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Masculinity, Shame, and Fear of Emotions as Predictors of Men's Expressions of Anger and Hostility

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Matthew Jakupcak at Lyra Health
Matthew Jakupcak
  • Lyra Health
Matthew T Tull at University of Toledo
Matthew T Tull
Lizabeth Roemer at University of Massachusetts Boston
Lizabeth Roemer
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Abstract

Male participants (N=204) were assessed using measures of masculine ideology, masculine gender-role stress, proneness to shame, and fear of emotions. These variables served as predictors of men’s anger expression and overt hostility. Results of hierarchical regression analyses indicated that masculinity, proneness to shame, and men’s fear of emotions predicted 19% of the variance of overt hostility, with men’s fear of emotions emerging as a significant predictor after accounting for masculinity factors. Men’s fear of emotions predicted a small but significant portion of the variance of men’s anger, whereas factors of masculinity and shame proneness did not. The implications of these findings are discussed in terms of future research directions and clinical interventions for men’s anger and hostility.
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Masculinity, Shame, and Fear of Emotions as Predictors of Men’s
Expressions of Anger and Hostility
Matthew Jakupcak
Seattle VA Medical Center, Puget Sound Health
Care System
Matthew T. Tull and Lizabeth Roemer
University of Massachusetts, Boston
Male participants (N⫽204) were assessed using measures of masculine ideology,
masculine gender-role stress, proneness to shame, and fear of emotions. These variables
served as predictors of men’s anger expression and overt hostility. Results of hierar-
chical regression analyses indicated that masculinity, proneness to shame, and men’s
fear of emotions predicted 19% of the variance of overt hostility, with men’s fear of
emotions emerging as a significant predictor after accounting for masculinity factors.
Men’s fear of emotions predicted a small but significant portion of the variance of
men’s anger, whereas factors of masculinity and shame proneness did not. The
implications of these findings are discussed in terms of future research directions and
clinical interventions for men’s anger and hostility.
Keywords: masculinity, shame, fear of emotions, anger, hostility
Culturally defined masculine gender norms
are thought to play a role in men’s expressions
of anger and aggression (David & Brannon,
1976; Long, 1987). Multiple factors related to
male gender norms have been suggested to con-
tribute to men’s aggressive tendencies, includ-
ing cognitive beliefs of traditional masculine
ideology (Murnen, Wright, & Kalunzy, 2002;
Ray & Gold, 1996) and experiential factors,
such as stress resulting from violations of mas-
culine norms (Eisler, Franchina, Moore, Hon-
eycutt, & Rhatigan, 2000; Franchina, Eisler, &
Moore, 2001; Jakupcak, Lisak, & Roemer,
2002).
The link between masculinity and aggression
can be partly understood from a social learning
perspective (see Bandura, 1973), in which me-
dia images, cultural expectations, and adult
male modeling of aggressive responses influ-
ence men’s beliefs and behaviors associated
with anger and hostility. However, expressions
of hostility and aggression may serve a more
immediate, emotion-regulatory function for
men; men may learn to regulate their emotional
experiences by using aggression and hostility to
terminate their experience of vulnerable emo-
tions, such as fear or shame (Dutton, 1998;
Gilligan, 1996; Long, 1987; O’Neil & Harway,
1997). If anger and aggression successfully at-
tenuate vulnerable emotions in men, aggressive
behaviors may be negatively reinforced, in-
creasing the likelihood that men use these strat-
egies in the future. The purpose of this study
was to examine factors of masculinity, men’s
proneness to shame, and men’s fear of emotions
as predictors of men’s overt expressions of an-
ger and hostility.
Men may come to fear tender or vulnerable
emotional states, in part because of masculine
gender norms that prohibit this aspect of emo-
tionality. From childhood, many male children
are socialized to avoid expressing vulnerable
emotions (Fivush, 1989; Kuebli & Fivush,
1992) and come to expect negative reactions
from others following emotional displays
(Fuchs & Thelen, 1988). Thus, boys and men
may come to associate their masculine identity
with extreme stoicism, such that experiences of
strong emotions may cause men to feel intense
shame.
