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Within aesthetic sports such as figure skating and rhythmic gym-
nastics, physical fitness has been shown to have positive benefits on
performance outcomes. Presently the link between physical fitness
and aesthetic contemporary dance performance has not been
demonstrated within an intervention study. For this study, 24
females engaged in contemporary dance (age 27 ± 5.9 yrs; height
165.3 ± 4.8 cm; weight 59.2 ± 7.6 kg) were recruited and randomly
assigned to either an exercise (n= 12) or a control group (n= 12).
Three dancers withdrew during the study. The intervention group
completed a 6-week conditioning programme comprising twice-
weekly1-hr sessions of circuit and vibration training per week. <AU:
as meant?> The circuit training focused on local muscular
endurance and aerobic conditioning and vibration training proto-
col concentrated on power. Repeated measures ANOVA revealed
significant increases for the conditioning group in lower body mus-
cular power (11%), upper body muscular endurance (22%), aerobic
fitness (11%), and aesthetic competence (12%) (p< 0.05). The con-
trol group reported decreases in all the fitness parameters with the
exception of aerobic fitness as well as a decrease in aesthetic compe-
tence (7%). A 6-week circuit and vibration training programme,
which supplemented normal dance commitments, revealed signifi-
cant increases in selected fitness components and a concomitant
increase in aesthetic competence in contemporary professional and
student dancers. Med Probl Perform Art 2012; 27(1):3–8.
The majority of studies in contemporary dance have made
observations about the physical fitness levels of contem-
porary dancers, such as aerobic fitness,1anaerobic power,2
and muscular strength.3These studies demonstrated that
dancers, both professionals and students, have reduced fit-
ness levels compared to athletes. In other aesthetic-based dis-
ciplines, such as rhythmic gymnastics, increases in selected
fitness levels, such as strength and flexibility, are associated
with significant improvements in technique,4which in turn
can affect overall performance. However, there is a paucity of
data regarding the effectiveness of supplementary condition-
ing training on aesthetic competence (AC) and fitness levels
in contemporary dance. To our knowledge, only two studies
have investigated the effects of increased fitness levels (only
one via appropriately designed interventions) on selected
aspects of contemporary dance. These available data suggest
that increases in muscular strength and power have beneficial
effects on jump ability5and overall performance.6However,
it has been suggested that these data can only be considered
preliminary, since they both used an aesthetic assessment
tool which was not previously assessed for validity or reliabil-
ity. For this reason, it is necessary to further investigate the
effects of supplemental conditioning training on contempo-
rary dance performance using appropriate methodological
designs and reliable techniques.7
A recently published study by our group revealed that aes-
thetic competence of professional and student contemporary
dancers, assessed by a reliable AC tool, is associated with
higher levels of lower body muscular power and upper body
muscular endurance.7Therefore, developing exercise inter-
ventions to specifically train these two physiological aspects
may further improve AC in dancers.
The physiological effects of resistance training on muscular
power and endurance are well documented.8The effects of
such training are related to the type of exercise used, its inten-
sity, and its volume.9Circuit training (CT), a series of exercises
arranged consecutively in 9 to 12 stations with 15- to 45-
second workouts and little (15 to 30 seconds) or no rest in
between, has been shown to significantly improve aerobic
capacity 10 and muscular fitness.11 CT may be performed with
exercise machines, hand-held weights, elastic resistance, or any
combination. The benefits of whole-body vibration (WBV)
March 2012 3
Articles
Effects of Supplemental Training on Fitness and
Aesthetic Competence Parameters
in Contemporary Dance
A Randomised Controlled Trial
Manuela Angioi, PhD, George Metsios, PhD, Emily A. Twitchett, PhD, Yiannis Koutedakis, PhD,
and Matthew Wyon, PhD
Drs. Angioi, Metsios, Twitchett, Koutedakis, and Wyon are with the Research
Centre for Sport, Exercise and Performance, University of Wolverhampton,
Walsall, UK. In addition, Dr. Angioi is with Queen Mary’s University,
London, UK; Dr. Koutedakis is also with the Department of Exercise Sci-
ences, University of Thessaly, and the Institute of Human Performance and
Rehabilitation, Keteath, Trikala, Greece; and Dr. Wyon is also with the
National Institute of Dance Medicine and Science, Birmingham, UK, and
the Department of Dance, ArtEz, Arnhem, The Netherlands.
