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Emotion Regulation 1
Running Head: ASSESSMENT OF DIFFICULTIES IN EMOTION REGULATION
Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor
Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale
Kim L. Gratz and Lizabeth Roemer
University of Massachusetts Boston
In press, Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment
Emotion Regulation 2
Abstract
Given recent attention to emotion regulation as a potentially unifying function of diverse
symptom presentations, there is a need for comprehensive measures that adequately assess
difficulties in emotion regulation among adults. This paper (a) proposes an integrative
conceptualization of emotion regulation as involving not just the modulation of emotional
arousal, but also the awareness, understanding, and acceptance of emotions, and the ability to act
in desired ways regardless of emotional state; and (b) begins to explore the factor structure and
psychometric properties of a new measure, the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS).
Two samples of undergraduate students completed questionnaire packets. Preliminary findings
suggest that the DERS has high internal consistency, good test-retest reliability, and adequate
construct and predictive validity.
Keywords: emotion regulation; emotion dysregulation; assessment; experiential avoidance;
deliberate self-harm
Emotion Regulation 3
Multidimensional Assessment of Emotion Regulation and Dysregulation: Development, Factor
Structure, and Initial Validation of the Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale
Consistent with behavioral theories of psychopathology that highlight the importance of
the function of problem behaviors rather than symptom picture (Hayes, Wilson, Gifford, Follette,
& Strosahl, 1996), increasing attention has been paid to emotion regulation as a potentially
unifying function of diverse symptom presentations and maladaptive behaviors (Gross & Munoz,
1995). Although there is some preliminary literature on the role of emotion regulation deficits in
a range of clinical disorders, including substance abuse (Hayes et al., 1996), generalized anxiety
disorder (Mennin, Heimberg, Turk, & Fresco, 2002), and complex post-traumatic stress disorder
(Cloitre, 1998), the most comprehensive work highlighting the role of emotion dysregulation in a
clinical disorder has been Linehan’s (1993) theoretical work on the development of borderline
personality disorder. Linehan proposes that emotion dysregulation is one of the central features
of borderline personality disorder and underlies many of the associated behaviors of this
disorder, including deliberate self-harm (a behavior thought to serve an emotion-regulating
function). Her conceptualization of self-harm as an emotion regulation strategy is supported by
both empirical and theoretical literature on the function of this behavior (see Briere & Gil, 1998;
Gratz, 2003). It has been similarly suggested that the perpetration of violence toward others (e.g.,
intimate partners) may function to regulate emotions (Jakupcak, Lisak, & Roemer, 2002) –
consistent with findings from experimental studies that aggressive behavior can serve an affect
regulatory function (Bushman, Baumeister, & Phillips, 2001).
Despite its clinical significance, however, the role of emotion regulation deficits in the
development and maintenance of clinical difficulties has not been adequately researched in
adults. Likely contributing to the lack of research in this area is the absence of both consistent,
Emotion Regulation 4
agreed-upon conceptualizations of emotion regulation and comprehensive measures that
adequately assess the complexity of this construct among adults. The purpose of the present
study was to develop and validate a measure of clinically-relevant difficulties in emotion
regulation that is based on a comprehensive, integrative conceptualization of emotion regulation.
This paper (a) reviews the extant literature on the conceptualization and measurement of emotion
regulation (and dysregulation); (b) provides an integrative conceptualization of emotion
regulation that may be used in future research in this area; and (c) begins to explore the factor
structure and psychometric properties of a new measure of difficulties in emotion regulation, the
Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS).
Some conceptualizations of emotion regulation emphasize the control of emotional
experience and expression (especially the expressive control of negative emotions) and the
reduction of emotional arousal (see Cortez & Bugental, 1994; Garner & Spears, 2000; Kopp,
1989; Zeman & Garber, 1996). In contrast, others emphasize the functional nature of emotions in
conceptualizing emotion regulation, suggesting that emotion regulation is not synonymous with
emotional control and, as such, does not necessarily involve immediately diminishing negative
affect (Cole, Michel, & Teti, 1994; Thompson, 1994). These latter approaches suggest that
deficiencies in the capacity to experience (and differentiate) the full range of emotions and
respond spontaneously may be just as maladaptive as deficiencies in the ability to attenuate and
modulate strong negative emotions (Cole et al., 1994; Gross & Munoz, 1995; Paivio &
Greenberg, 1998). Similarly, some researchers have suggested that adaptive emotion regulation
involves monitoring and evaluating emotional experience in addition to modifying it,
highlighting the importance of the awareness and understanding of emotions (Thompson &
Calkins, 1996).