Matthew Jakupcak, Psychology, Seattle VA Medical
Center, Puget Sound Health Care System, Seattle, WA;
Matthew T. Tull and Lizabeth Roemer, Department of Psy-
chology, University of Massachusetts, Boston.
Correspondence concerning this article should be ad-
dressed to Matthew Jakupcak, Seattle VA Medical Center,
Puget Sound Health Care System, 1660 South Columbia
Way, Seattle, WA 98108. E-mail: matthew.jakupcak@
med.va.gov
Psychology of Men & Masculinity Copyright 2005 by the Educational Publishing Foundation
2005, Vol. 6, No. 4, 275–284 1524-9220/05/$12.00 DOI: 10.1037/1524-9220.6.4.275
275
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... Men who conform to masculine norms are expected to exhibit physical and emotional toughness and therefore should be able to withstand pain, forgo expressions of sadness, and tolerate difficulty without complaint (Dahl et al., 2015). However, high levels of conformity to hegemonic masculine ideals are linked to several negative psychological outcomes, such as hostile aggressive behaviors, anxiety and depressive symptoms, and general psychological distress (Hayes & Mahalik, 2000;Jakupcak et al., 2005). Challenging these norms, especially through therapeutic interventions that foster emotional flexibility and vulnerability, could play a crucial role in disrupting this cycle of violence and psychological harm. ...
... Other variables may be involved as well. For example, Jakupcak et al. (2005) found a significant positive relationship among masculinity, fear of emotions, proneness to shame, and external expression of anger, hostility, and aggression. This suggests that masculinity-related constructs, such as fear of emotions and shame, may intensify the need to manage negative affect externally, increasing the likelihood of aggressive responses. ...
... This suggests that masculinity-related constructs, such as fear of emotions and shame, may intensify the need to manage negative affect externally, increasing the likelihood of aggressive responses. Jakupcak et al. (2005) findings further highlight how emotional regulation difficulties tied to masculinity can fuel aggressive behaviors in men who feel their masculinity is threatened. ...
Emotional Dysregulation, Anger, and Masculinity in Men Who Have Experienced Lifetime Sexual Violence
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Full-text available
  • Nov 2024
  • J INTERPERS VIOLENCE
Many men experience strong negative emotions and a “diminished masculinity” following sexual victimization. These men may be more willing to express anger, rather than more vulnerable emotions (e.g., shame), in an attempt to maintain their masculinity. However, increased expression of anger among men is linked to other negative outcomes such as increased substance abuse (Eftekhari et al., 2004), suggesting that anger is an ineffective coping strategy for distress. Compared to women, men are understudied in the sexual violence literature. Studies that have been conducted have focused primarily on child sexual abuse, adult males in prison, or military sexual violence samples. Few studies have investigated men’s sexual abuse across their lifetime. This study intended to fill this gap by investigating sexual violence against men across the lifespan. The goal of the current study was to examine how conformity to masculine norms and emotional dysregulation influence the relationship between lifetime sexual violence (LSV) and anger. We hypothesized that the relation between LSV and anger would be mediated by conformity to masculine norms and emotion dysregulation. Data were collected from 532 community and 185 college men. Participants completed measures focused on childhood maltreatment, adult sexual victimization, masculinity, anger, and emotion dysregulation. Two hundred and one (27.1%) men reported LSV experiences. Results suggest men with LSV reported significantly higher scores on conformity to masculine norms, anger, and emotion dysregulation. Regression analyses revealed that LSV directly predicted increased conformity to masculine norms, emotion dysregulation, and anger. Additionally, the indirect effects of emotion dysregulation and masculinity were significant. Findings indicate trauma interventions need to target masculine ideology and emotion dysregulation to help reduce anger as a traditionally acceptable emotional outlet for men.
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... Articles in this domain focus on masculinity identity (Booth et al., 2019;Chadwick and van Anders 2017;Cohn and Zeichner, 2006;Scaptura and Boyle 2021) and effects of masculinity on attitudes and behavior (Gebhard et al., 2019;Jakupcak et al., 2003Jakupcak et al., , 2005Yeung et al., 2015). ...
