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Fully Committed: Suicide Bombers' Motivation and the Quest for Personal Significance
Abstract
A motivational analysis of suicidal terrorism is outlined, anchored in the notion of significance quest. It is suggested that heterogeneous factors identified as personal causes of suicidal terrorism (e.g. trauma, humiliation, social exclusion), the various ideological reasons assumed to justify it (e.g. liberation from foreign occupation, defense of one’s nation or religion), and the social pressures brought upon candidates for suicidal terrorism may be profitably subsumed within an integrative framework that explains diverse instances of suicidal terrorism as attempts at significance restoration, significance gain, and prevention of significance loss. Research and policy implications of the present analysis are considered.
... Indeed, before its theoretical formalization in 2022, SQT was created as a model of radicalization. In fact, one of the first publications explicitly mentioning and defining the quest for significance viewed it as the fundamental motivation for suicide attackers (Kruglanski et al. 2009). The original idea at the base of the theory's development was, in fact, to find what was common among the various motivations scholars listed as underlying terrorists' actions. ...
... The original idea at the base of the theory's development was, in fact, to find what was common among the various motivations scholars listed as underlying terrorists' actions. The answer given by Kruglanski et al. (2009) was that it was the need for feeling significant in the eyes of others, members of their ingroup. By engaging in violent action for a hallowed cause, individuals sought to acquire the status of heroes or martyrs representing an appreciable boost to their significance. ...
... Additionally, there is another important point of connection between SQT and the scientific literature on romantic relationships: the concept of sacrifice. SQT was originally developed to investigate the motivations underlying suicide bombers, who made the ultimate sacrifice to support the cause that gave meaning to their lives (Kruglanski et al. 2009). Interestingly, sacrifice is also a crucial construct in romantic relationships, defined as the willingness to promote the well-being of one's partner and relationship even before one's own (Van Lange et al. 1997). ...
Drawing on significance quest theory and its derived model of romantic relationships, we demonstrated that perceiving romantic partners as having socially valued qualities (partners’ merit) and as admiring and caring (partners’ appreciation) enhanced actors’ significance gained through the romantic relationship which, in turn, increased the likelihood to enter (Studies 1A and 1B) and maintain (Study 2) romantic relationships. Further, Study 3 demonstrated that significance gained through romantic relationships and inclusion of the other in the self were independently associated with romantic partners’ merit and appreciation and the likelihood of maintaining romantic relationships. Finally, Study 4 showed that people experiencing feelings of significance loss were more sensitive to their partners’ merit and appreciation features. Findings are compared with the rich social psychological literature on romantic relationships and future directions are outlined.
... Quest for significance or personal significance is the will of a person to be esteemed and deemed important in the eyes of other important people and self (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski et al., 2014). Quest for personal significance is defined as a major source of motivation in human behaviours (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011). ...
... Quest for significance or personal significance is the will of a person to be esteemed and deemed important in the eyes of other important people and self (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski et al., 2014). Quest for personal significance is defined as a major source of motivation in human behaviours (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011). The concept of quest for significance refers to having a competence in the context that the culture in which one lives in is valuable, and what the culture considers "worth achieving". ...
... Significance Quest Theory (Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski et al., 2014;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011) acknowledges that the desire to matter is a fundamental human need. According to the theory, people get strongly motivated to realize behaviors leading to regain the sense of significance when they suffered a loss of it (Schumpe et al., 2018). ...
The aim of this study was to analyse quest for significance of adults according to their demographic features and to determine predictive relations between quest for significance and social media addiction of adults. The data of the study were collected from a total of 556 participants, 188 men and 368 women aged 18 and over. Participants were recruited by utilizing convenience sampling technique, and correlational survey method of quantitative research models was adopted within this study. Quest for Significance Scale, Social Media Addiction Scale and Personal Information Form were used as data collection tools. The data from assessment tools were analysed using the T-test, and multi-group comparisons were made using ANOVA (one-way analysis of variance). The relation between the points acquired from assessment tools was calculated using Pearson's Moments Multiplication Correlation Coefficient. Predictive relations between quest for significance and social media addiction was analysed using simple linear regression model. Significant difference was determined in quest for significance of adults as a result of the study considering age level, marital status, time spent on social media, the reason for using social media and whether using social media has any impact on sleeping pattern. On the other hand, no significant difference was determined in quest for significance of adults in terms of gender, income and educational background. A moderate positive correlation between quest for significance and social media addiction of adults was determined.
... When someone experiences a sense of decline in the sense of significance, he or she m ight turn to seek for significance with this activation potential. The desire to be important and respected in one's own eyes or in the eyes of other important people is expressed by the concept of significance seeking or personal significance seeking (Kruglanski & Bertelsen , 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009). The significance quest is having what the culture values and having a competence valuable for the culture, and having control over the outcomes worthy of the appreciation of the self and others (Kruglanski et al., 2013). ...
... The SQT assumes that the desire to be and to feel significant is a basic human need (Kruglanski et al., 2009;2014;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011). The theory argues that when in dividuals are deprived of significance, they are motivated to initiate action to restore the sense of significance (Schumpe et al., 2018). ...
... On the other hand, loss of significance can also develop because of insults and a sense of injustice towards the group with which individuals strongly identify and which is the basis of social identity. The injustice to which individuals think that their group is exposed triggers loss of significance and causes them to feel weak and insignificant (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009). In summary, loss of significance can result from people's own reasons, their group facing any injustice or insult, and believing that they do not have the opportunities which they should have although others do. ...
This study aimed to develop a measurement instrument to find out significance quest levels of adults and to test its psychometric properties. 621 people (385 female, 236 male) aged 18 years and older participated in the study. The results of confirmatory factor analysis were χ2/sd= 1.89; RMSEA=.065, GFI=.86; IFI=.91; TLI=.92 and CFI=.92 and the scale was found to consist of 26 items with a four factor structure. Face validity value of the scale was found as .90, while convergent validity was found as .67. Cronbach alpha coefficient calculated to find out the internal consistency of the scale was found as .95, while test retest correlation coefficient calculated to find out invariance was found as .84. Based on these values, it can be stated that the scale is a valid and reliable measurement instrument to find out the significance quest levels of adults.
... uest for significance or personal salience is the desire to be notable and respected in one's own eyes and the eyes of other people important for the individual (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski et al., 2009). Different researchers in psychology state that this pursuit constitutes a universal human motivation that is variously labeled as needs for esteem, achievement, meaning, competence, control, and so on (Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011). ...
... The Significance Quest Theory (SQT) (Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski et al., 2013;Kruglanski et al., 2014;Kruglanski & Orehek, 2011) postulates that the desire to be significant and Q Şahin & Derin Quest for Significance and Psychological Symptoms feel salient is a basic human need. This theoretical framework suggests that when deprived of significance, people are strongly motivated to initiate actions that allow them to regain their sense of significance (Schumpe et al., 2018). ...
... The alleged injustice committed against one's group can result in an effective sense of loss of prominence. All these circumstances make the person feel incapable and insignificant (Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski & Bertelsen, 2020). Loss of significance can also result from the idiosyncratic humiliation of a person unrelated to membership in the clan (for example, infertility, divorce, extramarital affair, HIV diagnosis), such as personal failure or defiance of a critical social norm (Webber et al., 2017). ...
This paper aims to examine the quest for significance in adults according to their demographic variables and determine the correlational relationships between their quest for significance and psychological symptoms. The participants of this study, which was designed according to the survey method; a total of 605 adults are 383 females and 222 males in the age range of 18-65 years. Significance Quest Scale, Symptom Checklist and Personal Information Form were used as data collection tools. T-test, ANOVA and simple linear regression method were applied in the analysis of the data obtained from the measurement tools. As a result of the research, a significant difference was determined according to adults’ age and income levels. On the other hand, no significant difference was found in terms of gender. A low level of positive correlation was found between their quest for significance and the psychological symptoms of paranoid thoughts, anger/hostility, and interpersonal sensitivity. The results of the research were interpreted and discussed in line with the relevant literature.
... Moreover, Resta et al. (2022) found that although ambition was predictive of both obsessive and harmonious passion, ambitious people showed an enhanced willingness to engage in extreme behaviors only when they developed an obsessive (but not harmonious) passion toward a specific goal. Additionally, scholars have long demonstrated that when a person is driven to renew their sense of significance (e.g., people who feel they or their group have been humiliated), they are disposed to practice extreme behaviors (i.e., self-sacrifice) to gain respect from others (Dugas et al., 2016;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Kruglanski et al., 2019). Notably, this research showed that, to repair their personal sense of significance, people tend to selfsacrifice in support of a cause important to their in-groups (i.e., identified in the narrative of the proper culture; Olivola & Shafir, 2013;Routledge & Arndt, 2008). ...