Emotion Regulation 5
The emphasis on the functionality of emotions is consistent with theory and research
highlighting the potentially paradoxical, dysregulating effects of attempts to control emotional
experience and expression (despite the fact that such emotional control has often been equated
with emotion regulation, e.g., Garner & Spears, 2000; Zeman & Garber, 1996). Hayes and
colleagues (1996) have suggested that efforts to avoid internal experiences (e.g., unwanted
thoughts and feelings) underlie many psychological disorders – a theory with growing empirical
support (see Stewart, Zvolensky, & Eifert, 2002). Further, both the general tendency to constrict
emotional expression and experimental instructions to conceal one’s emotional expressions have
been associated with increased physiological arousal (Notarius & Levenson, 1979; Gross &
Levenson, 1997), suggesting that attempts to control emotional expression may increase risk for
emotion dysregulation (given that high levels of arousal are more difficult to regulate; see
Eisenberg, Cumberland, & Spinrad, 1998; Flett, Blankstein, & Obertynski, 1996). This literature
suggests that an emphasis on the control, rather than the acceptance, of emotional responses may
confound processes that undermine regulation with those that are regulatory. Therefore, some
conceptualizations of emotion regulation emphasize the importance of accepting and valuing
emotional responses (Cole et al., 1994; Linehan, 1993). Consistent with these approaches,
researchers have suggested that the tendency to experience negative emotions in response to
one’s own emotional reactions (indicative of a lack of emotional acceptance) is maladaptive, and
associated with greater difficulties in emotion regulation (Cole et al., 1994; Hayes, Strosahl, &
Wilson, 1999; Paivio & Greenberg, 1998).
Researchers have suggested the necessity of considering the demands of the situation and
goals of the individual when evaluating emotion regulation (Thompson, 1994; Thompson &
Calkins, 1996), as emotion regulation can only be understood and evaluated within a specific
Emotion Regulation 6
context (Cole et al., 1994; Thompson, 1994). Knowledge of the specific emotion regulation
strategies used by an individual, in the absence of information on the context in which they are
used, may provide little information about the individual’s ability to regulate her or his emotions
effectively. Adaptive emotion regulation instead involves flexibility in the use of emotion
regulation strategies (Cole et al., 1994; Thompson, 1994).
Researchers have also suggested that adaptive emotion regulation involves altering the
intensity or duration of an emotion rather than changing the discrete emotion that is experienced
(Thompson, 1994; Thompson & Calkins, 1996). In other words, adaptive regulation involves
modulating the experience of emotions rather than eliminating certain emotions. This modulation
of arousal is thought to be in the service of reducing the urgency associated with the emotion so
that the individual is able to control her or his behavior (as opposed to controlling emotions
themselves). These conceptualizations of emotion regulation emphasize the ability to inhibit
inappropriate or impulsive behaviors, and behave in accordance with desired goals, when
experiencing negative emotions (see Linehan, 1993; Melnick & Hinshaw, 2000).
Based on the above conceptual and empirical work, emotion regulation may be
conceptualized as involving the (a) awareness and understanding of emotions, (b) acceptance of
emotions, (c) ability to control impulsive behaviors and behave in accordance with desired goals
when experiencing negative emotions, and (d) ability to use situationally-appropriate emotion
regulation strategies flexibly to modulate emotional responses as desired in order to meet
individual goals and situational demands.1 The relative absence of any or all of these abilities
would indicate the presence of difficulties in emotion regulation, or emotion dysregulation.
Despite the clinical utility of assessing difficulties in emotion regulation, there are few
measures of emotion regulation or dysregulation in adults. Most of the measures used to assess
Emotion Regulation 7
emotion regulation deficits are actually measures of closely-related constructs, leading some
researchers to use multiple measures in an attempt to capture the construct of emotion regulation
(see, e.g., Mennin et al., 2002).
