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Gender-Biased Data in Survey Research Regarding Wildlife
Abstract
Underrepresentation of females among respondents to mail surveys focused on wildlife is a growing concern for survey researchers. In an effort to better understand why females are underrepresented, we analyzed the sample frame of a wildlife-focused survey for which a notable disparity existed between the number of male and female respondents in relation to actual population figures. An analysis of the sample frame used for this study indicated that male bias existed that likely contributed to female underrepresentation among survey respondents. Suggestions are made for improving sampling frames to minimize gender bias.
... Following-up with nonrespondents is also problematic, as it is difficult to obtain random samples. For example, following-up by phone may be biased because women answer at higher rates (Jacobson, Brown, and Scheufele 2007). In general, determining whether nonrespondents are different than respondents through direct comparisons is challenging because nonrespondents are less interested in participating (Smith 2012). ...
... While gender did not differ between survey waves or by interest-level, at first glance, phone surveys with 13 nonrespondents indicated that women were underrepresented. Although our response rate (8.6% of 150 calls) was similar to higher-effort Pew phone surveys (Keeter et al. 2017), the over-representation of women in our survey is likely due to known phone survey biases toward women (Jacobson, Brown, and Scheufele 2007). In contrast, comparisons to the 2012 Census of Agriculture indicated we oversampled women. ...
... This result may be explained by the Census's focus on farm operators. Although women participate in management decisions, they often do not consider themselves "primary operators" (Nass 2012), and thus may find such surveys less relevant (Jacobson, Brown, and Scheufele 2007). ...
An understanding of private landowner's perceptions can guide decisions about conservation in rural landscapes. However, mailed surveys that evaluate landowner views are increasingly plagued by falling response rates and nonresponse bias. Using survey data from research conducted in the Midwestern United States in 2007 and 2017, we adapted a framework for testing nonresponse bias across demographics, attitudes, and land-use practices inferred from aerial imagery. We compared respondents and nonrespondents, early and late-respondents, low-and high-interest respondents, and our sample and published data. Across all comparisons, we found little consistent evidence of nonresponse bias, except a possible under-sampling of Amish landowners and conflicting results on gender. Many discrepancies were likely related to the sampling methodology. Because comparisons yielded conflicting results, we recommend that researchers engaged in survey research with rural communities use multiple methods to triangulate nonresponse bias to determine whether subgroups of rural populations are under-sampled. ARTICLE HISTORY
... Among urban respondents 62% had graduated from college, whereas 33% of the rural respondents had done so. As is common for surveys in rural areas and on natural resource topics (Jacobson et al. 2007), males were overrepresented (79%) in the sample. To test for potential gender bias, an independent samples t test was used to look at differences in response to key questions in the 2010 survey between male and female panel members. ...
... Most significant, female respondents rated themselves as being less informed and less involved in range management issues, which may help explain why they were underrepresented. Jacobson et al. (2007) suggest salience is one factor affecting the involvement of female respondents in surveys about natural resource-related topics. ...
In surveys of residents in three urban and three rural locations in the Great Basin we examined the social acceptability of six management practices showing promise for restoring sagebrush-dominated rangelands. Unlike most studies of range management perceptions that have relied on single measurements, we used longitudinal data from a questionnaire mailed in 2006 to residents that were resurveyed in 2010. Overall, 698 respondents comprised the panel. Respondents' self-reported levels of knowledge about the health and management of Great Basin rangelands decreased from 2006 to 2010. In both years, mean acceptance was greater for the use of prescribed fire, grazing, felling, and mowing, but relatively low for chaining and herbicide use. Overall, acceptability ratings were similar in 2006 and 2010 but individually about half of the acceptance responses differed between years. Practices were more acceptable to respondents who expressed greater concern about threats posed by inaction, except that the threat of wildfire was negatively associated with acceptance for prescribed burning. Acceptance was not significantly related to concern about overall health of Great Basin rangelands, or to self-reported knowledge level. Rural/urban residence and general attitudes toward environmental protection were sometimes influential, but more so in 2006 than in 2010. By far the best predictor of acceptance was trust in agencies' ability to implement the practice. In both years respondents were more likely to judge a practice acceptable than to trust agencies to use the practice. Positive or negative change in trust level was the most significant predictor of change in acceptability judgment from 2006 to 2010. Results suggest that efforts to increase acceptance of practices among Great Basin stakeholders should focus on activities designed to build trust rather than simply providing more or better information.