The Arts and Humanities Research Council of the UK provided funding
for this project.
Address correspondence to: Dr. Matthew Wyon, Research Centre for Sport,
Exercise and Performance, University of Wolverhampton, Gorway Rd., Wal-
sall, West Midlands WS1 3BD, UK. Tel +44-1902323144, fax +44
1902322894. m.wyon@wlv.ac.uk. <AU: fax # okay?>
training have been shown in disease, sedentary, and exercising
populations,12–14 while relevant studies on dancers15,16 have
shown increased power and active flexibility without increas-
ing muscle circumference, an important aspect when in dance
aesthetics. Previous research has shown that the length of
time required for each exercise session is much shorter than
traditional supplemental training sessions.17,18 This enables
supplemental vibration training to be programmed into train-
ing/rehearsal schedules that typically last 6 to 8 hours a day
without significantly increasing the workload.
Therefore, the main aim of the present study was to inves-
tigate the effects of a supplementary 6-week CT and WBV
training programme on selected fitness-related parameters,
such as lower body muscular power, upper body muscular
endurance, aerobic fitness, and AC in female contemporary
dancers.
METHODS
The purpose of the present randomized controlled clinical
trial was to examine the effects of a 6-week supplementary
CT and WBV programme on fitness-related parameters and
AC in contemporary dancers. Using the closed-envelope
method, participants were randomly assigned to either a con-
ditioning or a control group. The conditioning group under-
took the 6-week exercise training programme, while the con-
trol group completed two extra 1-hour contemporary dance
technique classes per week (equivalent time exposure as the
conditioning group). During the entire period, both groups
received the same amount of dance practice.
Data werecollected during the weeks just before and after
the conditioning and included: anthropometry and body
composition, lower body muscular power, upper body mus-
cular endurance, aerobic fitness, assessed via validated proce-
dures,19 and an AC test comprised of 90 seconds of a chore-
ographed contemporary dance routine.7In order to
investigate the effects of our training protocol on AC and
selected fitness parameters, dancers were instructed to follow
their normal lifestyle and to participate in no additional exer-
cise training beyond their regular dance training prior and
during the 6-week period. The authors’ institution’s ethics
committee approved the study.
Participants
Fourteen female contemporary dance students in preprofes-
sional training and 10 professional dancers were recruited
from a dance conservatoire final-year performance group and
a full-time dance company during the spring term. A mixed
group was used as the authors tried to ensure that the dance
training load of the participants was similar, and the dance
conservatoire and company approached to participate in this
study had very similar class and rehearsal training time.
Three participants from the control group dropped out
midway through the study, resulting in 12 participants in the
conditioning group and 9 in the control group (Table 1).
Dancers were excluded from the study if: 1) they presented
a confirmed injury and/or eating disorder, or 2) they were
undertaking other forms of sports activities. Each of the inclu-
sion criteria was determined by responses to a specifically
modified medical questionnaire (Par-Q). Written informed
consents were obtained from all participants after full verbal
and written explanation of the data collection procedures.
Data Collection
All testing was completed on the same day and with the fol-
lowing order: 1) fitness assessments and 2) AC test. To avoid
fatigue, an interval of 3 hours was allowed between the fit-
ness and AC tests. Pre- and post-testing sessions occurred
within 1 week before and after the 6-week conditioning
period. All assessments were conducted after 15 to 20 min-
utes of a tailored warm-up routine. The fitness tests followed
the British Association of Sport and Exercise Science guide-
lines for dancers.19
Anthropometry and Body Composition
Standing height was measured to the nearest 0.5 cm using a
Seca stadiometer 208 (Hamburg, Germany), with the partici-
pants in bare feet and their heads positioned at the Frankfort
horizontal plane. Total body mass was measured to the near-
est 0.5 kg using a Seca beam balance 710 (Hamburg, Ger-
many). Percentage body fat (%BF) was estimated from the
mean of three readings per site according to the four-sites for-
mula of Durnin and Womersley where the sum of the tri-
ceps, subscapular, suprailiac, and calf skinfolds were needed
to calculate body density prior to using the Siri equation to
determine %BF; Harpenden callipers were used.