... As presented above, psychological states similar to that of loss of significance that evoke the quest for significance restoration (i.e., low self-esteem, ambition) have been linked to obsessive passion (Lafrenière et al., 2011;Resta et al., 2022), as well as to extreme behaviors (i.e., self-sacrifice) in support of a cherished cause (Dugas et al., 2016;Kruglanski et al., 2009). Moreover, obsessive passion has been already tied to extremism (Resta et al., 2022), and, specifically to romantic relationships, to ORI (Bélanger et al., 2021). ...
... Additionally, the present studies highlight that people's readiness to self-sacrifice can be applied to an interpersonal context not directly in pursuit of safeguarding one's in-group's cultural values (cfr. Dugas et al., 2016;Kruglanski et al., 2009). Finally, we also provided further evidence with respect to the overlap between ambition and quest for significance (i.e., loss of significance), as originally demonstrated by Resta et al. (2022). ...
Drawing on significance quest theory, we hypothesized that when people in romantic relationships experience a general feeling of significance loss, they should develop an obsessive passion toward their partner, which in turn should enhance their willingness to act in an extreme manner to maintain their relationship (i.e., their remaining source of significance). To test this hypothesis, we ran two cross‐sectional studies and a longitudinal one. The first operationalized extreme behaviors through self‐sacrifice. The second considered obsessive relational intrusion (ORI) to be an example of extreme behavior. The third study tested whether the consequentiality among variables we considered was that hypothesized and ensured that the hypothesized model remained consistent also while considering the possible overlap between significance loss (i.e., quest for significance) and low self‐esteem. Results confirmed our hypothesis, suggesting that love, amorous relationships, and romantic partners are perceived as fruitful in maintaining or restoring one's personal sense of significance. Notably, this research represents one of the first applications of both the significance quest theory and, secondarily, the theory of motivational imbalance, to the context of romantic relationships.
... Anschließend an die Terror-Management-und die Uncertainty-Identity Theory präsentiert die Significance-Quest Theory (SQT; Kruglanski et al. 2009Kruglanski et al. , 2022 eine Synthese zentraler existenzieller Motive zu einer integrativen psycho- ...
... Im Folgenden soll der Prozess der Radikalisierung näher beleuchtet werden. Die Autor:innen um Kruglanski führen diesen auf eine Interaktion heterogener Faktoren zurück, welche sie unter den drei Komponenten Bedürfnis (need), Narrativ und Netzwerk (den sogenannten drei N der Radikalisierung) zusammenfassen (Kruglanski et al. 2009;. Im Folgenden werden wir diese drei Komponenten detailliert betrachten. ...
... Die erste Komponente der Quest for Significance beschäftigt sich mit der Frage nach dem Motiv, welches den Radikalisierungsprozess in Gang setzt. Die Autor:innen identifizieren dieses in einem fundamentalen menschlichen Bedürfnis nach Bedeutsamkeit (significance), das mittels der Radikalisierung befriedigt werden soll (Kruglanski et al. 2009). Wie die Fallanalysen verschiedener terroristischer Biographien zeigen, kann der Weg in den Terrorismus nicht einfach auf reale oder objektive Deprivation (materielle Armut, mangelnde Bildungschancen, politische Unterdrückung, …) zurückgeführt werden, schließlich sind viele Terrorist:innen weder in gravierender Armut aufgewachsen, noch sind sie ungebildet (Kruglanski und Orehek 2011). ...
Unabhängig von der Frage nach der Legitimität von Radikalisierung stellt der so bezeichnete Prozess aus psychologischer Perspektive eine zunehmende Gefährdung des Selbst und der Anderen dar. Radikalisierung beschreibt das Aufgehen von Individuen in radikalen Gruppen und kann in Hass und Gewalt gegen die Mitglieder andersdenkender Gruppen zum Ausdruck kommen. Radikalisierung motiviert dazu, diesen Gegner:innen bzw. Feind:innen nach Möglichkeiten zu schaden und lässt Konflikte eskalieren, aber auch die persönliche Selbstfürsorge, wie die körperliche Unversehrtheit der eigenen Person, mehr und mehr in Vergessenheit geraten. Auch für Freund:innen und Familie abseits der radikalen Gruppe stellt Radikalisierung häufig eine enorme Belastung dar. Denn vom zerstörerischen Strudel der Aggressionen kann das gesamte Umfeld einer radikalisierten Person erfasst werden. Der Gedanke, dass Radikalisierung für eine besondere Bedürftigkeit oder Notlage radikalisierter Personen stehen könnte, mag dabei nicht als Erstes in den Sinn kommen. Doch im folgenden Beitrag wollen wir die Perspektive einnehmen, Radikalisierung anhand von unbefriedigten sozialen und psychologischen Bedürfnissen zu erklären.
... France. Further, Jasko et al. (2017) expanded these results also to political and religious radicals and we are plenty of others successful applications of the SQT to the extreme behaviors arena (e.g., Kruglanski et al., 2009Kruglanski et al., , 2019Dugas et al., 2016). Notably, the quest for significance predicted extremism also within individuals' private lifescopes. ...
... Moreover, obsessive passion has been shown to be an important mediator in the process that bring people from insignificance to "romantic" extremism (Contu et al., 2023a), or to extremism enacted with respect to an activity that was important within individuals' lives (Resta et al., 2022). Further, supporting the three N model of extremism (Kruglanski et al., 2009), past research showed that social pressure to conformity augment the likelihood of people feeling insignificant to act extremely within the political arena (Jasko et al., 2020). However, these research investigating the role of the quest for significance in predicting various kinds of extremism covered scopes as political and religious ideologies (e.g., Jasko et al., 2017;Adam-Troian et al., 2020), or romantic relationships (Contu et al., 2023a); without paying attention to extreme behaviors related to the self. ...
Building on Significance Quest Theory we hypothesized that significance loss feelings can bring people to extreme self-care related behaviors via (a) the susceptibility to interpersonal influence, and (b) the development of a predominance of obsessive (vs. harmonious) passion toward the self-care. To test these hypotheses, we ran one cross-sectional study among voluntary participants (N = 401). Results confirmed our hypotheses, suggesting that physical appearance is perceived as a fruitful and useful route to maintain or even restoring ones’ personal sense of significance. Notably, these results shed light on another scope that can be exploited to achieve social significance (i.e., physical appearance) through extremism, and could represent a starting point to design practical intervention to reduce the examined extreme behaviors.
... One variable that could mediate this relationship is the loss of significance, which could be a necessary factor in connecting unemployment with support for political violence. The significant quest theory (Kruglanski et al., 2009(Kruglanski et al., , 2013(Kruglanski et al., , 2015 proposes that the main motivational force leading to violent radicalization is the quest for personal significance-a passionate need to count, to be someone, to be recognized, to matter. Three types of events can trigger a significant quest: (a) the loss of significance, (b) a threat to one's significance, and (c) the opportunity to gain considerable significance (Kruglanski, Gelfand, Bélanger, Sheveland, et al., 2014). ...
... From a theoretical point of view, this study supports the role of the loss of significance as a contributing factor to radicalization processes. Social alienation resulting from unemployment is another factor that leads to a loss of significance and deterioration of the bond with societal social norms, with the subsequent significant quest (Kruglanski et al., 2009(Kruglanski et al., , 2013(Kruglanski et al., , 2015. Consequently, unemployment and, more importantly, the attitudes derived from it should be considered a potential trigger in radicalization processes. ...
From a peacebuilding perspective, understanding the factors that lead to radicalization is the first step in preventing political violence, resisting its effects, and building solid pillars for peace. Along these lines, this research aims to explore the relationship between economic factors and radicalization, particularly between unemployment and support for political violence. As previous research has shown contradictory results, we suggest the need to explore the psychological factors that mediate the relationship between unemployment and support for political violence. Particularly, we suggest social alienation and moral disengagement. Therefore, we hypothesize that (Hypothesis 1) the unemployed will present greater social alienation, (Hypothesis 2) a greater sense of social alienation will be associated with greater support for political violence, and the relationship between employment status and political violence will be mediated by (Hypothesis 3) social alienation and (Hypothesis 4) moral disengagement. A study was conducted to test these hypotheses using a sample of employed (N = 281) and unemployed (N = 285) Spanish participants in Southern Spain. Participants completed a paper questionnaire in which they reported their employment status, social alienation, moral disengagement, and support for political violence. The results showed that the hypotheses were fulfilled and that social alienation and moral disengagement mediated the relationship between unemployment and political violence. According to these results, unemployment may encourage support for violence for political purposes. For this to be the case, perceptions of rejection must be considered. This underscores the need for interventions aimed at the welfare of the unemployed as well as their integration into society.
... It encapsulates an individual's drive to achieve self-worth through various means, such as the pursuit of acceptance from others (belonging), the drive for accomplishments, the pursuit of status, participation in a larger entity, and the quest for life's purpose (Kruglanski et al., 2014;Kruglanski et al., 2022). The activation of self-worth involves a dual process, where negative experiences, such as failure, discrimination, and self-deprecation, serves as triggers for its loss (significance loss) (Kruglanski et al., 2009). ...