... This lower engagement levels can result in men's interests being more accounted for in recreation planning and policy, as managers attempt to meet the needs of the group of recreationists they more often seen using recreation sites (Chakrabarti, 2020). In addition, many natural resource agencies, including those that manage wildlife, are predominantly led by men, which can further reinforce beliefs about what recreation should look like; such beliefs are reinforced by survey research that tends to be dominated by male perspectives or through oversampling of male recreationists (Jacobson et al., 2007). Since women are particularly 1 We understand the distinction between biological assignment of sex at birth (e.g., female, male) and gender identification (e.g., woman, man, nonbinary, two-spirit, non-conforming). ...
Different groups of people may desire and respond to social and ecological conditions in myriad ways (e.g., increased engagement, avoidance). Thus, managers of nature-based recreation sites open for public use (i.e., "public lands") would benefit from understanding how people with different lived experiences respond under new conditions brought about by regulatory changes (e.g., infrastructural improvements, reduction of access) or environmental changes (e.g., drought, population declines). From a survey of visitors to public lands, specifically National Wildlife Refuges (i.e., refuges) in the United States, we examine gender differences in (a) participation in wildlife-dependent recreation, (b) visitor experiences, and (c) the effect of regulatory and environmental changes on future participation in preferred activities. Our sample (n = 9,918; 40% who self-selected female) included visitors to 69 refuges during 2018 and 2019. Results indicated that people who self-selected female were more likely to indicate that they don't like being in nature by themselves, and that people close to them enjoy nature-based recreation. People who self-selected female were less likely to engage in hunting or fishing as their primary activity and noted that regulatory changes supporting these activities (specifically, fewer regulations on fishing, fewer regulations on hunting, and more acreage open to fishing/hunting) could decrease their future participation in their primary activity. Thus, respondents who self-selected female may be displaced or alienated from visiting a site if consumptive activities (e.g., hunting) are prioritized as regulatory mechanisms (e.g., for controlling abundant wildlife populations). Adaptive processes that anticipate-in advance of decisions being made-the potential ramifications of regulations on different subgroups of visitors to public lands can identify differential and inequitable impacts, and thus lead to inclusive management decisions when those impacts are preemptively addressed.
... However, response rates for in-person surveys are declining, in part due to respondents' decreasing willingness to speak with interviewers (Groves & Couper, 1998). Declining response rates raise concern about response bias regardless of survey mode (Harter et al., 2016), especially when particular subpopulations are underrepresented-including rural populations (Coon et al., 2019), populations with low education levels and incomes (Goyder et al., 2002), and women (Jacobson et al., 2007). ...
The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is affecting the environment and conservation research in fundamental ways. Many conservation social scientists are now administering survey questionnaires online, but they must do so while ensuring rigor in data collection. Further, they must address a suite of unique challenges, such as the increasing use of mobile devices by participants and avoiding bots or other survey fraud. We reviewed recent literature on online survey methods to examine the state of the field related to online data collection and dissemination. We illustrate the review with examples of key methodological decisions made during a recent national study of people who feed wild birds, in which survey respondents were recruited through an online panel and a sample generated via a project participant list. Conducting surveys online affords new opportunities for participant recruitment, design, and pilot testing. For instance, online survey panels can provide quick access to large and diverse samples of people. Based on the literature review and our own experiences, we suggest that to ensure high-quality online surveys one should account for potential sampling and nonresponse error, design survey instruments for use on multiple devices, test the instrument, and use multiple protocols to identify data quality problems. We also suggest that research funders, journal editors, and policy makers can all play a role in ensuring high-quality survey data are used to inform effective conservation programs and policies.
... However, response rates for in-person surveys are declining, in part due to respondents' decreasing willingness to speak with interviewers (Groves & Couper, 1998). Declining response rates raise concern about response bias regardless of survey mode (Harter et al., 2016), especially when particular subpopulations are underrepresented-including rural populations (Coon et al., 2019), populations with low education levels and incomes (Goyder et al., 2002), and women (Jacobson et al., 2007). ...
The coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic is impacting the environment and conservation research in fundamental ways. For conservation social scientists, the pandemic has necessitated swift changes to research methods, including shifting away from in-person data collection. Social survey data are key to integrating perspectives and knowledge from a variety of social actors in order to more effectively manage and conserve ecosystems. In-person survey methods have long been considered an indispensable approach for reaching certain populations (e.g., low-income), those without an available sampling frame (e.g., birders), or those defined by place (e.g., park visitors). However, these methods became infeasible for many researchers during the pandemic, as they may during other times of social upheaval. Additionally, response rates across multiple survey modes have been steadily declining over decades, requiring that researchers consider new approaches. Conservation social scientists are now turning to online surveys at a rapid rate, but they must do so while ensuring rigor in this data collection mode. Further, they must address a suite of unique challenges, such as the increasing use of mobile devices by participants and avoiding bots or other survey fraud. This paper charts a course for high-quality online survey research for conservation social scientists through review of recent literature and our own experiences as survey researchers. We provide direction for scientists moving their surveys online, with examples from a recent national study of people who feed wild birds, in which an online survey was implemented through a survey panel and a sample generated via a project participant list. We also make recommendations for research funders, journal editors, and policymakers using survey-based science, who can all play a role in assuring that high-quality survey data are used to inform effective conservation programs and policies.
... Respondents were reasonably similar in race and income to the larger population; however, the results show a modest oversampling of males and a notable oversampling of older adults and those with more education. Gender, age, and education bias is fairly common in survey research, particularly on natural resources topics (Gigliotti and Dietsch 2014;Jacobson et al. 2007). ...
In the last few decades, the number of people living in fire-prone ecosystems has increased, placing more people and private property at risk to future fire events. Substantial research has demonstrated consistent public support for the use of prescribed fires in fuel-reduction efforts; however, continuing public concern regarding smoke emissions and negative air quality impacts exists. To date, limited research has specifically examined public attitudes toward smoke emissions. In this study, we use a mail-back or internet survey to assess citizen information seeking behaviors regarding smoke emissions in four communities in high fire risk areas. Path analysis was used to apply the risk information seeking and processing (RISP) model to examine factors that motivate people to seek information relevant to smoke emissions. We find that residents were concerned about smoke emissions and believed that they needed more information. Residents’ intentions to seek information were influenced by information (in)sufficiency, the number of sources used, and smoke acceptability, among other factors. Findings suggest that currently available information resources on smoke may not be sufficient to meet residents’ information needs, particularly for those most motivated to learn more about emissions.
... My results should be interpreted given some limitations regarding the survey respondents; these limitations should be considered when extrapolating these findings beyond my study areas. Although surveys were conducted at all times during the day until evening, males were still overrepresented in both study areas, which is a problem common in other survey research regarding wildlife (Jacobson et al. 2007). In general, women seemed more hesitant to participate than men and often gave the opportunity to their male counterpart if he was present (J. ...
... Women were more likely than men to say ''don't know'' in response to whether they liked or disliked GNR and whether it had problems and benefits and they expressed fewer positive and negative perceptions. These types of gendered differences have also been found in the case of wildlife surveys in the USA, which find that women are less likely to respond to mail surveys than men (Jacobson et al. 2007), and in political knowledge surveys, which have found that women are more likely to say ''don't know'' (Mondak and Anderson 2004;Rapoport 1981).These differences may indicate that women have less complex or wellformed attitudes toward the reserve, are more hesitant to share their opinions, want to downplay what they know, and/or some combination of all these factors Arjunan et al. 2006;Gururani 2002;Ostwald and Baral 2000). ...
Gender can play an important role in people’s relationships with the environment. Understanding if women and men perceive protected areas differently is an important facet of understanding park–people relationships. The objective of this study was to determine whether men and women differed in their relationship with Gaoligongshan Nature Reserve in Yunnan, China. We analyzed 523 surveys to explore differences between women’s and men’s attitudes, perceptions, knowledge, and use of the reserve. While the majority of women and men had positive attitudes toward the reserve, men were significantly more likely to be positive, had more knowledge about the reserve, and entered the reserve more than women. In addition, men were more likely than women to identify benefits and problems associated with the reserve. Using logistic regression, we explored different models to understand the gendered perceptions of problems and benefits of the reserve. We found that having less knowledge about the reserve contributed to women being less likely to perceive benefits, especially regulating services. Our results highlight the need for gender-sensitive approaches to park–people relationships in terms of management and research.