Muscular Power
Muscular power of the lower extremity was assessed by a
standing vertical jump that has been found to correlate well
with lower body muscle power.5Participants were barefoot
and were asked to assume the dance first position (heels
together and hips externally rotated) on a jump meter (Takei
Yashiroda, Japan); they were then instructed to perform a
4Medical Problems of Performing Artists
TABLE 1. Participants’ Characteristics at Baseline*
Group No. Age (yrs) Height (cm) Weight (kg) %BF
Conditioning 12 27 ± 4.3 163 ± 5.5 56.4 ± 6.7 19.7 ± 3.2
Control 9 27 ± 7.9 165.4 ± 4.6 58.3 ± 7.4 19.3 ± 1.6
*No significant differences between groups.
demi-plié (half-squat) and immediately jump as high as possible
off both feet keeping heels together, hips externally rotated,
and pointed feet (a dance sauté); the arms remained at the side
throughout the jump sequence. Participants were asked to
repeat the test three times and the highest score was recorded.
Muscular Endurance
Upper body muscular endurance was measured by the
number of complete press-ups completed in a 1-minute
period.19,20 This test was used since it has been found to be a
valid and reliable indicator of the upper body muscular
endurance.20 It was administered with the participants in the
modified knee press-ups position. A complete press-up was
achieved when the chest was lowered so the arms achieved a
90obend and then lifted until the arms were straight.
Aerobic Capacity
The aerobic capacity of dancers was tested using the validated
Dance Aerobic Fitness Test (DAFT).21 The test consists of five
progressively demanding stages, lasting 4 minutes each, for a
total of 20 minutes. Each stage was a contemporary dance
sequence, which increased in intensity and speed at each
stage. Before the test, each subject underwent a familiariza-
tion process and was introduced to the tempo of each stage
and the test termination criteria.21 Dancers were fitted with a
Polar heart rate (HR) monitor (Kempele, Finland). The mean
HR of the participants during the last minute of the last stage
was calculated from the downloaded HR data.21 The final
stage has a mean aerobic demand of 46 mL · kg–1 · min–1 for
females and is representative of the mean peak O2demand
during contemporary dance performance.22
Contemporary Dance Aesthetic Competence Test
A recently developed reliable dance aesthetic competence
test7was employed. Participants were asked to learn the short
dance sequence (1 min 30 secs) within a 20-minute period.
They performed the sequence pre- and post-conditioning
with each trial being video-recorded. An experienced female
contemporary dance teacher marked each trial using the
seven criteria in the AC tool7(i.e., control of movement; spa-
tial skills; accuracy of movement; technique; dynamics,
timing, and rhythmical accuracy; performance qualities; over-
all performance). Each criterion could be scored from 1 (min-
imum score) to 10 (maximum score) with a possible total
score of 70. The marker was blind as to the groups the par-
ticipants had been allocated and order of the videoed dance
pieces (pre or post trial).
Training Programme
The conditioning training took place at the participants’
workplace, which was equipped with the required facilities
(i.e., vibration platform, free weights, jump ropes, mats).
Training was organised twice a week and each training ses-
sion lasted approximately 1 hour. Warm up and cool down
were performed respectively before and after each training
session. The conditioning comprised circuit training (CT)
followed by whole-body vibration training (WBV). A rest
time of 10 minutes was set between CT and WBV. For the
total time of the training period, participants were supervised
and always guided by the same member of the research team.
A dance-specific CT programme was designed, according
to existing protocols. This consisted of lower and upper body
exercises, organised in 10 stations. The 10 exercises included:
jumps with feet in parallel position (using a jumping rope),
press-ups, bicep curls, triceps extension (with free weights of
0.5 kg each), single leg squat, squats-jumps, heel-rises in
dance first position, deep squats in dance second position,
chest press exercises (with free weights of 0.5 kg each), and
plank. Each station was a continuous 30-sec exercise, during
which the dancers where instructed to perform as many rep-
etitions as possible. A maximum transitory time of 10 sec was
allowed between each station. The total time for each circuit
was 6 min 50 sec (including the rest between each station).
Dancers were instructed to perform a total of four circuits.
Each training session was supervised by the same exercise
instructor in order to ensure that participants were exercising
with the correct technique.