... These experiences often propel individual to seek restoration of their diminished self-worth by adopting roles within a group (Kruglanski et al., 2022). Additionally, the activation can manifest as the pursuit for self-worth (significance gain) through a committed engagement in values, pleasures, and interests, realized by active involvement in a group (Kruglanski et al., 2009) Keyword search: "political activism" , "personal significance", "fulfilling life activism", "meaningful activist", and "activist "experience" Journals in the screening stage n = 158 Journals excluded due to a conceptual framework, methodology, and book review, and not related to socio-political activism n = 118 ...
Activists are dedicated individuals who endeavor to create a substantial and significant influence on pivotal social issues. Their endeavors are propelled by a multitude of diverse factors, including aspects such as social identity, perceptions of fairness, efficacy, and other relevant considerations. These factors lead them to engage in a process of internalization within the collective group they are part of, shaping their sense of self-worth. However, the motivation to achieve self-worth is not always the predominant focus in existing study. Therefore, this study aimed to explained the context of activists’ self-worth through the framework of the Quest for Significance (QFS) theory, employing a systematic literature review method. The systematic literature review follows the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic and Meta-analysis (PRISMA) protocol, utilizing keywords such as “political activism,” “personal significance,” “fulfilling life activism,” “meaningful activist,” and “activist experience.” The platforms searched include Google Scholar, Springer Nature, Taylor & Francis, and Sage Journal. During the screening stage, journals that met the criteria related to social-political activism and the activation processes of the QFS (significance gain and significance loss) were carefully selected. The study identified key theme concerning the self-worth of activists, such as the role of activism as a coping mechanism, the positive outcomes of activism, the impact of relationships on activist, and challenges inherent in activism.
... Following this logic, significance quest theory has been widely used to explain extreme behaviors and attitudes (Kruglanski et al., 2019). Accordingly, scholars have repeatedly found that when a person is driven by the need to renew their sense of significance (e.g., they have been humiliated), they are disposed to enact extreme behaviors (e.g., self-sacrifice) in pursuit of culturally-valued causes to gain respect from their network (Routledge and Arndt, 2008;Kruglanski et al., 2009;Olivola and Shafir, 2013;Dugas et al., 2016;Kruglanski et al., 2019). All the above-mentioned research, however, linked the personal quest for significance with extremism specifically in the forms of political activism or terrorism (Kruglanski et al., 2013). ...
... In summary, individuals focus their search for significance within socially valued contexts (e.g., romantic relationships, work, in-group's ideologies). Along this line, psychological states similar to that of loss of significance, and general significance loss feelings have been linked to extreme behaviors (e.g., self-sacrifice) in support of a cherished cause (Kruglanski et al., 2009;Dugas et al., 2016). Moreover, general feelings of significance loss have been already related to obsessive relational intrusion and readiness to self-sacrifice (i.e., extremism) in romantic relationships (Contu et al., 2023). ...
Drawing on Significance Quest Theory, we hypothesized that when people experience a loss of significance related to a specific life domain, they will aim to restore their significance by acting in an extreme manner in a different life domain. To test this hypothesis, we ran two cross-sectional studies using samples of employed people in romantic relationships. Study 1 tested if people experiencing a loss of significance in the romantic relationship domain were more prone to extremism at work. Study 2 tested whether people experiencing work-related significance loss were more prone to engage in obsessive relational intrusion (ORI) toward their romantic partner. Results from both studies confirmed our hypothesis, suggesting that both amorous relationships and careers are perceived as fruitful in maintaining or restoring ones’ sense of personal significance, even if the original loss of significance is derived from an unrelated domain. Notably, this research represents one of the first tests of the key assumption of Significance Quest Theory entailing the substitutability of means through which one can attain or renew their sense of significance.
... They operate in different countries and include organizations such as Egyptian Islamic Jehad (EIJ), the Armed Islamic Group (GIA) of Algeria, the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) of Srilanka, the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK) of Turkey and the Osama bin Laden network (Al Qaida) (Karmon, 2005). People are driven by various motivations to join these organizations, such as glori ication after death, pride for the community, poor living conditions, and cultural and religious compulsion (Kruglanski et al., 2009). Recently, these groups have turned to increase the participation of female suicide bombers because they can help them achieve their practical goals and send them to places that male bombers cannot access (Al-Dmour et al., 2023;Weinberg et al., 2003). ...
Suicide bombing, a comparatively modern and highly devastating form of terrorism, severely impacts the victims. However, the long-term impacts of such incidents are not comprehensively explored in the context of educational institutes in Balochistan, the largest province of Pakistan. This study empirically quantifies the long-term socio-psychological consequences of suicide bombings on victims in educational institutions, specifically women's universities in Balochistan, by analyzing the 2013 suicide bombing attack on the Sardar Bahadur Khan Women's (SBKW) University in Quetta, Pakistan. The study was conducted using a quantitative research design approach where the primary data was collected from a random representative sample of 357 direct victims using a cross-sectional survey approach. The questionnaire captured various socio-psychological variables such as trauma, doubtfulness, social support and isolation, and coping mechanisms, while different inferential statistical analyses, such as regression, correlation, and ANOVA tests, were employed to evaluate the relationships between variables. Our analysis revealed that victims of the SBKW University suicide bombing experienced significant psychological distress and social dissatisfaction with a strong correlation of r = 0.16, p < 0.001, and r = 0.19, p < 0.001, respectively. This study provides a quantitative understanding of the long-term impacts of suicide bombings on victims to inform policy development and intervention strategies. Overall, this research provides nuanced insights into the complex effects of suicide bombings on victims by highlighting the need for improved security measures and resilience-building initiatives and underscoring the need to address their socio-psychological well-being in post-conflict an post-disaster contexts
... A profound belief in a divine calling or task can be a strong motivator. For instance, extremist Muslim jihadists justify their actions by perceiving them as carrying out the will of God (Kruglanski et al. 2009). On the other hand, a sense of vocation rooted in spirituality can motivate individuals engaged in development work, even in the face of limited success and frustration. ...
With 85% of this planet’s population adhering to a religion, faith communities are the largest transnational civil society actors in the world. This accords them a major role in societal processes, aincluding current global challenges as spelled out in the 17 SDGs, the core of the Agenda 2030. After decades of neglect, recent years have seen a rise in interest in the role of religion in the public agenda. Academics, policymakers and practitioners alike increasingly acknowledge the significance of faith actors for the SDGs. Key terms such as “Common Home”, shared by faith and secular actors, already indicate their mutual relevance. At the same time, there is a lack of religious literacy in recognizing and interpreting religious dimensions in a given development context. This paper therefore seeks to shed light on the often nebulous “religious factor” in the SDGs in two consecutive steps. At first, the historical part traces the rise of religion in development. In the second step, an analytical part then provides a seven-dimensional model to enhance religious literacy and to provide a better understanding of both the potential and the problems of religion in the global quest for implementing the SDGs.
... While research on identity threat and collective actions in the context of environmental issues is limited, previous studies on political attitudes and beliefs have found similar patterns (e.g., Manunta et al., 2022;Roccas & Brewer, 2002). Interestingly, a concept related to both identity threat and personal meaning, quest for significance, has been applied to understand collective action in the domain of both terrorism behavior (Kruglanski et al., 2009) and environmental activism (Molinario et al., 2020). This suggests that the proposed mechanism may also apply to environmental collective actions. ...
Environmental Identity and Biospheric values are both considered to be antecedents of Environmental Activism. Although various authors have suggested a relationship between Biospheric Values and Environmental Identity, this relationship has rarely been empirically studied. Moreover, the role of affect domain in influencing Environmental Activism has received less attention. This paper is aimed at shedding light on the relationship between Biospheric Values, Connectedness to Nature, and Environmental Identity, as well as studying how both are related to Environmental Activism. It was hypothesized that Environmental Identity mediates the relationship between both Biospheric Values and Connectedness to Nature, and Environmental Activism. A sample of 168 Italian young adults completed an online survey designed to gather information about the variables under study. The results provided support to the hypothesis that Biospheric Values and Connectedness to Nature are related to Environmental Identity, and that their relationship with Environmental Activism is fully mediated by Environmental Identity. In light of the existing literature, the results of this study will be discussed.
... Third, a quest for significance can be activated by the prospect of gaining significance through particular actions, where the absence of these actions would entail a loss of significance. Examples of such actions include heroic deeds and acts of martyrdom, with the quest for significance being highlighted as the motivational underpinning of suicide bombers (Kruglanski et al., 2009). These examples thus illustrate how a loss of meaning -here termed as a loss of significancecan be a central element in understanding why some people undergo violent radicalization. ...