The most commonly used measure of emotion regulation is Catanzaro and Mearns’
(1990) Generalized Expectancy for Negative Mood Regulation Scale (NMR). The NMR
measures beliefs that some “behavior or cognition will alleviate a negative state or induce a
positive one” (p. 547), emphasizing the elimination and avoidance of negative emotions (as
opposed to the ability to act in desired ways in the presence of these emotions). Many items on
the NMR refer to particular emotion regulation strategies that people may use to modulate
emotional arousal. This practice implies that emotion regulation strategies are adaptive
regardless of context and that certain strategies are more adaptive than others universally – an
implication that is inconsistent with conceptualizations of emotion regulation that emphasize the
contextually-dependent nature of adaptive regulation strategies (see Cole et al., 1994; Thompson,
1994; Thompson & Calkins, 1996). Moreover, many of the strategies listed in the NMR seem to
equate emotion regulation with emotional avoidance (e.g., “When I’m upset, I believe that I
won’t be able to put it out of my mind” (negatively scored); or “When I’m upset, I believe that I
can forget about what’s upsetting me pretty easily”). While the NMR does not assess some
potentially important aspects of emotion regulation (such as the awareness, understanding, and
acceptance of emotions), it does measure one important aspect of emotion regulation as
conceptualized here: access to emotion regulation strategies perceived as effective.
Another measure occasionally used to capture the construct of emotion regulation is the
Trait Meta-Mood Scale (TMMS; Salovey, Mayer, Goldman, Turvey, & Palfai, 1995), which
assesses “individual differences in the ability to reflect upon and manage one’s emotions”
Emotion Regulation 8
(Salovey et al., 1995, p. 126). Participants rate the degree to which they endorse a series of
statements regarding their attitudes toward, and experience of, their emotions. Factor analyses
have yielded three subscales (attention to feelings, clarity of feelings, and mood repair), each of
which demonstrates good internal consistency and convergent validity. While the TMMS
assesses some aspects of emotion regulation that are absent from the NMR (e.g., emotional
awareness and understanding), the repair subscale is similar to the NMR in its emphasis on
emotional avoidance (e.g., “I try to think good thoughts no matter how badly I feel”). The
TMMS also does not include an assessment of the ability to engage in desired behaviors when
experiencing negative emotions – the absence of which may be particularly important in the
clinical realm.
The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) was developed to assess emotion
dysregulation more comprehensively than existing measures. The DERS items were chosen to
reflect difficulties within the following dimensions of emotion regulation: (a) awareness and
understanding of emotions; (b) acceptance of emotions; (c) the ability to engage in goal-directed
behavior, and refrain from impulsive behavior, when experiencing negative emotions; and (d)
access to emotion regulation strategies perceived as effective. The final dimension reflects an
attempt to measure the flexible use of situationally-appropriate strategies to modulate emotional
responses. Given the aforementioned limitations associated with the practice of delineating
specific regulation strategies when attempting to measure emotion regulation (in particular, the
implication that certain strategies are more adaptive than others regardless of context), the
subjective appraisal of effectiveness was assessed instead, with the hope that this would take into
account the contextually-dependent nature of adaptive regulation strategies. The primary purpose
of the two studies reported below was to begin to explore the factor structure and psychometric
Emotion Regulation 9
properties of the DERS, thereby aiding in the development of a theoretically-based,
comprehensive, empirically validated measure of emotion dysregulation. The first study
examined the factor structure, internal consistency, and construct and predictive validity of the
DERS, and a second study examined the measure’s test-retest reliability.
Study 1
Method
Participants
Questionnaire packets were distributed to 479 students from undergraduate psychology
courses offered at the University of Massachusetts Boston. Of these, 373 packets were returned,
resulting in a response rate of 78%. There were no significant differences in age, racial
background, or gender between participants who returned the packets and those who did not. As
they were missing data on one or more of the variables of interest, 16 participants were excluded
from the following analyses.
The final sample of 357 participants ranged in age from 18 to 55, with a mean age of
23.10 (SD = 5.67). Seventy-three percent (n = 260) of these participants were female. Sixty-five
percent of participants self-identified as White, 17% as Asian, 8% as Black/African-American,
4% as Hispanic, and 6% reported another or unspecified racial background. Participants were
predominantly single (89%) and heterosexual (90%). There was little difference,
demographically, between participants who completed all of the measures and those who did not.