... Body Image Abbas and Karadavut (2017) Frontiers in Psychology 11 frontiersin.org mood, shame proneness, external expressions of anger and hostility, and aggression (Jakupcak et al., , 2005, (b) the emotional control masculine norm is associated with poorer psychological well-being, especially when men have high ambivalence over emotional expressions (i.e., high scores on the subscale of emotional inexpressiveness of the MGRSS; Yeung et al., 2015), and (c) there is an association between shame-related threatened masculinity and physical aggression tendencies in men who experience MGRS (Gebhard et al., 2019). ...
... Meanwhile, analyzing the works based on MGRS revealed that (a) the MGRSS has been more widely used than the FGRSS, (b) it has been used to generate conclusions about both men and women, and (c) it has been involved in a wider range of studies across scientific literature in general. Specifically, outcomes related to MGRSS concluded that, in general, (a) MGRS acts as a predictor of aggressive behavior in men in the intimate partner violence context, LGTBQ+ community aggressions, and masculinity threat-related context (Cohn and Zeichner, 2006;Parrott 2009;Scaptura and Boyle 2021;Vincent et al., 2011) and (b) MGRS in men is related to masculine ideology, men's fear of emotions, anger, depressive mood, shame proneness, external expressions of anger and hostility, and aggression (Jakupcak et al., , 2005. Additionally, (c) MGRS implications for mental health are related to depression, hostility, and anxiety among men and women (McCreary et al., 1996), (d) MGRS can be either a cause or a mediator of intimate partner violence perpetration (Gallagher and Parrott 2011;Leone et al., 2016;Lisco et al., 2015;McDermott et al., 2017;Smith et al., 2015), and (e) MGRS is a risk factor for alcohol-related problems among men (McCreary et al., 1999). ...
Mapping gender role stress scales utilities: a scoping review approach
Article
Full-text available
  • Sep 2024
Introduction Gender role stress emerges as a concept to try to explain the health difficulties presented by men and women due to gender socialization. Thus, gender role stress arises when individuals feel stressed due to their perceived inability to fulfill the demands of their gender role, or when they believe that a particular situation necessitates behavior traditionally attributed to the opposite gender. To evaluate the presence of gender role stress in individuals, two scales were developed: the masculine gender role stress scale and the feminine gender role scale. Objective To identify the main thematic areas studied in the behavioral sciences with the feminine gender role stress scale (FGRSS) and the masculine gender role stress scale (MGRSS) as main variables, specifically examining their contributions to the understanding of the attitudes and behaviors of individuals who are affected by gender role stress. We also aimed to analyze the difference, both quantitatively and qualitatively, in terms of scientific literature produced between the scales. Method We followed the preferred items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses (PRISMA) checklist. A scoping review of the literature was conducted using systematic techniques, resulting in the inclusion of 87 articles utilizing either of the two scales. Results 80% (n = 72) of the articles employed the MGRSS, while 20% (n = 18) utilized the FGRSS. The MGRSS articles were also the most frequently cited in the literature. The FGRSS has been predominantly used to examine the implications for women’s well-being, whereas the MGRSS has primarily been employed to predict disruptive behaviors in men. Conclusion This scoping review highlights disparities in the scientific literature concerning the examination of feminine and masculine gender role stress and its consequences for people. Specifically, it points out the limited investigation into feminine gender role stress and its ramifications compared to masculine gender role stress. These findings indicates the lack of a gender perspective even in research intended to study it, and outline the importance of more research with a gender perspective where women are the aim of study.
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... It may be advantageous for future research to consider the fear of emotions, for example, as a full mediator between MGRS and SPA. There is a large body of evidence in masculinity research around fear of emotions (e.g., Jakupcak et al. 2003Jakupcak et al. , 2005Reidy et al. 2016a, b) and this factor may be more effective than SE in explaining other domains of MGRS. ...