Til trods for at den eksistentielle psykologi historisk set har været mere orienteret mod psykologisk praksis end forskning, fremhæver flere, at psykologiens øvrige afgreninger og forskningsområder indeholder eksistentielle aspekter. I denne artikel argumenterer jeg for, at dette i særdeleshed også gør sig gældende inden for litteraturen om radikalisering mod voldelig ekstremisme, der er et centralt emne i både dansk forskning og på den politiske scene i Danmark. Fokus er i særdeleshed på forebyggelsen af voldelig radikalisering og dens mange negative konsekvenser. En afgørende forudsætning for effektiv forebyggelse er i første omgang at forstå, hvornår og hvordan radikalisering forekommer. Jeg vil i denne artikel udfolde det
argument, at en eksplicit anvendelse af den eksistentielle psykologi kan yde særligt to væsentlige bidrag i denne henseende. For det første viser jeg, hvordan de mest velunderbyggede teorier om radikalisering kan integreres via eksistensbegrebet, og
at radikalisering mod voldelig ekstremisme dermed kan anskues som et udtryk for eksistentiel krise. For det andet belyser jeg i artiklen, hvordan eksistentielle
interventioner dermed kan spille en afgørende rolle i forebyggelsen af voldelig radikalisering og ekstremisme, og at eksistentielle praksisser således bør implementeres i den nuværende danske forebyggelsesindsats.
... However, it has been possible to identify some terrorist traits of suicide bombers similar to an authoritarian personality (Lester et al., 2004), a lower level of ego strength, an avoidant personality style, an emotionally unstable style or symptoms of depression (Merari et al., 2009). An important motivating factor is the previously mentioned lack of a sense of meaning and significance that a radicalised, fundamentalist version of religion is supposed to provide (Kruglanski et al., 2009). This of course applies not only to Muslims but also to Christians and Jews. ...
This article discusses the problem of suicide in monotheistic religions (Judaism, Christianity and Islam), focusing on their early existence and considering the original contribution of Christianity. The first part presents the main theses of E. Durkheim on altruistic suicide and the concept of honour. This provides an opportunity to examine the problem of suicide in monotheistic religions from a more comprehensive perspective and recognise a certain specificity of suicide that was absent in altrusitic suicide. The analysis of the problem in relation to the concept of honour is also a valuable starting point for complementary psychological theories. The second part of the article is a more detailed discussion of suicide in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. The results provide a better understanding of the origins and nature of suicide in monotheistic religions whilst opening up a discussion on the possibility of suicide prevention.
... En el caso de lcdm cabe indicar que sus letras han dedicado espacio para el recuerdo nostálgico de activistas radicales y terroristas como Ulrike Meinhof, José Miguel Beñarán Argala, Carlos Marighella o Pedro Antonio Marín Tirofijo, a quienes se les pone en valor como figuras icónicas de la lucha armada e incluso se los describe como modelos a seguir. Estas referencias, incluso reivindicaciones, contribuyen en cierto modo al sectarismo y a lo que Kruglanski et al. (2009Kruglanski et al. ( , 2013Kruglanski et al. ( y 2014 han indicado sobre los procesos de radicalización: las fuerzas motivacionales que contribuyen a emular a «grandes personalidades» con la finalidad de marcar la diferencia. En un mayor nivel de concreción, se podría señalar, siguiendo a Lobato 12 (2019, pp. ...
Este artículo es una propuesta analítica y didáctica sobre cómo afrontar el estudio de la memoria y la historia del terrorismo en las aulas de Historia. Para ello, se parte de una propuesta didáctica basada en los estudios culturales con una finalidad: que el alumnado disponga de instrumentos de aprendizaje próximos a la cultura juvenil. El objetivo de este acercamiento es conocer la memoria del terrorismo de ETA y grupos afines a través de las letras de los grupos de la escena rock alternativa y/o contestataria, próxima a las tesis de la extrema izquierda y/o del nacionalismo vasco radical, y, por consiguiente, enseñar al alumnado a utilizar las herramientas del historiador para combatir mitos y complejizar su conocimiento sobre la materia.
... The notion that violent extremists are driven by superordinate motivations they perceive as morally virtuous is supported by a growing body of research (Fiske & Rai, 2015;Hahn et al., 2019;Hamid et al., 2019;Kruglanski et al., 2009). For example, Bandura (1999) outlined several mechanisms of selective cognitive moral disengagement that explain how people come to believe their violent cause is righteous, including moral justification, which involves associating a cause with a superordinate righteous purpose (Bandura, 1990(Bandura, , 1999(Bandura, , 2004(Bandura, , 2016. ...
How do terrorists persuade otherwise decent citizens to join their violent causes? Guided by early mass communication research investigating propaganda’s efficacy and the model of intuitive morality and exemplars, we investigated the persuasive moral appeals employed by terrorist organizations known to be successful at recruiting others to their causes. We compiled a database of N = 873 propaganda items created by N = 73 violent terrorist organizations and content analyzed the moral appeals emphasized in each. Results revealed that terrorist groups’ ideologies and motivations predicted the moral values they emphasized in their propaganda, and that ingroup loyalty and fairness appeals featured prominently across all propaganda. Terrorist groups’ emphasis on purity in their propaganda was positively correlated with their attack frequency and with the number of human casualties they caused worldwide and in the USA. Terrorists’ emphasis on ingroup loyalty in propaganda was also positively correlated with the number of US human casualties they caused. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
The recent increase in global conflicts has been associated with the phenomenon of the active participation of civilians into the conflicts, including “foreign fighters,” often driven by complex motivations beyond economic gain. This phenomenon can be explained by the radicalization process, a multi-step process leading individuals to adopt extreme ideological beliefs that can manifest in mass violence. Different models of radicalization, including the Pyramid Model and the Two Pyramid Model, have been described, illustrating the gradient from sympathizers to terrorists, with the latter representing the apex of radical commitment. This chapter explores the changing landscape of radicalization in Europe, emphasizing the rise of “home-grown” terrorists and the shifting methods of recruitment facilitated by the internet. These changes have led to younger and more vulnerable individuals being drawn into radical ideologies. The focus will be on the specific case of foreign fighters, highlighting their historical presence in conflicts and the recent interest due to their involvement in the Middle East, particularly with jihadist groups like Daesh. The Russo-Ukrainian War has also attracted foreign fighters, with thousands joining both pro-Russian and pro-Ukrainian forces. Finally, we will underscore the need for strategies that aim to prevent radicalization and mitigate the associated security risks.
In an attempt to explain “who, how and why comes to terrorism?”, the research
hypothesis that radicalisation is a predictor of terrorism emerged at the beginning of the
21st century. From this moment, the formation of a new scientific research direction
on the phenomenon of radicalisation began and dynamically developing interdisciplinary
field of study in the second decade of the 2 st century. The article presents the results of radicalisation research current state scientometric analysis the in the Russian and foreign research field, identifies trends and directions, outlines the opportunities and limitations of the development of scientific direction in Russia. The choice of the time period for the analysis (2014–2023) is due to the fact that the second decade of radicalisation research is the most active and productive. In Russia, radicalisation studies appeared only in this period. Based on the results of quantitative and qualitative analysis of Russian and foreign publications, the specific characteristics of the research current state are outlined. The key conclusion is that in the study ofradicalisation, Russian researchers lag behind by at least a decade, the reasons for the lag and opportunities for the development of scientific direction in Russia are outlined.
In an attempt to explain “who, how and why comes to terrorism?”, the research hypothesis that radicalisation is a predictor of terrorism emerged at the beginning of the 21st century. From this moment, the formation of a new scientific research direction on the phenomenon of radicalisation began and dynamically developing interdisciplinary field of study in the second decade of the 2 st century. The article presents the results of radicalisation research current state scientometric analysis the in the Russian and foreign research field, identifies trends and directions, outlines the opportunities and limitations of the development of scientific direction in Russia. The choice of the time period for the analysis (2014-2023) is due to the fact that the second decade of radicalisation research is the most active and productive. In Russia, radicalisation studies appeared only in this period. Based on the results of quantitative and qualitative analysis of Russian and foreign publications, the specific characteristics of the research current state are outlined. The key conclusion is that in the study of radicalisation, Russian researchers lag behind by at least a decade, the reasons for the lag and opportunities for the development of scientific direction in Russia are outlined.
Criminological macro-theories offer valuable insights into terrorism (Lafree, Freilich (eds), The handbook of the criminology of terrorism. Wiley-Blackwell, 2017). Particularly noteworthy, given their robust empirical support in elucidating general criminal behaviour and violence, are social control theory, self-control theory, and social learning theory (Akers, 1985; Akers, Social learning and social structure: a general theory of crime and deviance. Northeastern University Press, 1998). Specialised literature on terrorism also underscores the significance of grievances (Saucier et al, Perspect Psychol Sci 4(3):256–271, 2009), aligning with General Strain Theory (Agnew, 2010).
