formation of normal healthy skin, sloughing off of dead
cells from the stratum corneum, a decreased formation of
dry scales on the skins surface and stimulation of the cell
cycle. While this is plausible, there are some researchers
who believe the mechanism of action for AHAs cannot be
tied solely to stimulation of the skin as measured by tradi-
tional cell renewal techniques. Studies on cell cohesion and
skin pH changes indicate that keratin bonds may be affected
and that low pH levels associated with active AHA solu-
tions may dissolve the desmosome protein linkages causing
a burst in skin exfoliation. It is often said that AHAs affect
the skin from the inside out because of the suggestion that
they influence coenocytes cohesion in the lower layers of
the stratum corneum. The result is a thinner stratum cor-
95
Skin care with herbal exfoliant. Nilani and Ruckmani
neum that is more flexible and compact, reflects more light
and overall gives the skin a more youthful appearance.
In recent years, retinol (vitamin A) has been included in
exfoliation formulas because the skin can convert retinol to
retinoic acid, a potent skin exfoliant and antiaging agent.
Retinol has been shown to reduce the visible signs of both
photoaging and normal chronological aging when used on a
daily basis (Banerjee et al. 2005).
Enzyme exfoliation
This type of exfoliation includes use of products such as
cleansers, pads, masks and powders. Plant enzymes are dif-
ferent from AHAs or BHAs because they work by dis-
solving the top layer of dead skin cells. The main plant en-
zymes used in skin exfoliation are papain from papaya,
bromelain from pineapple and an enzyme from pumpkin.
Enzymes exfoliators can be used as an alternative to acid
exfoliators and work well for people with sensitive skin
who cannot tolerate acid. They should also be used by per-
sons of darker skin tones and are generally recommended
for acne treatment. Papain and bromelain are proteolytic
enzymes that stimulate exfoliation by digesting intercorneo-
cyte cohesion and softening of the skin. Unlike AHAs their
activity is not pH dependent but is activated by water and
limited in the amount of exfoliation that can be achieved
(Ostacolo et al. 2007).
Recent studies on another enzyme, a protease from the
microorganism Bacillus subtilis, have demonstrated that an
enzyme extract is a beneficial keratolytic agent that helps
eliminate desquamating corneocytes when applied topically
(Singh et al. 2001).
HERBAL EXFOLIATION
In India many HEs have been used traditionally for genera-
tions. They have stood the test of time and are safe to use.
Luffa aegyptiaca (luffa)
This HE contains finely ground fibers and walnut shell
powder. It gently exfoliates dull lifeless skin cells without
being harsh or abrasive and allows new, healthy skin to ap-
pear (Wang et al. 2002).
Ahnfeltia concinna (algae) extract
This extract is isolated from phytoplankton and sea algae
(Mathieson et al. 1984) and is one of the ingredients in an
HE preparation that provides the skin with an easily ab-
sorbed source of nutrients and moisturizers.
Grapefruit seed extract
This extract together with essential oils boosts the immune
system and creates a purifying environment for the skin.
This helps oily, overactive skin to normalize itself (Sachs
1997).
Apricot shell (Prunus armeniaca seed powder)
Finely ground pieces of the apricot seed shell are used as a
gentle exfoliant in scrubs. The scrub combines the mois-
turizing benefits of the apricot extract with the exfoliating
properties of finely ground apricot seeds. This advanced
formula face and body scrub helps to exfoliate dead skin
cells and leave the skin feeling fresh and smooth (Lauri et
al. 1998).
Lemon oil (Citrus peel oil)
This is obtained from the peel of the fruit, and contains
citroflavonoids that affect vascular permeability and im-
prove circulation and tone of capillaries and veins. It is an
essential oil with anti-inflammatory and antioxidant pro-
perties that contains vitamin C and is also used as a natural
fragrance (Homnava et al. 1990).
Cucumber extract (Cucumis sativus fruit extract)
The juice of the fruit acts as a moisturizer, soothing and
tightening the skin, and also has anti-inflammatory proper-
ties. It nourishes and softens the skin and when used in a
scrub, helps to remove impurities, dead skin cells and dirt
by gently unclogging pores. Thus, helps the skin stay fresh,
healthy, clean, hydrated and blemish-free (Homnava et al.
1990).
Papaya extract (Carica papaya fruit extract)
One of the active enzymes in papaya, papain, has antimicro-
bial as well as exfoliant properties. Papaya extract exfoli-
ates the skin, but can also help reduce edema and promote
wound healing (Stahl et al. 2005).
Mung dal (Phaseolus mungo seed)
This traditional exfoliant is used widely in herbal cosmetol-
ogy, since it helps to remove dead skin cells, retain a
smooth skin texture and maintain healthy glowing skin
(Swami et al. 2004).