... One possible explanation for this is that the questionnaires were mailed to property owners, the majority of whom are male, thus the gender distribution in the responses may reflect this disparity. Moreover, gender bias is common in surveys concerning energy issues, as well as in survey research in rural areas (Jacobson et al., 2007). However, gender did not appear to affect the results significantly. ...
Wind power has been identified as one of the most promising sources of renewable energy. However, its diffusion has not been as rapid as anticipated. The objective here is to analyse attitudes towards wind power among Finnish local residents and owners of second homes. First, we assess their existing knowledge of and level of interest in energy issues and wind power. Second, we analyse potential differences in attitudes between the two stakeholder groups when it comes to wind power in general and the proposed wind farm in particular. The study draws on both quantitative survey data and qualitative interview data. One of the key findings concerns the different perceptions among locals and owners of second homes in a rural area. Both groups were interested in questions of energy production and accepted wind power in general. Nevertheless, the proposed project in Ruokolahti seemed to polarize attitudes. This paper offers new insights into attitudes to wind energy among Finnish locals and owners of second homes in the same area.
... Although we sampled regions of Illinois and urban and rural residents nearly equally among respondents and nonrespondents, the respondent population was 72% male, whereas the non-respondent population was 37% male. This incongruity suggests that males were overrepresented in the mail survey and females were overrepresented in phone interviews, a problem typical of survey research regarding wildlife (Jacobson et al. 2007). A higher proportion of respondents was also older and had hunted in the past. ...
Large carnivores are recolonizing portions of midwestern North America given harvest protection and the presence of suitable habitat in the region. Perhaps more so than other species, the successful management and viability of large carnivore populations is as dependent on social acceptance as on biological factors. However, knowledge of human attitudes and perceptions toward large carnivores in much of the Midwest remains unknown. We assessed attitudes and perceptions of Illinois citizens about black bears (Ursus americanus), cougars (Puma concolor), and gray wolves (Canis lupus) via a mail survey to provide wildlife managers with an understanding of residents' views prior to formulating carnivore management plans. The survey instrument consisted of questions about large carnivores regarding knowledge and beliefs, experiences and encounters, attitudes toward carnivores and management, and demographic questions and behavioral characteristics. We surveyed residents statewide; the sample drawn was stratified by geographic region (northern, central, and southern) and urban or rural county designation within regions. Because we observed differences in demographic variables between respondents (by mail) and non-respondents (telephone interviewees), we did not pool responses from the 2 groups for analysis; the final response rate for the survey was 13%. More than 70% of survey respondents (n = 791) were male and their average age was 60; 55% were hunters. Approximately 40% were unsure about the population status of large carnivores in Illinois; of the remaining respondents, most (ranging from 20% for black bears to 41% for cougars) believed the presence of all 3 focal species had increased over the past decade. More residents supported protection (43%) and increasing numbers of large carnivores (39%) than opposed them (26%); however, support for black bears was slightly higher than for cougars and wolves. Rural residents and livestock owners were the most likely to want carnivore numbers to decrease and least likely to support their protection; higher levels of education corresponded to positive attitudes toward large carnivores. Our research provides the foundation for well-informed management plans, policy decisions, and educational initiatives for large carnivores in midwestern states where these species appear to be recolonizing following decades of absence. © 2014 The Wildlife Society.
... 7 percent ( 285 ) were female , and 3 . 3 percent ( 34 ) did not indicate gender , reflecting both the high proportion of male names in the tax database , and also problems with gender disparity in survey research that is common to rural areas ( Jacobson , Brown , and Scheufele 2007 ) . The median age of the survey respondents was 52 years old , while the census reported that the average age of people aged older than 18 in the survey area was 58 ( U . ...