In this chapter four macro-theories are tested: social bond; self-control; general strain and social learning on three French soil terrorism cases perpetrated in recent years. Several factors drawn from the most robust specialist theoretical models such as ideology, identity and the need for closure are also added. We find that combining the four theories holds considerable explanatory power. However, depending on the case, some seem to hold better explanatory power than others. Indeed, some individuals are driven essentially by a lack of self-control, others by emotions, whilst others still are clearly influenced by circumstances and their environment. However, perhaps because it is broader, social bond theory sheds light on all the cases.
This article responds to calls for more theorizing on the motivational processes that underpin reactance phenomena. We introduce goal systems theory to psychological reactance theory and demonstrate why reactance can be considered goal-directed behavior. In particular, the counterfinality principle of goal systems theory offers a unique process explanation of why eliminated or threatened choice options are more attractive. A goal systems perspective on reactance phenomena allows for the identification of psychological needs that underpin reactance. We discuss how reactance can be circumvented by addressing superordinate, autonomy-related needs—namely, by providing alternative means to desired end states.
Purpose: The study aimed to assess the probability of achieving positive identification through comparative dental analysis (CDA) and to determine the factors that influence its success rate in mass disaster scenarios. Methods: An electronic literature search was conducted across six databases for observational studies that reported both the total number of mass disaster victims and the count of victims identified through CDA alone. A random-effect meta-analysis, using the proportion of victims identified with CDA as the effect size, was conducted alongside subgroup analyses based on the type of disaster (natural or non-natural), the disaster classification (open or closed), and the geographical region (i.e., Europe, Asia). Results: The search yielded 3133 entries, out of which 32 studies were deemed eligible. Most of the studies (96.8%) presented a low risk of bias. The meta-analysis revealed a mean weighted-proportion probability of 0.32, indicating that forensic odontology could identify about one-third of the victims in a mass disaster. The probability of comparative dental identification was three times higher in closed mass disasters compared to open disasters (p < 0.05) and was higher in mass disasters occurring in North America and Europe compared to other regions (p < 0.05). Conclusion: The current result suggested that CDA can identify approximately 32% of a victim in a hypothetical scenario, emphasizing the integral role of teeth and forensic odontology in victim identification framework.
We propose a framework integrating insights from computational social science, political, and social psychology to explain how extreme polarization can occur in deeply divided societies. Extreme polarization in a society emerges through a dynamic and complex process where societal, group, and individual factors interact. Dissent at different levels of analysis represents the driver of this process, where societal-level ideological dissent divides society into opposing camps, each with contrasting collective narratives. Within these opposing camps, further dissent leads to the formation of splinter factions and radical cells—sub-groups with increasingly extreme views. At the group level, collective narratives underpinning group identity become more extreme as society fragments. At the individual level, this process involves the internalization of an extreme group narrative and norms sanctioning radical behavior. The intense bonding within these groups and the convergence of personal and group identities through identity fusion increase the likelihood of radical group behavior.
Plant-based food refers to a diet focused on consuming primarily plant-derived ingredients for health, environmental, and ethical reasons. Since there is a growing recognition regarding the significant correlation between sustainable consumption and consumers' political inclinations, this study aimed to identify effective ways to promote plant-based food in a restaurant setting by analyzing the relative persuasiveness of advertisements in terms of three variables: consumer political orientation (liberal vs. conservative), regulatory focus (promotion vs. prevention), and message type (health vs. taste). This study confirms that there is a significant two-way effect between political orientation and regulatory focus on consumers’ attitude and purchase intentions toward plant-based food. Additionally, this two-way effect between political orientation and regulatory focus varies depending on the type of message. The mediating role of goal relevance was confirmed as well. The study provides implications for effective marketing communication in the context of plant-based food promotion in the foodservice industry.
Traditionnellement, les femmes étaient perçues comme accessoires dans les mouvements des droites extrêmes. Durant la pandémie, plusieurs influenceur·euses ont fait preuve d’opportunisme pour augmenter leur nombre d’abonné·es (Stewart et al., 2023). Dans cet article, la théorie du cadrage de l’action collective est mobilisée pour analyser le discours tenu sur Facebook par trois influenceuses anti-mesures sanitaires lors de la période d’instauration du passeport sanitaire. Les analyses mettent en évidence des discours réactionnaires et libertariens. Ces influenceuses nourrissent le ressentiment en tant que femmes militantes, identifiant « l’injustice » et encourageant l’action collective en fusionnant les cadres d’extrême droite et les mouvements « New Age ». Elles se positionnent comme des résistantes face à la dévaluation des besoins du peuple de la part des élites et du gouvernement et les accusent de les priver de liberté.
In regard to the rise of Islamic terrorism and fundamentalism, this paper aims to (1) explore the ways in changing jihadists' mind and behavior; that is, by guiding them away from “war situation” and by persuading them to conduct good deeds and to relate Islam to daily life such as by giving sermons on peace or helping others. To the convicted terrorists, the authors present the project findings showing that developing dialogs about humanity and peace could increase the level of cognitive complexity through which it can lead them to be more positive to others. (2) The authors also discuss religious fundamentalism and how to deal with it. Two studies revealed that although eliminating religious fundamentalism is almost not possible, there are still ways to lead them to have positive perceptions toward other religious groups. One of them is to make the fundamentalists believe that Muslims and Islam perceive non-Muslims in a positive way, instead of in a negative way.
Extremism of all types arises from a motivational imbalance wherein one need outweighs all other needs. When such a process occurs, more means to achieving the focal goal, including those considered extreme, become available to the individual. Presently, we focus on the need for significance, an existential social need. When the quest for significance is dominant, an individual may be willing to make extreme sacrifices in order to achieve their goal. The quest for significance can be activated through many different means, one of which is the loss of significance through exclusion. When one perceives that they have been excluded, their motivation to regain respect is activated. When this motivation to restore significance comes to suppress one’s other needs, the individual becomes willing to engage in activities they may have previously considered socially unacceptable, including joining extreme groups and participating in violence, in order to fulfill their quest for significance.
Involuntary celibates (“incels”) are men who desire romantic or sexual partners but purportedly cannot attain them. Their ideology – the Blackpill – holds that their exclusion from successful romantic and sexual relationships is due almost entirely to their relative unattractiveness. Furthermore, the consequences of being an unattractive man bleed over into other aspects of their lives, marring their interpersonal relationships, job prospects, and overall well-being. Blaming women as the chief architects of their unhappiness, incels sometimes commit mass acts of violent retribution. In this chapter, we explicate the incel ideology; explore the interrelated phenomena of social exclusion, self-verification, and identity fusion among incels; describe who incels are; and provide a framework for de-fusing incels from the group.
The question of how people develop extreme, radical or even terrorist ideas and behaviors is one which is attracting more and more scientific attention. There are many factors that contribute to such extremist attitudes. This book focuses on one specific contributor which has received only little attention in the past: social exclusion. Recent research shows that being kept apart from others, physically or emotionally, is a powerful event in people's lives. The chapters provide an overview of the existing body of research for the first time and explore the exclusion-extremism link in depth by gathering together a seminal collection of essays, written by leading social psychologists. Timely, novel, and highly instructive, this volume delivers an expert understanding of psychological underpinnings of such behavior and offer inspiration for future research.
The question of how people develop extreme, radical or even terrorist ideas and behaviors is one which is attracting more and more scientific attention. There are many factors that contribute to such extremist attitudes. This book focuses on one specific contributor which has received only little attention in the past: social exclusion. Recent research shows that being kept apart from others, physically or emotionally, is a powerful event in people's lives. The chapters provide an overview of the existing body of research for the first time and explore the exclusion-extremism link in depth by gathering together a seminal collection of essays, written by leading social psychologists. Timely, novel, and highly instructive, this volume delivers an expert understanding of psychological underpinnings of such behavior and offer inspiration for future research.