Pineapple extract (Ananas comosus fruit extract)
The extract of pineapple will promote skin elasticity while
removing damaged and dead cells from the skin. It also
helps to improve moisture and hydration of the skin and
produces a clear complexion. A variety of ingredients, in-
cluding enzymes such as bromelain found in pineapple are
responsible for this action. Bromelain also has anti-inflam-
matory properties (Bakhru 1994).
Rosehip seed powder (Rosa canina)
Finely and smoothly ground powder of rosehip seeds forms
a natural exfoliating medium. This powder provides gentle
removal of dead skin cells without causing injury to the
skin (Lauri et al. 1998).
Cranberry (Cotoneaster apiculatus)
The tocotrienols contained in cranberry are very nourishing
to skin and have a moisturizing effect. They have antioxi-
dant properties and help protect the skin from stress caused
by sunlight. The omega oils contained in cranberry help to
moisturize and strengthen the skin, while at the same time
reducing inflammation. Apart from nourishing the skin,
cranberry also helps to improve moisture retention and in-
crease skin smoothness and skin elasticity (Stahl et al.
2005).
Green tea (Camellia sinensis)
Extensive research has shown that this botanical extract not
only has amazing antioxidant and cell protective qualities,
but also protects the collagen by inhibiting collagenase. It is
easily absorbed by the skin and protects the DNA and cells
in general, which helps the skin fight inflammation that
may cause premature aging. It has excellent astringent qua-
lities and promotes the elasticity and firmness of the skin. It
protects the cells in the skin from premature cell death, due
to radiation or excessive free radicals (Kong et al. 2003).
Tree tomato (Cymphomandra betaceae)
This edible red fruit is widely used as a skin colorant by
native tribes. The rich content of flavonoids and pectin of
this fruit has an antioxidant and cleansing action, which en-
hances the texture, smoothness and glossy appearance of
the skin (Rodriguez et al. 1983).
96
Functional Plant Science and Biotechnology 5 (Special Issue 1), 94-97 ©2011 Global Science Books
DOs AND DON’Ts IN HERBAL EXFOLIATION
Before using any exfoliating products, they should be tested
on the skin to see if the type of exfoliation suits the indi-
vidual skin type. Rubbing any exfoliating products on the
face should be avoided. It loosens the facial skin and can
cause wrinkles. Dabbing is a safer way to apply and rinse
exfoliating products. Hot water should not be used directly
on the face. It can harm the skin and dries it out too quickly.
Lukewarm or cool water is recommended for rinsing the
face. The skin should be exfoliated in the evening. Exfolia-
tion of skin gives better results during summer than winter.
Exfoliating the area around the eyes should be avoided
since the skin is very thin and sensitive in this area. After
exfoliation a good moisturizer containing nutrients, vita-
mins and antioxidants should be used to supply the required
supplements to the skin lost in exfoliation.
Advantages of HEs
Exfoliation removes the outer layer to reveal the newer skin
beneath. This shedding of the outer layer unclogs pores,
keeps skin clean and helps reduce acne breakouts. There are
several reasons that exfoliation is good for the skin. Regular
exfoliation gives the skin a more radiant look and a
smoother feel. Over time, it can help to reduce the appear-
ance of fine lines and will contribute to the skin’s firmness
and tone. It increases the blood circulation in the skin, helps
to remove toxins, rids skin of dry, rough patches, and can
even help to break down and lessen the appearance of cel-
lulite. It also enhances the effects of daily moisturizing by
allowing the moisturizer to penetrate the skin more deeply
(Lauri et al. 1998).
HEs are beneficial in the following ways: Improves the
texture of the skin; Makes the skin healthy; Makes the skin
look more radiant; Reduces appearance of wrinkles and fine
lines; Prevents acne; Prevents aging of the skin; Promotes
collagen building; Clean clogged pores; Improve skin's
thickness; Reduces brown spots; Improve skin cell renewal;
Removes the dead skin layer and allows the active ingre-
dients in skin care products to reach the inner layers of the
skin to vitalize them; They are biodegradable.
CONCLUSION
The key to healthy skin is daily exfoliation and hydration.
The environment clogs the skin pores with dirt and toxins
and our internal body excretion mechanism also tries to get
rid of its toxic components of metabolism through the same
pores. This leads to build up of dead skin cells. Daily exfo-
liation with a gentle, creamy herbal scrub accelerates new
cell generation while decreasing the surface buildup of dead
skin cells. Every day the skin is exposed to harmful rays
from sunlight and attack by free-radicals. These daily as-
saults may intensify melanin formation and damage cells,
hence accelerating the process of skin darkening and aging.
The most serious form of skin cancer is caused by excessive
exposure to the sun (ultraviolet radiation) and herbal exfoli-
ation may help to prevent skin cancer. Skin cells that are
damaged are at greater risk of becoming abnormal and can-
cerous. Sun damage can also cause other skin problems to
develop such as premature skin aging and actinic keratoses.