This study examines the environmental, social, and economic impacts that landowners perceive from the simultaneous development of an industrial-scale wind farm and extensive natural gas drilling in an area of northern Pennsylvania. A mail survey (N = 1,028) reveals that the types of perceived impact from wind and natural gas are similar overall, although the perceived magnitude of positive and negative impacts is greater from natural gas drilling. Impact perception was found to explain a large portion of residents' overall attitudes toward the energy developments, and residents' place meanings for the area also explain some attitudinal variation. Additionally, factors such as place attachment and length and type of residency were found to have little or no effect on either the perception of impact or resident attitudes toward development.
... The responses to the survey reflect this disparity, with 69.0% (709) of respondents selecting their gender as male, 27.7% (285) female, and 3.3% (34) with no gender selected. Unfortunately, such gender disparity is common in survey research, especially in rural areas (Jacobson et al., 2007). However, as is discussed below in the findings, gender did not appear to be a significant factor affecting the survey results. ...
... Culling acceptability varied strongly across demographic groups. As traditional wildlife surveys are often gender-biased toward men (Jacobson, Brown, & Scheufele, 2007), women's attitudes toward culling could be under-represented without broader public consultation. However, differences in the acceptability of management practices were greatest between those with different levels of wildlife engagement and among those with different values on wildlife use, as they varied in strength and relative importance of concern. ...
The field of wildlife management has been on a collision course with human nature for some time, documented by the growing and important body of human dimensions of wildlife research. As the evolution of this field continues, a new dimension of “humane” considerations in wildlife management should be investigated. An exploratory online study of opinions about management decisions with 351 British Columbians of various wildlife engagement levels was conducted. Many participants were not willing to accept trading-off individual animals to protect populations, or killing other species to protect an endangered species, expressing both conservation and animal welfare rationales. Participants' wildlife engagement level and utilitarian or protectionist values influenced how they perceived the acceptability of invasive monitoring and population reduction techniques. The application of animal welfare science to conservation can improve the humaneness of practices and in turn, will help managers communicate with the public and generate support for their programs.
... Most respondents were female (57% of 202 questionnaire respondents) and 50-69 years of age (58%, n = 203). This slight bias was expected given that the areas sampled are (Dougherty, Fulton, & Anderson, 2003;Jacobson, Brown, & Scheufele, 2007). Respondents were most commonly retired (44%), while others worked full time (32%) or part time (16%) or conducted home duties (6.2%) (n = 193). ...
Buffers are often used to separate threatening stimuli, such as humans, from wildlife but with few exceptions buffer widths are based on little empirical information. We measured the distance at which a response (i.e., flight initiation distance [FID]) occurred among 28 of Australia's 36 regularly occurring shorebird species when presented with an approaching human (n=760 approaches in Victoria, south eastern Australia). Species differed in their FID, with species with higher body masses having longer FIDs (F1,26=36.830, p
... Furthermore, we did not offer any reward for survey completion, which may have increased our response rate and sample size. That the survey obtained an appropriate response from both males and females can be considered a significant achievement given the consistent gender biases within wildlife management related surveys more generally found in the literature (see Jacobson et al. 2007). The relatively high non-recording of gender is thought to have been caused by the positioning of this question on the survey document. ...
Wildlife management remains a matter of considerable controversy amongst many stakeholders, particularly where lethal control
(culling) is used. Wild deer provide perhaps one of the best examples of such a management ‘problem’, especially where they
are encountered in peri-urban environments. Faced with potential controversy, decision-makers in public land management organisations
need information which clearly differentiates between generally acceptable management objectives and methods, and less mainstream
preferences. We conducted a questionnaire survey aimed at assessing the preferences of community members in peri-urban Scotland
for management methods in response to specific problems and analysed the results in relation to three social categories—age,
gender and familiarity with wildlife. Active management was broadly accepted. Fencing dominated as the preferred first management
response with little variation across social category, or between management problems. Changing human behaviour (e.g. introducing
speed limits) was also a highly preferred response by the respondents in this study. In general, the order of preferred management
responses stayed the same in relation to different management impacts. Culling (lethal control) had almost no support as a
first management response to any problem, although considerably more respondents support it as a third preference. Our results
suggest that culling is acceptable as a subsidiary management response in peri-urban areas, but only where other preferred
management methods have been tried and failed.