In this work, we analyze the root causes of support for populism through a motivational lens. We propose that threats elicited in periods of crisis such as the COVID-19 pandemic are likely to increase the support for populist attitudes through three motivational processes: the need for personal significance (Kruglanski et al., Perspectives on Psychological Science 17:1050–1071, 2022), the need for collective significance (Kruglanski et al., American Psychologist 68:559–575, 2013; Jasko et al., Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 118:1165–1187, 2020), and the need for cognitive closure (Kruglanski & Webster, Psychological Review, 103(2):263–283, 1996). These motivations can be activated in several circumstances. For example, the threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic can induce a sense of uncertainty about the circumstance surrounding the event, which leads individuals to search for clarity and responses. The threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic can also undermine the sense of self-certainty and group-certainty, which induces individuals to search for self-affirming means such as strongly identifying with relevant social groups and subscribing to identity-defining self (Hogg et al., 2010). Polarized ideological platforms that offer certainty and simplicity as well as self-affirming means are particularly suited to address these needs. Accordingly, partially building on the results obtained in two studies, one conducted at the beginning of the pandemic (Spring 2020), and one a year into the pandemic (Spring 2021) in Italy (Study 1, n = 2010; Study 2, n = 1837), we argue that populist narratives play two functions. First, their clear-cut and dichotomous core that draws a line between good and evil is certainty-promoting and thus appealing to those seeking closure. Second, populist narratives promise empowerment, social recognition, and dignity by providing significance-bestowing values to pursue, such as fighting various alleged enemies of the ‘people’. According to this argument, the results showed that the relation between the threat posed by the COVID-19 pandemic and populist attitudes was mediated by epistemic and significance-affirming motivations (i.e., personal and collective need for significance). Specifically, we found that the higher the perceived COVID-19 threat, the higher the need for cognitive closure, the quest for individual significance, and the quest for collective significance. These motivational forces, in turn, were positively related to populist attitudes.
This chapter describes four online jihadist magazines: Al-Qaeda’s Inspire, ISIS’s Dabiq and Rumiyah, and Al-Shabaab’s Gaidi Mtaani. Although the publications of these periodicals have ceased, their popularity on the internet continues to influence would-be jihadists and youths. This chapter’s special focus, of course, remains on sub-Saharan Africa. The impact of these magazines is so widespread that anyone with no proclivity toward radicalism could metamorphose into a potential killing machine by reading those magazines.
Literature increasingly indicates that affectivity plays a major role in violent extremism. Nevertheless, much of the work on affectivity in the context of violent extremism has so far remained a fragmented background issue. The purpose of this paper is to bring affect to the foreground through philosophical accounts of situated affectivity, while remaining compatible with contributions on emotions and affect from different disciplines in the context of extremism. The situated account explains how environmental structures affect individual affectivity and vice versa. With the help of this framework, we are able to analyze an individual’s affective dynamics simultaneously with multiple elements. By using different analytical vantage points, we can examine how the affectivity of individuals is shaped and regulated by other individuals, materials, spaces, discourses, and behaviors in extremist settings. The approach provides a broader and richer perspective on the complexities and dynamics of affect in extremism. Affect-centric counter- and preventive policies relating to violent extremism can benefit from this approach.
Occupational callings are a combination of passion and enjoyment with a sense of duty and destiny. Pursuing a calling is a double‐edged sword, sometimes beneficial and sometimes detrimental, but it is unclear why it has contradictory effects. We show how daily self‐sacrifice behaviour explains these effects and reveals how workers regulate their callings on a daily basis. We argue that people with intense callings use self‐sacrifice to attain daily calling goals. However, this has a cost to their wellbeing in terms of daily emotional exhaustion. Diary data from church ministers and chaplains reveals that daily self‐sacrifice behaviour mediates the positive effects of calling intensity, via felt obligations, on both daily calling goal attainment and emotional exhaustion. Within‐person, we show how state self‐esteem further regulates this double‐edged process both within a day and from one day to the next. Low morning state self‐esteem promotes daily self‐sacrifice and is indirectly related to higher calling goal attainment and emotional exhaustion via daily self‐sacrifice. But morning self‐esteem is itself predicted positively by the previous days’ goal attainment and negatively by emotional exhaustion. Therefore, state self‐esteem in conjunction with daily self‐sacrifice behaviour and its double‐edged effects represents a daily regulation mechanism for self‐sacrifice in callings.
This study explores the motivational drivers of violent extremism by examining references to motivational goals—values—in texts written by lone offenders. We present a new database of manifestos written by lone offenders ( N = 103), the Extremist Manifesto Database (EMD). We apply a dictionary approach to examine references to values in this corpus. For comparison, we use texts from a matched quota sample of US American adults ( N = 194). Compared to the general population, extremists referred more often to values of security, conformity, tradition, universalism, and power, and less often to values of benevolence, stimulation, and achievement. In extremist manifestos, ingroup descriptions referred more to security and universalism values, whereas power values dominated outgroup descriptions. Non‐extremists referred to the same values in conjunction with “us” and “them” (benevolence and self‐direction). The values that extremists referenced suggest interpersonal detachment and a clear delineation of value narratives around “us” and “them”.
The use of online media has been a natural part of everyday life for a while now.
More than 60 per cent of the world’s population used the internet in April 2021.1 Via
their smartphones, many people are online every day. In a digital society, the permanent
access we have to information and the possibility of being constantly connected with
others leads to fundamental changes in the human experience: ‘People today – and
especially those of tomorrow – think, feel, experience and act in the expectation of
being “or at least being able to be permanently online, permanently connected”
(POPC).’2
The dissemination of information has also changed. Today, virtually anyone can publish
their own content online, including extremists. For example, right-wing extremists and
Islamist extremists3 make use of online media to intimidate their enemies, coordinate
attacks, distribute videos of attacks, consolidate alliances or transmit knowledge
about terrorist tactics. Online channels can also become targets themselves in what
are known as ‘cyber wars’ using computer viruses, denial-of-service (DDoS)4 attacks
or targeted hacks. Above all, online media make it easier for extremists to disseminate
propaganda, which is a key means of recruiting new followers. In contrast to traditional
recruitment methods, such as distributing flyers, the internet makes it possible to reach
people with no (initial) physical contact.
Creativity is usually seen as a good thing, but why? The Creativity Advantage first offers an overview of creativity studies with an emphasis on the little-discussed benefits of being creative. These include how creativity can lead to self-insight, help people heal, forge connections with others, inspire drive, and enable people to leave behind a meaningful legacy. Written in an engaging style and illustrated with interesting anecdotal material, this book offers a new perspective on creativity scholarship that can serve as an introduction to the field for newcomers or as a way to encourage new avenues for research.
Research summary
We compare European and North American radicalization trajectories that led to involvement in terrorist violence ( n = 103) with those for which this outcome did not occur ( n = 103). Regression analyses illustrate how involvement in terrorist violence is determined not only by the presence of risk, but also the absence of protective factors. Bivariate analyses highlight the importance of considering the temporality of these factors; i.e., whether they are present before or after radicalization onset. The most salient risk factors identified were alignment with a group or movement with an exclusively violent strategic logic, and access to weapons. In terms of protective factors, parenting children during radicalization, self‐control, and participation in extremist groups with a strategic logic that was not exclusively focused on violent means were all associated with noninvolvement in terrorist violence.
Policy implications
Different patterns of risk and protective factors influence whether radicalization will, or will not, lead to involvement in terrorist violence. One‐size‐fits‐all radicalization‐prevention efforts may therefore be less effective than programs tailored to address a particular outcome. Even when terrorist violence is prevented, the targeted individual is likely to remain radicalized. Preventative efforts must carefully assess whether the measures used to avert terrorist violence in the short‐term risk contributing to a longer term societal threat. The efficacy of preventative efforts depends in part on when they are deployed, that is, before or after radicalization onset.
One of the oldest scientific theories of human aggression is the frustration-aggression hypothesis, advanced in 1939. Although this theory has received considerable empirical support and is alive and well today, its underlying mechanisms have not been adequately explored. In this article, we examine major findings and concepts from extant psychological research on hostile aggression and offer an integrative conception: aggression is a primordial means for establishing one's sense of significance and mattering, thus addressing a fundamental social-psychological need. Our functional portrayal of aggression as a means to significance yields four testable hypotheses: (1) frustration will elicit hostile aggression proportionately to the extent that the frustrated goal serves the individual's need for significance, (2) the impulse to aggress in response to significance loss will be enhanced in conditions that limit the individual's ability to reflect and engage in extensive information processing (that may bring up alternative, socially condoned means to significance), (3) significance-reducing frustration will elicit hostile aggression unless the impulse to aggress is substituted by a nonaggressive means of significance restoration, (4) apart from significance loss, an opportunity for significance gain can increase the impulse to aggress. These hypotheses are supported by extant data as well as novel research findings in real-world contexts. They have important implications for understanding human aggression and the conditions under which it is likely to be manifested and reduced.
As the climate crisis has progressed, scientists have begun to ask, "How does a rapidly warming ecosystem impact human behavior?" As aggression scholars and non-professional environmentalists, it has become increasingly clear that the impact of the climate crisis, without intervention, will dramatically increase humans' exposure to risk factors known to cause aggressive and violent behavior. This article describes a model that explains the indirect and direct effects of the climate crisis on aggression and violence, both on an individual level and broadly on group dynamics. We propose that systemic and global intervention strategies must be adopted to mitigate the severity of the climate crisis. This manuscript outlines the research demonstrating how climate change will increase human aggression and violence and then discusses potential interventions, such as holistic policies addressing immigration and income inequality. In discussing this topic, we provide insight into the intersectional nature of the consequences of rapid global warming.