Measures
Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale. The initial Difficulties in Emotion Regulation
Scale (DERS) was a 41-item, self-report measure developed to assess clinically-relevant
difficulties in emotion regulation. The DERS items were developed and selected on the basis of
Emotion Regulation 10
numerous conversations with colleagues well-versed in the emotion regulation literature. The
NMR (Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990; see below) was used as a template and helped to structure the
format of some of the items (although not the content of the items). Specifically, in order to
assess difficulties regulating emotions during times of distress (when regulation strategies are
most needed), many items begin with “When I’m upset,” similar to the NMR. The content of the
items differ, however, as DERS items were chosen to reflect difficulties within the following
dimensions of emotion regulation: (a) awareness and understanding of emotions; (b) acceptance
of emotions; (c) the ability to engage in goal-directed behavior, and refrain from impulsive
behavior, when experiencing negative emotions; and (d) access to emotion regulation strategies
perceived as effective. Participants are asked to indicate how often the items apply to
themselves, with responses ranging from 1 to 5, where 1 is “almost never (0-10%),” 2 is
“sometimes (11-35%),” 3 is “about half the time (36-65%),” 4 is “most of the time (66-90%),”
and 5 is “almost always (91-100%).” For the purposes of this study, DERS items were recoded
so that higher scores in every case indicated greater difficulties in emotion regulation (i.e.,
greater emotion dysregulation).
Generalized Expectancy for Negative Mood Regulation Scale. The Generalized
Expectancy for Negative Mood Regulation Scale (NMR; Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990) is a 30-
item, self-report questionnaire used to measure expectancies for the self-regulation of negative
moods. The NMR asks participants to indicate the extent to which they believe that their
attempts to alter their negative moods will work. The NMR has high internal consistency, and
adequate construct and discriminant validity (Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990). The NMR also has
adequate test-retest reliability over periods of three to four weeks (r = .74 for women; r = .76 for
men) and six to eight weeks (r = .78 for women; r = .67 for men; Catanzaro & Mearns, 1990).
Emotion Regulation 11
Items were recoded so that higher scores in every case indicated higher expectancies for
negative mood regulation (or greater emotion regulation), and a sum was calculated. Given that
the NMR is the most commonly used, empirically-supported measure of emotion regulation, it
was included in the present study to assess the construct validity of the DERS.
Acceptance and Action Questionnaire. The Acceptance and Action Questionnaire (AAQ;
Hayes et al., 2003), is a 9-item, self-report measure of experiential avoidance (i.e., the tendency
to avoid unwanted internal experiences, such as emotions and thoughts). Items assess
experiential avoidance and control, negative evaluations of internal experience, psychological
acceptance (or lack thereof), and the extent to which an individual acts regardless of emotional
distress or, conversely, allows distress to prompt behavioral avoidance (Hayes et al., 2003).
Sample items include “I rarely worry about getting my anxieties, worries, and feelings under
control (reverse scored)” and “If I could magically remove all the painful experiences I’ve had in
my life, I would do so.” The AAQ is significantly correlated with the tendency to engage in the
suppression of thoughts in both clinical and non-clinical populations (rs = .44 to .50; Hayes et
al., 2003), providing preliminary evidence of its construct validity. There is also evidence that
the AAQ assesses a unique, clinically-relevant construct, as it remains significantly correlated
with measures assessing a wide range of psychopathology when controlling for social
desirability and the tendency to suppress thoughts (Hayes et al., 2003).
Items on the AAQ were recoded so that higher scores in every case indicated greater
experiential avoidance, and a sum was calculated. The AAQ was included to assess the construct
validity of the DERS, and was expected to be positively associated with DERS scores (see Cole
et al., 1994; Hayes et al., 1999; Hayes et al., 1996; Linehan, 1993; Paivio & Greenberg, 1998).
Emotion Regulation 12
Emotional Expressivity Scale. The Emotional Expressivity Scale (EES; Kring, Smith, &
Neale, 1994) is a 17-item, self-report questionnaire that assesses general emotional expressivity.
The EES is based on the conceptual definition of emotional expressiveness as “the extent to
which people outwardly display their emotions” (p. 936, Kring et al., 1994), regardless of the
valence of the emotion (i.e., positive or negative) or the manner in which it is expressed (i.e.,
facially, vocally, or gesturally). The EES has high internal consistency, and adequate convergent,
discriminant, and construct validity (Kring et al., 1994). The EES is significantly correlated with
spontaneous emotional expressiveness in the laboratory (as assessed by observer ratings of
general expressivity in response to emotionally-evocative film clips) among both college
students (r = .38) and community residents (r = .43; Kring et al., 1994). The EES also has good
test-retest reliability over a 4-week period (r = .90; Kring et al., 1994).