The migration of coyotes to northeastern United States since the mid-20th century has increased human–coyote interactions. This article offers insights into the evolution of attitudes toward Eastern coyotes by analyzing survey data from voters on Cape Cod, Massachusetts in 2005 and 2012. Responses were obtained in a region where familiarity and conflict with coyotes was high. The data supported growing acceptance of coyotes and increased opposition to lethal control. While previous research has found women to feel more negative toward and fearful of large carnivores, in this study gender differences in acceptance and fear of coyotes diminished with time. Greater opposition among women to lethal interventions persisted. Future studies should examine the gender and geographic dimensions of attitudinal change to more fully understand attitudes toward wildlife in urbanized environments.
Human activities may cause conservation concerns when animal populations or ecosystems are harmed and animal welfare concerns when individuals are harmed. In general, people are concerned with one or the other, as the concepts may be regarded as separate or even at odds. An online purposive survey of 339 British Columbians explored differences between groups that varied by gender, residency, wildlife engagement level and value orientation (conservation-oriented or animal welfare-oriented), to see how they rated the level of harm to wildlife caused by different human activities. Women, urban residents, those with low wildlife engagement, and welfare-orientated participants generally scored activities as more harmful than their counterparts, but all groups were very similar in their rankings. Activities that destroy or alter habitat (urban development, pollution, resource development and agriculture) were rated consistently as most harmful by all groups, including the most conservation-oriented and the most welfare-oriented. Where such a high level of agreement exists, wildlife managers should be able to design management actions that will address both conservation and animal welfare concerns. However, the higher level of concern expressed by female, low engagement and welfare-oriented participants for activities that involve direct killing indicates a need for wildlife managers to consult beyond traditional stakeholders.
Knowledge about wildlife represents a critical component of conservation. Although several variables (e.g., gender, education, length of residency) predict components of wildlife knowledge, previous research on the topic has rarely included multivariate analysis and has not focused on Latinos, the largest ethnic minority in the United States. We addressed this gap with a survey assessing the ability of residents on the Texas–Tamaulipas border to identify an ocelot. Few residents (13%, n = 402) could identify an ocelot. Males, those with higher education and income levels, longer-term residents, and residents owning rural and agricultural properties were most likely to identify ocelots correctly. These results suggest wildlife education and extension activities in borderland communities should target females, new residents, and residential property owners. Future research should address the extent these findings apply for Latino populations outside borderland contexts.
This research aims to foster discourse about the extent to which gender is important to consider within the context of participatory approaches for biological conservation. Our objectives are to: (1) gender-disaggregate data about stakeholders' risk perceptions associated with human-wildlife conflict (HWC) in a participatory conservation context, and (2) highlight insights from characterizing gendered similarities and differences in the way people think about HWC-related risks. Two communal conservancies in Caprivi, Namibia served as case study sites. We analyzed data from focus groups (n = 2) to create gendered concept maps about risks to wildlife and livelihoods and any associations of those risks with HWC, and semi-structured interviews (n = 76; men = 38, women = 38) to measure explicit risk attitudes associated with HWC. Concept maps indicated some divergent perceptions in how groups characterized risks to wildlife and livelihoods; however, not only were identified risks to wildlife (e.g., pollution, hunting) dissimilar in some instances, descriptions of risks varied as well. Study groups reported similar risk perceptions associated with HWC with the exception of worry associated with HWC effects on local livelihoods. Gendered differences in risk perceptions may signal different priorities or incentives to participate in efforts to resolve HWC-related risks. Thus, although shared goals and interests may seem to be an obvious reason for cooperative wildlife management, it is not always obvious that management goals are shared. Opportunity exists to move beyond thinking about gender as an explanatory variable for understanding how different groups think about participating in conservation activities.
The lack of full participation in sample surveys threatens the inferential value of the survey method. We review a set of
conceptual developments and experimental findings that appear to be informative about causes of survey participation; offer
an integration of that work with findings from the more traditional statistical and survey methodological literature on nonresponse;
and, given the theoretical structure, deduce potentially promising paths of research toward the understanding of survey participation.
Using data from a 1987 telephone survey of over 1,000 Illinois adult residents, this research looked into factors causing
male under-representation in surveys using the last-birthday method of respondent selection. Differences by sex in rates of
refusal and non-contact (after respondent selection) were evaluated for relative contribution to gender bias. Accuracy of
informant's response to the birthday question was gauged by checking against birth dates of adults rostered during the interview.