Given the pervasiveness of violent extremism all over the globe, understanding its psychological underpinnings is key in the fight against it. According to the Significance Quest Theory and its 3N model, violent extremism (i.e., violent and deviant behavior) is a function of three elements: need, narrative, and network. In the present meta-analysis, in order to put into test the theory and its model, we aimed to establish the strength of the association between these three elements, as well as the quest for significance itself, and violent extremism; and investigate if these associations are influenced by methodological decisions (i.e., sampling and measurements/manipulations). A literature search was performed through electronic platforms, a call for unpublished or in-press data, and backward snowballing. Seventeen reports, comprising 42 studies, met full inclusion criteria: quantitative studies based on primary data assessing for the association of at least one of the 3Ns, or quest for significance, and violent extremism, and providing sufficient data for effect size extraction. Findings are reported according to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines. Random-effect meta-analyses rendered statistically significant pooled effect sizes in all the investigated associations. The association is strong for quest for significance, moderate for narrative and network, and low for need for significance. Subgroup analyses demonstrate that the detection of these associations is influenced by methodological decisions concerning the measurements and manipulations, but not by those concerning the sampling. We discuss these findings and suggest future research directions aiming to improve the predictive power of the theory and its model.
Previous research has shown that after a mortality salience (MS) treatment, death thought accessibility and worldview defense are initially low and then increase after a delay, suggesting that a person’s initial response to conscious thoughts of mortality is to actively suppress death thoughts. If so, then high cognitive load, by disrupting suppression efforts, should lead to immediate increases in death thought accessibility and cultural worldview defense. Studies 1 and 2 supported this reasoning. Specifically, Study 1 replicated the delayed increase in death accessibility after MS among low cognitive load participants but showed a reversed pattern among participants under high cognitive load. Study 2 showed that, unlike low cognitive load participants, high cognitive load participants exhibited immediate increases in pro-American bias after MS. Study 3 demonstrated that worldview defense in response to MS reduces the delayed increase in death accessibility. Implications of these findings for understanding both terror management processes and psychological defense in general are discussed.
Would talking to terrorists be a good idea? And if we were to engage modern day terrorists
in a real dialogue what would we potentially learn about their agendas, motivations and the
possibility of negotiated peace? Is it possible to come to terms with Al Qaeda, Palestinian or
Chechen terror groups and what would the differences in how those terms are reached likely
be? If we took seriously the individual motivations for terrorism would we possibly find the
openings in how the terror networks might be undermined? This paper based on three years
of dialogues with terrorists – their families, close associates, those who have observed them
up close, the senders of human bombs and the individuals themselves who become bombs -
speculates on these very questions.
Social and personality psychologists traditionally have focused their attention on the most basic building blocks of human thought and behavior, while existential psychologists pursued broader, more abstract questions regarding the nature of existence and the meaning of life. This volume bridges this longstanding divide by demonstrating how rigorous experimental methods can be applied to understanding key existential concerns, including death, uncertainty, identity, meaning, morality, isolation, determinism, and freedom. Bringing together leading scholars and investigators, the Handbook presents the influential theories and research findings that collectively are helping to define the emerging field of experimental existential psychology.
This chapter investigates the role of social identification in the management of human beings' existential concerns. We begin by presenting an overview of Terror Management Theory (TMT). This theory addresses the mechanisms that individuals have developed to prevent, or at least lessen, the anxiety deriving from the uniquely human ability to foresee one's death. We then present two perspectives concerning the role of social identities as anxiety-buffer mechanisms. A first one, which falls more squarely within TMT, suggests that social identities are functional in obtaining self-esteem (one of the two anxiety-buffer mechanisms proposed by TMT). A second perspective grants a more independent role to social identities. In this perspective, individuals seek transcendence by becoming a part of reified entities that are larger and longer lasting than the individual self. Findings emerging from these two lines of research are presented, along with an analysis of the relationship between identity, death anxiety, and immortality, from a historical and cross-cultural perspective.
The theory outlined in the present chapter adopts a cognitive approach to motivation. In the pages that follow we describe a research program premised on the notion that the cognitive treatment affords conceptual and methodological advantages enabling new insights into problems of motivated action, self-regulation and self-control. We begin by placing our work in the broader historical context of social psychological theorizing about motivation and cognition. We then present our theoretical notions and trace their implications for a variety of psychological issues including activity-experience, goal-commitment, choice, and substitution. The gist of the chapter that follows describes our empirical research concerning a broad range of phenomena informed by the goal-systemic analysis. Motivation Versus Cognition, or Motivation as Cognition Motivation versus cognition: the “separatist program. ” Social psychological theories have often treated motivation as separate from cognition, and have often approached it in a somewhat static manner. The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach was manifest in several major formulations and debates. Thus, for example, the dissonance versus self-perception debate (Bem, 1972) pitted against each other motivational (i.e., dissonance) versus cognitive (i.e., self-perception) explanations of attitude change phenomena. A similar subsequent controversy pertained to the question of whether a motivational explanation of biased causal attributions in terms of ego-defensive tendencies (cf. Kelley, 1972) is valid, given the alternative possibility of a purely cognitive explanation (Miller & Ross, 1975). The separatism of the “motivation versus cognition ” approach assigned distinct functions to motivational and cognitive variables. This is apparent in major social psychological notions of persuasion, judgment or impression formation. For instance, in the popular dual-mode theories of
This chapter features the concept of ascribed epistemic authority offered as a unique perspective on source effects in social judgment. It assumes that both the self and external sources may be assigned different degrees of epistemic authority in different domains and that this determines the ways in which individuals process information, make decisions, and undertake actions. The present framework traces the socio-developmental aspects of epistemic authority assignments and considers individual differences in the distribution of authority assignments across sources. The chapter conceives of epistemic authority ascriptions as meta-cognitive beliefs about a source of information. It introduces a perspective on source effects framed from the subjective standpoint of the information's recipient. This perspective highlights the developmental, individual differences, self-related, and applied aspects of source phenomena. The treatment of source effects in several major models of persuasion is reviewed. A final discussion highlights the unique properties of the epistemic authority and considers its implications for the place of source effects in notions of information processing and human judgment.
Three studies examined the effects of separation reminders on death-thought accessibility. In Study 1, participants imagined a separation from a relationship partner, the death of such a partner, or a TV program. In Study 2, participants imagined a separation from a relationship partner, a separation from an acquaintance, or an academic failure. In Study 3, participants imagined a short-term, long-term, or final separation from a relationship partner. In the three studies, death-thought accessibility and attachment style were assessed. Thoughts of separation from a relationship partner led to heightened death-thought accessibility mainly when thoughts were focused on long-term or final separations and among persons scoring high on attachment anxiety. The discussion focused on the death-anxiety buffering function of close relationships.
Suicide terrorism is becoming more prominent as well as more frequently motivated by religion. To attract potential recruits away from jihadist martyrdom requires addressing basic grievances, not applying military force. Those root causes and how to address them, however, are woefully misunderstood.
Positive psychology needs an agreed-upon way of classifying positive traits as a backbone for research, diagnosis, and intervention. As a 1st step toward classification, the authors examined philosophical and religious traditions in China (Confucianism and Taoism), South Asia (Buddhism and Hinduism), and the West (Athenian philosophy, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam) for the answers each provided to questions of moral behavior and the good life. The authors found that 6 core virtues recurred in these writings: courage, justice, humanity, temperance, wisdom, and transcendence. This convergence suggests a nonarbitrary foundation for the classification of human strengths and virtues. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
There has been increased interest recently in the implications of Darwinian theory on psychology, psychiatry and in medicine generally. As a result a large number of publications have appeared that attempt to reformulate a range of psychiatric disorders in the light of evolutionary theory. However, relatively little attention has been paid to the subject of suicide from the evolutionary perspective with some notable exceptions. The purpose of this brief paper is to bring the Darwinian perspective to the notice of a wider psychiatric readership hoping that this will add a further dimension to the debate on suicide and selfdestructive behaviour. Darwinia n theory had found it difficult to account for the existence of altruistic behavioural strategies in social animals until it was explained by Hamilton that the focus for selection was not the individual but the gene. Altruism here refers to any behaviour that reduces the reproductive fitness of the donor while increasing the reproductive fitness of the recipient. According to Hamilton's formulation (the kin selection theory) the individual will behave in a nepotistic manner (ie. altruistically towards kin) as this will enhance the overall chances of his genes to pass to the next generation not only through his own descendants but through non-descendant kin, a measure he termed ‘inclusive fitness’. Therefore it would not be surprising that individuals would be more likely to behave altruistically towards kin than non-kin.
This chapter examines why people kill themselves for other reasons than that they do not want to live, focusing on the special case of why they engage in suicide bombings or (as on 11 September 2001) other modes of suicide missions (SMs). It makes a distinction between two levels of actors. At the first level are those who sacrifice their lives (the suicide attackers). At the second level are those who incite and enable them to do so (the organizers). It draws heavily on the cases of suicide attacks mentioned in the other chapters in this volume as well as on some other sources.