The WBV training protocol used in this study was a
dance-modified (i.e., dance-specific static positions) version
of an existing protocol.23 It involved three sets, lasting 40 sec-
onds each, of six static positions: 1) squat position with feet
in dance first position.; 2) plank position (elbow flexed on
the floor and feet on platform); 3) lunge position (right and
left leg); 4) press up position, 90° bend at the elbows; 5) calf
position, feet in relevé (heel-rise) with knees slightly bent; 6)
hamstring position, bent over at waist, with knees slightly
bent and hamstrings tensed. The rest between each set was 2
minutes. The frequency of the vibration platform was set at
35 Hz and amplitude at 2.5 mm according to previously used
protocols.23 The WBV training took place twice a week fol-
lowing the CT, in the same studio.
Statistical Analysis
Routine pre-analyses were conducted using the Kolmogorov-
Smirnov normality tests to assess the normal distribution of
the studied variables. One-way ANOVA was used to investi-
gate for significant baseline differences between the two
groups. The differences between pre- and post-test data for
both groups (conditioning vs. control) were assessed using
two-way repeated measures analyses of variance (RMANOVA)
with “group” (conditioning, control) and “time” (pre, post
assessments) as independent factors. Statistical analysis was
performed with SPSS software (version 13.0, SPSS Inc.,
Chicago, IL) while the level of significance was set at p< 0.05.
RESULTS
At baseline (prior to the conditioning), no significant differ-
ences were noted between the conditioning and control
March 2012 5
groups for demographics (Table 1), anthropometric charac-
teristics, fitness parameters, or AC scores.
Table 2 depicts the baseline and post-conditioning results for
all physical fitness parameters and AC for both groups. For
the conditioning group, RMANOVA revealed significant
increases (pre vs. post) in standing vertical jump, press-ups,
aerobic fitness (decreased HR at 46 mL · kg–1 · min–1) and AC
(p< 0.05) (Fig. 1). The control group increased aerobic fit-
ness, though the other parameters either decreased (standing
vertical jump SVJ and AC) or remained unchanged (muscu-
lar endurance). <BOCA: raised dots again>
DISCUSSION
The aim of the present randomised controlled trial was to
examine the effects of a 6-week circuit (CT) and vibration
(WBV) training programme on fitness-related parameters
and aesthetic competence (AC) in contemporary dancers.
The main result was that for the conditioning group, supple-
mentary exercise training significantly increased selected fit-
ness components (lower body muscular power, upper body
muscular endurance, and aerobic fitness) with simultaneous
increases in aesthetic competency of the dancers.
Preliminary published data revealed that aerobic and
strength training improves overall dance and jump perform-
ance of contemporary dance students.5,6 The present findings
confirm these preliminary data, suggesting that the aesthetic
competency of dancers benefits from enhanced physical fit-
ness levels such as lower body muscular power, upper body
muscular endurance, and aerobic capacity. Video analysis of
contemporary dance performances24 has shown the impor-
tance of muscular power and endurance. During a dance per-
formance, dancers have been observed carrying out an aver-
age of 2 jumps/min and 0.14 lifts/min (partner at shoulder
height or higher) as well as 8 plies/min and 0.8/min transi-
tory movements from stand to floor and vice versa, which
specifically tax muscular power and endurance. Although
dance is an intermittent type of exercise,25 aerobic fitness is
necessary for dancers since low levels of aerobic fitness have
been associated with increased fatigue26 and increased recov-
ery time between high-intensity bouts,27 which in turn have
negative impacts on overall performance such as reduced
neuromuscular control28 and mental concentration29 and
higher injury rates.30
The observed increases in aerobic fitness are most likely to
be attributed to the circuit training, since previous research12
has revealed that following a 12-week 25-minute CT program,
which alternated local muscular endurance with global
endurance exercises 3 days per week, participants signifi-
cantly improved their aerobic capacity together with upper
muscular endurance. Although our conditioning study lasted
6 weeks only, similar improvements were observed.
Previous studies have shown that whole-body vibration
training (WBV) enhances strength and power capabilities18
and the lower limb performance in ballet and contemporary
dancers,15,16,31 which explain the increases for standing verti-
cal jump observed in the conditioning group. A reason for
this phenomenon can be explained by the fact that WBV
elicits both concentric and eccentric contractions; hence, the
enhancement of muscular power occur via potentiating the
neuromuscular system, whereby stimulations of muscle spin-
dles results in reflex activations of motor neurons with
increased spatial recruitments.32 Increases in upper body
muscular endurance were observed in the conditioning
group only. Nash and colleagues33 reported similar findings
following a 4-month CT program using high-speed, low-resist-
ance arm exercise circuit resistance training with improve-
ments in muscle strength, endurance, and anaerobic power.