Other factors, such as the proportion of informants who do not know the last birthday, or who misreport from a desire to be
the one interviewed (or not interviewed), were evaluated for relative effect on sample representation of males and females.
This study examines how wildlife value orientations, attitudes, and gender influence acceptance of lethal actions to control deer in Cuyahoga Valley National Park in Ohio. Data were collected from female and male residents (n=659) in a nine-county area, the primary service area of the park. Females and males demonstrated significant differences in their wildlife value orientations, attitudes toward lethal deer control, beliefs about the outcome of lethal deer control, and perceived personal impacts of lethal deer control. Gender also acted as a moderator of the relationship between values, beliefs and attitudes. Results indicate that a focus on understanding differences between males and females is essential to public participation in decision making concerning this and similar issues.
The natural recolonization of gray wolves (Canis lupus) into parts of their former range in the upper Midwest of the United States has led to wolves establishing territories in semi-agricultural areas containing livestock. As part of a study on wolf-livestock relationships in a northwestern Minnesota agricultural area, we surveyed rural landowners within and outside of wolf range to assess perceptions regarding the risks wolves pose to livestock (mainly cattle). The mean response score for rural landowners to the statement "I think wolves should be allowed to exist in northwest Minnesota" was between neutral and disagree. There was no difference in mean response scores between rural residents living within wolf range and residents living adjacent to but outside of wolf range. The rural residents' mean response score to the statement "Wolves are causing unacceptable levels of damage to northwest Minnesota's livestock industry" was between neutral and agree. Although there was a statistical difference in mean response scores of residents living within wolf range and residents living outside of wolf range, the scores were not substantially different from each other. While landowners felt wolves were a threat to their livelihood, other factors (market fluctuations, laws and government, diseases, extreme weather, flooding) were ranked as greater threats to the agricultural community. Rural residents both within and outside of wolf range harbored similar negative attitudes toward wolves, even though residents outside of wolf range have not had a population of wolves in their area for >100 years, indicating little change in cultural attitudes toward wolves.
We analyzed factors that could affect response rates for 105 mail surveys conducted by the Human Dimensions Research Unit at Cornell University between 1971 and 2000. The surveys addressed diverse natural resource-based topics and involved a variety of study populations. We tested the null hypothesis that response rates to natural resource-focused mail surveys are not changing over time. We found the best multiple regression model (adjusted R 2 =.558) to explain differences in response rates incorporated five independent variables: (1) saliency of study topic to surveyed population, (2) the month of the first mailing, (3) the size (font) of print type, (4) the number of complex questions included in the survey, and (5) year of survey implementation. All other variables held constant, the model suggests that response rates dropped on average 0.77% per year over the 30-year period. The scatterplot of response rate versus time suggests a gradual decline in response rates over time.
Contraception has been advocated increasingly by residents of urban and suburban areas as an appropriate technique for managing local deer herds. Although knowledge about the technical aspects of contraception is increasing among professionals, little study of citizens’ attitudes toward and beliefs about contraception has occurred to date. We explored residents’ attitudes toward contraception in Irondequoit, New York. We identified the criteria residents used to evaluate deer management techniques and how they applied these criteria in evaluating the suitability of contraception. Criteria used to evaluate the suitability of deer management techniques varied among citizens preferring different types of management techniques. Knowledge about contraception was low among citizens, even those who supported it as a management alternative. Further citizen education about contraception and other management techniques is needed in suburban areas with ongoing deer management efforts. Information needs may vary among citizens, however, based on which criteria citizens use to evaluate deer management options. Information about technical feasibility (e.g. effectiveness, speed, etc.) may have little influence on the attitudes of citizens most concerned with issues such as humaneness or effects on nontarget animals.
This paper analyzes the behavior of a general sample and an environmental interest group sample in a contingent market for wetlands preservation. Mail survey response rates and environmental values for wetlands preservation are significantly greater in the environmental interest group sample than in the general population sample. An estimate of the potential self-selection bias in the benefits of wetlands preservation is made. These results suggest that self-selection bias in contingent valuation mail surveys could upwardly bias aggregate benefit estimates as much as 50 percent. Potential, but costly, solutions to the problem of self-selection bias are suggested.