This book attempts to shed light on suicide missions and provide answers to the questions we all ask. Are these the actions of aggressive religious zealots and unbridled, irrational radicals or is there a logic driving those behind them? Are their motivations religious or has Islam provided a language to express essentially political causes? How can the perpetrators remain so lucidly effective in the face of certain death? And do these disparate attacks have something like a common cause? It focuses on four main instances: the Kamikaze, missions carried out by the Tamil Tigers in the civil war in Sri Lanka, the Lebanese and Palestinian groups in the Middle East, and the al-Qaeda 9/11 attack on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon. For more than two years, the authors have pursued an unprejudiced inquiry, investigating organizers and perpetrators alike of this extraordinary social phenomenon. Close comparisons between a whole range of cases raise challenging further questions: If suicide missions are so effective, why are they not more common? If killing is what matters, why not stick to 'ordinary' violent means? Or, if dying is what matters, why kill in the process?
This chapter examines the suicide missions (SMs) related to the Arab-Israeli conflict that took place from 1981 to December 2003. SMs are a relatively recent phenomenon in the Middle East, with only sporadic cases before 1981. In the two decades under examination, the great majority of the SMs related to the Arab-Israeli conflict took place in three geographic areas: Israel, the Occupied Territories (Gaza Strip and the West Bank), and Lebanon (primarily in the south). This concentration is largely due to the outcome of the 1967 war, the so-called Six Day War. Israel managed to sign effective peace agreements with its neighbours in the south (Egypt) and in the east (Jordan), but not in the north (Syria). Hence, a shift in the conflict towards the Occupied Territories and Lebanon, the latter squeezed between the Israeli army in the south and Syrian influence in the north.
The global war on political violence finds a new enemy. Meet the megalomaniacal hyperterrorist.
In this article I present a formal model of relative deprivation and demonstrate its implications concerning the relationship between inequality and political instability. The model, which is based on assumptions similar to those of Nagel (1974), implies that the relationship of instability to inequality can be either curvilinear, as Nagel found, or linear, as Russett (1964) found, although under different conditions. In both cases the model implies that reducing inequality reduces the level of relative deprivation, thereby enhancing the prospect for political stability. However, changes in the tendency of individuals to compare their lot with that of others can also substantially affect the level of relative deprivation in a society.
The application of rational expectations theory to policies of retaliation against terrorism suggests that only unexpected retaliations will be effective in causing terrorist attacks to deviate from their natural rate and that there is a time inconsistency problem in responding to terrorism. Since the optimal response rate to terrorism would never be believable to the terrorists, the first best policy may be for the government retaliating against terrorism to have its response rate constrained by an externally imposed rule. A time series intervention model of terrorist attacks against Israel supports the natural rate hypothesis and, therefore, also the desirability of a retaliatory rule over policy discretion. Israeli retaliation for the 1972 Munich massacre was the first Israeli retaliation of unexpectedly large magnitude, and it produced a temporary deviation of terrorist attacks from the natural rate. Retaliation has no long-term deterrent or escalation effect.
The purpose of the study was to examine the consequences of following the rules and goals of social communication for the verbal encoding, representation, and recall of stimulus person information. Subjects read an essay describing the behaviors of a stimulus person after having been assigned the communication role of either speaker or listener. Half the subjects in each role were told that their communicative partner had received basically the same information about the stimulus person, and half were told that their partner had received different information. In each of these conditions, half the subjects were told that they would later receive additional information about the stimulus person, and half were not. Speakers were more likely to “stick to the facts” in describing the stimulus person when they believed that their listener had different information about the stimulus person than when they believed that their listener had the same information. This verbal encoding to suit the communicative situa...
Suicidal violence involves three levels of analysis: individual motivations, organizational strategies, and societal conflicts. Using rationalist, culturalist, and structuralist approaches to contentious politics, this article explores the intersection of rationality, norms, and conflict in the making of extreme violence. The case of Palestinian suicide bombers demonstrates the interdependence of the three approaches to explaining suicidal violence. For individuals, self-sacrifice is conceived as an act of personal redemption rooted in religious morality and national salvation. For organizations, human bombs provide strategic advantages in the context of asymmetrical warfare. For collectivities, martyrs are venerated when three conditions converge: (1) cultural norms encompass symbolic narratives that honor martyrdom; (2) legitimate authorities acquiesce to extreme violence; and (3) conflicts generate feelings of victimization and threat by external enemies.
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Using semi-structured interviews, 35 incarcerated Middle Eastern terrorists have been interviewed - 21 Islamic terrorists representing Hamas (and its armed wing Izz a-Din al Qassan), Islamic Jihad, and Hizballah, and 14 secular terrorists from Fatah and its military wing, PFLP and DFLP. The purpose of the research was to understand their psychology and decision-making in general, and with special reference to their propensity towards weapons of mass destruction.
This article examines how and why the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE) integrated women, highlighting themes common to women's participation in militant groups such as women's unique propaganda value and cultural limits on recruiting women and employing them in political violence.
Two psychological perspectives on terrorism are distinguished, approaching it as a “syndrome” and as a “tool,” respectively. According to the “syndrome” view, terrorism represents a psychologically meaningful construct with identifiable characteristics on individual and group levels of analysis. According to the “tool” perspective, terrorism represents a strategic instrument that any party in a conflict with another may use. Research thus far has found little support for the “syndrome” view. Terrorists do not seem to be characterized by a unique set of psychological traits or pathologies. Nor has research uncovered any particular “root causes” of terrorism. The vast heterogeneity of terrorism's users is consistent with the “tool” view, affording an analysis of terrorism in terms of means-ends psychology. The “tool” view implies conditions under which potential perpetrators may find terrorism more or less appealing, hence offering guidance for the “war on terrorism.”
This book focuses on the author's findings that illustrate our sometimes unconscious desire to get hold of an ultimate meaning of life—whether it comes from a religious source or other venue of inspiration or influence.
The author suggests that it is possible for mankind to find, and actualize, profound meaning in his or her daily life. In this context, he speaks of a "will to meaning" as a central motivating force, and presents specific evidence that life can offer meaning in each and every situation.
The book admits that this search for meaning can also lead to nefarious ends such as unhealthy nationalism, obsessive jealousies, ethnic hatred, or a compulsive work ethic. The author believes that tolerance and a realization of our infinite possibilities throughout our finite existence will ensure a path to a fulfilling existence. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
outline some of the most penetrating insights to be gained from adopting the perspective of evolutionary social psychology
missing theoretical foundation of mainstream social psychology / some evolutionary tools indispensable for social psychology / nature of social psychological mechanisms: modular adapted design / centrality of social context: why "evolved" does not mean inevitable, inflexible, or intractable / testing evolutionary hypotheses and the issue of falsifiability / sex and mating: an illustration / evolution of important phenomena in social psychology / self-presentation and impression management / social sex differences and socialized gender roles / social psychology in the 21st century / limitations of evolutionary psychology (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
28 TESTABLE PROPOSITIONS REGARDING THE SELF-ACTUALIZER ARE PRESENTED AND DISCUSSED IN DETAIL. THE TERM "METANEEDS" IS USED TO DIFFERENTIATE BASIC NEEDS FROM THE HIGHER NEEDS OF SELF-ACTUALIZERS. (2 P. REF.) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
suggest that in the absence of social verification, experience is transitory, random, and ephemeral / once acknowledged by others and shared in a continuing process of social verification termed "shared reality," experience is no longer mere capricious subjectivity, but instead achieves the phenomenological status of objective reality / in other words, experience is established as valid and reliable to the extent that it is shared with others / examine classic social-psychological research and theory as well as more recent research, especially that pertaining to the role of communication processes in social cognition / [the authors] suggest several implications of the hypothesis for such topics as stereotyping, self, language, attitudes, and persuasion
suggest that (1) the individual creates and maintains the experience of reality or meaning by sharing it with others in a process of social verification; (2) social interaction depends upon and is regulated by the achievement of shared reality; and (3) the shared reality that is established in social interaction in turn functions to regulate the self, closing the dialogical circle (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The jihadists in Iraq strategically deploy emotional narratives to construct the myth of heroic martyrdom, demonize their intended targets, and appeal to potential recruits from around the Muslim world. These culturally astute jihadists know well the themes that resonate with the wider Muslim public, and have done an extraordi-nary job in harnessing three narratives to mobilize for martyrdom: humiliation of Muslims at the hands of foreigners, impotence of official Muslim governments in the face of hegemonic powers, and redemption through faithful sacrifice. This study explores how jihadists weave together these three narratives to suggest a deleterious condition that requires an immediate action, offer an explanation of the causes of this persistent condition, and present the necessary solution to overcome the problem.