Previous studies investigating the effects of supplementary
exercise training on contemporary dance relied on a subjec-
tive aesthetic evaluation.5,6 As such, they can only be consid-
ered preliminary.7The employment of a reliable aesthetic
6Medical Problems of Performing Artists
TABLE 2. Pre and Post Data for the Conditioning and Control Groups
Group Parameter Pre (mean ±sd) Post (mean ±sd)
Conditioning (n=12) Press ups (n.min–1)29 ± 7.24 37 ± 12.34
SVJ (cm) 29.9 ± 5.81 33.6 ± 3.38
Aerobic (b.min–1at 46ml.kg–1.min–1)196 ± 9.71 177 ± 15.5
Aesthetic Competence 38 ± 12.92 43 ± 6.34
Control (n=9) Press ups (n.min–1)30 ± 6.29 30 ± 2.12
SVJ (cm) 30.3 ± 4.39 28.5 ± 3.32
Aerobic (b.min–1at 46ml.kg–1.min–1)196 ± 3.59 185 ± 7.07
Aesthetic Competence 45 ± 6.22 42 ± 3.34
Conditioning (n= 12) Control (n = 9)
____________________________ ____________________________
Parameter Pre Post Pre Post
Press-ups (n/min) 29 ± 7.24 37 ±12.34 30 ± 6.29 30 ± 2.12
Standing vertical jump (cm) 29.9 ± 5.81 33.6 ± 3.38 30.3 ± 4.39 28.5 ± 3.32
Aerobic (beats/min at 46 mL·kg–1·min–1)196 ± 9.71 177 ± 15.5 196 ± 3.59 185 ± 7.07
Aesthetic competence 38 ± 12.92 43 ± 6.34 45 ± 6.22 42 ± 3.34
Data presented as mean ± SD.
competence tool and pre- and post-fitness testing surpasses
this limitation, and therefore, it is reasonable to suggest that
our findings confirm these previously published results.
The control group exhibited no changes in AC, upper
body muscular endurance, and aerobic fitness during the 6
weeks. This suggests that dance training is not sufficient
enough to overload the aerobic/anaerobic and musculoskele-
tal systems25,34 and thus to produce physiological adaptations
that will enhance each individual fitness component.
The present data suggest that a 6-week conditioning is
long enough to elicit significant adaptations in both physical
fitness and aesthetic indices, as this is on top of a daily sched-
ule that incorporates 6 to 8 hours of dancing. The time
period is also more realistic of the time available for compa-
nies to integrate supplemental training between performance
periods. A limitation of the present study is the employment
of a mixed sample of contemporary dancers, which does not
allow us to draw conclusions about whether the effects of
supplementary fitness training on aesthetic competency in
professional and student dancers might be different. Further
research is needed to investigate the effects of supplementary
training over injury rate and severity.
The present study significantly contributes to the existing
open debate whether dancers, seen as performing or aes-
thetic athletes,19,35,36 would further benefit from enhanced
physical fitness levels equally to other athletes. Dance institu-
tions and companies by incorporating supplementary train-
ing, such as the present study, will help increase selected fit-
ness levels of dancers as well as improve and/or maintain
their aesthetic competence. This will help bridge the
observed fitness gap between performance preparation (class
and rehearsals) and performance periods.34 The incorpora-
tion of supplemental training into the dancers’ schedule
must take into account present work load, which can involve
6 to 8 hrs/day of exercise at varying intensities already.37
Training sessions need to be time-tabled at the end of the
day, especially if WBV is being used, to prevent fatigue inter-
fering with the high skill elements of dance. The selection of
exercises can be tailored to the choreographic demands, if
these are known in advance; otherwise a whole-body focus
will suffice, allowing the training during rehearsal periods to
provide specificity. The use of WBV training has been shown
to provide adaptation of the muscular system with minimal
time cost, which is a vital advantage when the daily work time
is controlled by unions and the majority of time is focused on
artistic training.
CONCLUSION
A 6-week supplemental training programme that incorpo-
rated circuit and WBV training twice a week had a signifi-
cantly beneficial effect on both physical fitness indices and
aesthetic competency for high skilled contemporary dancers.
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8Medical Problems of Performing Artists