Items on the EES were recoded so that higher scores in every case indicated greater
emotional expressivity, and a sum was calculated. The EES was included to assess the construct
validity of the DERS. Contrary to some definitions of emotion regulation (see e.g., Garner &
Spears, 2000; Zeman & Garber, 1996), the conceptualization of emotion regulation on which the
DERS is based does not equate emotion regulation with expressive control. On the contrary,
emotional expressiveness is expected to facilitate emotion regulation (see Linehan, 1993). Thus,
the DERS was expected to be negatively correlated with EES scores of emotional expressivity.
Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory. The Deliberate Self-Harm Inventory (DSHI; Gratz,
2001) is a behaviorally-based, self-report questionnaire that assesses deliberate self-harm (the
deliberate, direct destruction or alteration of body tissue without conscious suicidal intent, but
resulting in injury severe enough for tissue damage to occur). This measure is composed of 17
items and assesses various aspects of deliberate self-harm, including frequency, severity,
Emotion Regulation 13
duration, and type of self-harming behavior. The DSHI has high internal consistency (
α
= .82),
adequate construct, convergent, and discriminant validity, and adequate test-retest reliability over
a period ranging from 2 to 4 weeks, with a mean of 3.3 weeks (
φ
= .68, p < .001; Gratz, 2001).
For the present study, a continuous variable was created to measure frequency of reported
self-harm behavior. Participants’ scores on the frequency questions for each of the 17 items were
summed to create a variable of the total frequency of self-harm behavior. Given the growing
body of literature on the emotion regulating function of self-harm behavior (see Gratz, 2003;
Linehan, 1993), the DSHI was included in the present study to provide some preliminary data on
the predictive validity of the DERS. The DERS was expected to be positively associated with
frequency of self-harm behavior.
Abuse and Perpetration Inventory. The Abuse-Perpetration Inventory (API; Lisak,
Conklin, Hopper, Miller, Altschuler, & Smith, 2000) is a self-report, behaviorally-based
instrument that assesses childhood physical and sexual abuse as well as four types of
perpetration. The API has been shown to have adequate criterion and construct validity (Lisak et
al., 2000). The section of the API assessing perpetration behavior, the Perpetration History (PH)
questionnaire, was used to assess the extent to which an individual had engaged in intimate
partner abuse.
The PH is comprised of 28 items assessing four types of perpetration, including physical
and sexual abuse of children and adults. Seven of these items describe specific experiences of
intimate partner abuse, ranging from slapping one’s partner to attempting to kill one’s partner
with a knife or gun. For each question answered “yes,” participants answer several follow-up
questions regarding their age at the time, the age of their victim, and the frequency of the
behavior. For the present study, participants’ scores on the frequency questions for each of the
Emotion Regulation 14
seven items pertaining to intimate partner abuse were summed to create a variable of the total
frequency of partner abuse. Given recent suggestions that the abusive behavior of men toward an
intimate partner may function as an attempt to regulate emotions (e.g., by reducing distressing
arousal; Jakupcak et al., 2002), the PH was included in the present study to provide preliminary
data on the predictive validity of the DERS. Although the emotion regulating function of partner
abuse has been suggested only for men, this relationship was examined among women as well.
Procedure
Participants were informed fully, both verbally and in writing, about the purpose of the
study prior to participation, and signed a consent form describing the purpose of the study, the
potentially distressing subject matter, and the confidential nature of the data (i.e., a code number
was assigned to each questionnaire before the data were examined, the data were stored in a
secure area, and access to the data was limited to the research team). Students who chose to
participate in the study completed questionnaire packets consisting of the measures described
above (see Measures) and other measures unrelated to the current study. Participants received
research credits in exchange for their participation.
Results
Factor Structure
Exploratory factor analysis was used to provide preliminary data on the factor structure
of the DERS and identify the underlying dimensions of emotion regulation as assessed by this
scale. As the conceptualization of emotion regulation on which the DERS was based is multi-
faceted, it was expected that this measure would be composed of different (albeit associated)
factors, each reflecting a dimension of emotion regulation wherein difficulties may occur.
Emotion Regulation 15
Preliminary analyses. Prior to conducting the factor analyses, the response distributions
of all individual DERS items were examined. As none of these variables were excessively
skewed or kurtotic (Kendall & Stuart, 1958), no items were excluded from the analyses on the
basis of their response distributions. However, upon inspection of the correlation matrix for all
items, item 13 (“When I’m upset, I allow myself to feel that way”) was excluded from future
analyses on the basis of its low correlations with the overall scale score (r = .06, ns), as well as
the other scale items (mean r with other items = .01; 36 of 40 rs below .20). The decision to omit
this item on the basis of its minimal association with the other variables was supported by the
fact that, in a preliminary factor analysis of all items, the communality of item 13 upon
extraction was below .30 (the only item for which this was the case).