Herbal skin exfoliant enriched with herbal extracts penet-
rate deep into the skin to nourish it and make it blemish-free
by shielding the skin from damage by environmental pol-
lution and preventing photo-damage such as discoloration
and hyper-pigmentation. Herbal skin exfoliation is an im-
portant part of general skin maintenance. It smoothes and
chemically balances the skin, unclogs pores and stimulates
fresh cell growth, reducing blemishes, discoloration and
wrinkles which helps the skin stays healthy clean, hydrated
and blemish-free. Apart from removing dead skin cells, a
gentle exfoliation of the skin will also positively help to
create a smoother and finer skin texture, as well as reduce
pore size when used over an extended period.
REFERENCES
Ashawat MS, Saraf S, Swarnlata S (2008) Comparative sun protection factor
determination of fresh Aloe vera gel vs marketed formulation. Indian Journal
of Pharmaceutical Education and Research 42 (4), 319-322
Bakhru H K (1996) A Complete Handbook of Natural Cure (2nd Edn), Jaico
Publication House, Mumbai, pp 147-147
Banerjee G, Gupta N, Tiwari J (2005) Ultraviolet-induced transformation of
keratinocytes: Possib le involvement of long interspersed element-1 reverse
transcriptase. Photodermatology, Photoimmunology and Photomedicine 21
(1), 32-39
Chattopadhyay PK (1998) Herbal Cosmetics and Ayurvdic Medicines (EOU)
(1st Edn), National Institute of Research, Delhi, pp 167-177
Dumas M, Langle S, Noblesse E, Bonnet-Duque nnoy B, Pelle de Queral D,
Tadokoro T, Bonte T (2008) Histological variation of skin with aging. Inter-
national Journal of Cosmetic Science 27 (1), 47-50
Hawk J (2001) Skin photoaging and health benefits of cutaneus photoprotec-
tion. In: Coohill TP, Valenzeno DP (Eds) Photobiology for 21st Century, Val-
denmar Publishing, Kansas, pp 31-32
Homnava A, Rogers W, Eitenmiller RR (1990) Provitamin A activity of spe-
cialty fruit marketed in the United States. Journal of Food Composition and
Analysis 3, 119-133
Kong J, Chia L, Goh N, Chia T, Brouillard R (2003) Analysis and biological
activities of anthocyanins. Phytochemistry 64, 923-933
Lauri MA (1998) Your Natural Health Makeover (1st Edn), Prentice Hall, pp
167-177
Mathieson AC, Emerich Penniman C, Tveter-Gallagher E (1984) Phycocol-
loid ecology of underutilized economic red algae. Hydrobiologia 116- 117 (1 ),
542-546
Mikirova NA, Jackson JA, Hunninghake R, Kenyon J, Chan KWH, Swin-
dlehurst CA (2009) Circulating endothelial progenitor cells: A new approach
to anti-aging medicine. Journal of Translational Medicine 7 (106), 1-12
Ostacolo C, Sacchi A, Bernardi A, Laneri S, Brunetta A, Pantini G (2007)
Perfluoropolyether phosphate: skin exfoliation after a topical pre-treatment,
TEWLand skin elasticity, by in-vivo non-invasive meth ods. International
Journal of Cosmetic Science 29 (5), 391-398
Panda H (2001) The Complete Technology Book on Herbal Perfumes and Cos-
metics (1st Edn), National Institute of Research, Delhi, pp 403-417
Rodriguez-Amaya DB, Bobbio PA, Bobbio FO (1983) Carotenoid composi-
tion, vitamin A value of the Brazilian fruit Cyphomandra betacea. Food Che-
mistry 12, 61-65
Sachs Allan (1997) The Authoritative Guide to Grapefruit Seed Extract, Men-
docino, CA, pp 24-58
Sahl W, Clever H (1994) Cutaneous scars: Part I. International Journal of Der-
matology 33, 681-691
Singh J, Gross M, Sage B, Davis HT, Maibach HI (2001) Title of paper. Food
and Chemical Toxicology 39 (11), 1079-1086
Stahl W, Sies H (2005) Bioactivity and protective effects of natural carotenoids.
Biochimca et Biophysica Acta 1740, 101-107
Swami BS, Das SK, Mait B (2004) Effect of water and air content on the
rheological properties of black gram batter. Journal of Food Engineering 65
(2), 189-196
Wan g H (2002) Luffangulin, a novel ribosome inactivating peptide from ridge
gourd (Luffa acutangula) s eeds. Life Sciences 70 (8), 899-906
Wills RBH, Lim JSK, Greenfield H (1986) Composition of Australian foods.
Tropical and sub-tropical fruit. Food Technology 38, 118-123
97