Masculine stress and sexual health: mediating roles of body dissatisfaction and sexual esteem in heterosexual men in the United Kingdom
Article
Full-text available
  • Nov 2024
  • J Publ Health
Aim Previous research has suggested that masculine gender role stress (MGRS) is linked with increased aggression, intimate partner violence, and health-risk behaviour. However, very little is known about the neurotic response that men with high MGRS exhibit in their sexual behaviour. This study aimed to explore the association between MGRS and sexual performance anxiety (SPA) as mediated by male body dissatisfaction (MBD) and sexual esteem (SE) in heterosexual-identified men in the United Kingdom. Subject and methods A sample of 329 men (Mage = 42.57, SD = 17.44) completed an online survey assessing male-role beliefs, MGRS, MBD, SE, and SPA, as well as demographic characteristics. Results A mediation analysis showed that MGRS was a significant predictor of SPA and SE but not MBD; SE was a partial mediator of this relationship. These results support the hypothesis that low SE may threaten men’s masculine identity, in which men who do not feel confident as a sexual partner may respond anxiously in their sexual behaviour, rather than aggressively, within an intimate relationship. Conclusion MGRS can lead to sexual health problems in some men. Psychological interventions should be considered to target masculinity stress, in order to address SPA.
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... In turn, this may predispose the individual to resort to violence in their own intimate relationships (Berthelot et al., 2014). Violent behaviors might also be an inappropriate and impulsive externalization of intense emotions (i.e., emotion dysregulation) that enables one to avoid and/or escape the contact with difficult or vulnerable emotions such as shame, sadness, or helplessness (Jakupcak et al., 2005). Empirical research has provided some support for the path between CCT and IPV perpetration through emotion dysregulation. ...
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Cumulative childhood trauma (CCT; e.g., sexual abuse, neglect) has been consistently associated with intimate partner violence (IPV) perpetration. However, we know little about the processes involved in this association. Although emotion dysregulation has been identified as a mechanism explaining the CCT–IPV association in men survivors, it is also critical to investigate whether masculine-relevant processes might explain the specific experience of men. Evidence suggests that male CCT survivors are particularly prone to experience masculine discrepancy stress (i.e., stress arising from perceived failure to conform to masculinity norms), which could contribute to higher emotion dysregulation and, consequently, higher IPV perpetration. Using a large clinical sample of 1883 Canadian men seeking services for IPV perpetration, this study examined the role of masculine discrepancy stress and emotion dysregulation in the relationships between CCT and four types of perpetrated IPV (psychological, physical, and sexual IPV, and coercive control). Path analysis indicated that (a) emotion dysregulation was a consistent intermediary mechanism of the CCT–IPV link, (b) CCT was indirectly associated with higher perpetrated psychological IPV and coercive control through masculine discrepancy stress, and (c) CCT was associated with higher perpetrated IPV sequentially through masculine discrepancy stress and emotion dysregulation. Findings support the importance of trauma-sensitive interventions targeting emotion dysregulation and masculine discrepancy stress in men seeking help for IPV perpetration.
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... Even when boys and men attempt to resolve the negative effects of strain through healthy coping mechanisms, they are instead told to follow traditional displays of masculinity that limit their expression of emotion. Anger, then, becomes one of the few emotions men can (and even encouraged to) express in response to masculinity strains (Cohn et al., 2009;Glomb & Espelage, 2005;Jakupcak et al., 2005;Logoz et al., 2023). Further, an emphasis on aggression and restrictive emotions in dominant masculinities give men few options to cope with the anger they experience when threatened. ...
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... Feminism also has benefits for men. Sexist attitudes dictate expectations of masculinity that constrain men's ability to emotionally express themselves (Jakupcak et al., 2005) and are related to declines in men's physical health (Vandello et al., 2023) and higher risk of suicide (Cleary, 2012). It is therefore important to understand when men will be motivated to identify with feminists and engage in feminist action. ...
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... Anger and its expression through aggression is an authorised way in which a man can display emotion, with these particular emotions being associated with masculinity itself (Jakupcak et al. 2005). Anger and aggression are seen hegemonically as masculine traits while softness, fragility and kindness are seen as womanly. ...
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