Factor analyses. Responses to the remaining 40 items were subjected to a common factor
analysis (see Floyd & Widaman, 1995), using the principal axis factoring method of extraction
and promax oblique rotation to allow for correlations among factors.
Given Floyd and Widaman’s (1995) suggestion that the scree test is a more accurate
method for retaining factors than the more commonly used criterion of eigenvalues > 1.00 (the
Kaiser-Guttman criterion), the scree test was used in the present study. The scree test suggested
retaining 6 or 7 factors, and thus analyses were conducted to examine the interpretability and
utility of both 6- and 7-factor solutions. As the 6-factor solution was more interpretable (and the
7-factor solution contained a factor on which only 2 variables had primary loadings), 6 factors
were retained in the final analyses.
In regard to item selection for the 6 factors, factor loadings of .40 and higher were
considered meaningful. Items with loadings below .40 on all factors were excluded from further
analyses. In addition, variables that appeared to have double loadings on two factors (i.e.,
Emotion Regulation 16
loadings of greater than .40 and of comparable size) were excluded. Based on these criteria, four
items were deleted following the first factor analysis. Items 2 (“I feel at ease with my
emotions”), 11 (“My emotions make me uncomfortable”), and 18 (“When I’m upset, I become
scared and fearful of those feelings”) had loadings of less than .40 on all factors, and item 36
(“When I’m upset, I know there are things I can do to manage my emotions”) had a double
loading on two factors (with loadings of .46 and .50 on factors 4 and 6, respectively).
After excluding these four items, the factor analysis was recomputed on the remaining 36
items to ensure that all had factor loadings of .40 or higher (see Table 1 for the final factor
loadings).2 Upon extraction, the six factors accounted for 55.68% of the total variance of the
measured variables (see Table 2 for the eigenvalues and percentage of variance accounted for by
the six factors initially and upon extraction).
The six factors comprising the DERS are highly-interpretable and reflect the multi-
faceted definition of emotion regulation on which the scale was based (see Table 3). Factor 1 can
be labeled Non-Acceptance of Emotional Responses (NON-ACCEPTANCE). It is composed of
items reflecting a tendency to have negative secondary emotional responses to one’s negative
emotions, or non-accepting reactions to one’s distress. Factor 2 can be labeled Difficulties
Engaging in Goal-Directed Behavior (GOALS). It is composed of items reflecting difficulties
concentrating and accomplishing tasks when experiencing negative emotions. Factor 3 can be
labeled Impulse Control Difficulties (IMPULSE) and is composed primarily of items reflecting
difficulties remaining in control of one’s behavior when experiencing negative emotions. Factor
4 can be labeled Lack of Emotional Awareness (AWARENESS) and consists of items reflecting
the tendency to attend to and acknowledge emotions. When these items are appropriately
reverse-scored, this factor reflects an inattention to, and lack of awareness of, emotional
Emotion Regulation 17
responses. Factor 5 can be labeled Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies
(STRATEGIES) and consists of items reflecting the belief that there is little that can be done to
regulate emotions effectively, once an individual is upset. Factor 6 can be labeled Lack of
Emotional Clarity (CLARITY) and is composed of items reflecting the extent to which
individuals know (and are clear about) the emotions they are experiencing. As expected, the six
factors were correlated with one another (see Table 4).
Results suggest that the four proposed dimensions of emotion regulation on which the
DERS is based may be more accurately conceptualized as six distinct (albeit related) dimensions.
Although the NON-ACCEPTANCE and STRATEGIES factors mapped directly onto the
proposed dimensions of emotional acceptance and access to effective emotion regulation
strategies, respectively, results suggest that the two other proposed dimensions of emotion
regulation are themselves multi-dimensional. Items thought to reflect difficulties in the proposed
dimension of awareness and understanding of emotions loaded onto two separate factors,
AWARENESS and CLARITY, suggesting that there may be a difference between being aware
of emotional responses and having a clear understanding of the nature of these responses.
Similarly, items representing difficulties in the proposed dimension involving the ability to
engage in goal-directed behavior and refrain from impulsive behavior when experiencing
negative emotions were split into two separate factors, IMPULSE and GOALS, suggesting that
there may be a difference between being able to inhibit undesired behavior and engage in desired
behavior.
Mean scores for women and men on the overall DERS as well as each subscale are
shown in Table 5. Gender differences were found for only the AWARENESS subscale, on which
Emotion Regulation 18
men had significantly higher scores than women (t = 3.5, p < .01; for all other scales, ts < 1.37,
ps > .10), suggesting that men reported lower emotional awareness than women.
Reliability
Internal consistency. Cronbach’s
α
was calculated to determine the internal consistency
of the DERS items. Results indicate that the DERS had high internal consistency (
α
= .93). Item-
total correlations ranged from r = .16 to r = .69. Thirty-four of the items had item-total
correlations above r = .30. All of the DERS subscales (computed from the 6 factors obtained in
the factor analysis) also had adequate internal consistency, with Cronbach’s
α
> .80 for each
subscale. See Table 6 for additional information on the internal consistency of each subscale.
Validity
Construct validity. To provide preliminary data on the construct validity of the DERS,
correlations between the DERS scores (the overall score as well as the individual subscale
scores) and a commonly used measure of emotion regulation, the NMR, were computed.
Correlations were also computed between the DERS scores and measures of experiential
avoidance and emotional expressivity. Since the DERS is based on a conceptualization of
emotion regulation that distinguishes adaptive emotion regulation from emotional avoidance and
expressive control, evidence for the construct validity of this measure of emotion dysregulation
would be provided by positive correlations with experiential avoidance and negative (rather than
positive) correlations with emotional expressivity.
As shown in Table 7, all correlations between the overall DERS score and the constructs
of interest were in the expected directions and statistically significant. Each of the DERS
subscales was also significantly correlated (in the expected direction) with the NMR and the
measure of experiential avoidance; however, only three of the subscales were significantly
Emotion Regulation 19
correlated with the measure of emotional expressivity. Supporting the validity of the factor
solution, the DERS subscales showed a differential pattern of association with the constructs of
interest. Consistent with the expectation that the STRATEGIES subscale would capture
difficulties in the aspect of emotion regulation most commonly assessed in the literature, the
correlation between the STRATEGIES subscale and the extant measure of emotion regulation
(the NMR) was significantly higher than the correlations between the NMR and any of the other
DERS subscales (all ts > 4.78, ps < .001; see Cohen & Cohen, 1983, for the test of the
significance of the difference between dependent rs). In addition, the correlation between the
GOALS subscale and the NMR was significantly higher than the correlations between the NMR
and the NON-ACCEPTANCE, AWARENESS, and CLARITY subscales (all ts > 2.18, ps < .05).
The STRATEGIES subscale was also significantly more highly associated with the measure of
experiential avoidance (the AAQ) than were the other DERS subscales (all ts > 3.15, ps < .01).
As for the pattern of associations between the DERS subscales and the measure of emotional
expressivity (the EES), only three of the subscales (AWARENESS, CLARITY, and NON-
ACCEPTANCE) were significantly correlated with the EES. The AWARENESS subscale was
significantly more highly correlated with EES scores than were any of the other subscales (all ts
> 4.28, ps < 001.), and the CLARITY subscale was significantly more highly correlated with the
EES than were the NON-ACCEPTANCE, GOALS, IMPULSE, and STRATEGIES subscales
(all ts > 2.02, ps < .05).
To explore whether the DERS adds to the literature on the assessment of difficulties in
emotion regulation by accounting for additional variance in constructs of interest above and
beyond that accounted for by an extant measure of emotion regulation, partial correlations
between the DERS overall and subscale scores and the constructs of interest were computed,
Emotion Regulation 20
controlling for the NMR. As shown in Table 7, all of the DERS variables accounted for a
significant amount of additional variance in experiential avoidance, above and beyond that
accounted for by the NMR. In addition, the AWARENESS, CLARITY, GOALS, and
STRATEGIES subscales accounted for a significant amount of additional variance in emotional
expressivity (although for the latter two subscales, the magnitude of the relationship was quite
modest and the direction was reversed).
Predictive validity. In order to begin to explore the predictive validity of the DERS (i.e.,
the extent to which it is associated with clinically-relevant behavioral outcomes), correlations
between the DERS scores and two clinically-important behavioral outcomes thought to be
associated with emotion dysregulation (frequency of deliberate self-harm and frequency of
intimate partner abuse) were computed. Given gender differences in the severity and proposed
function of partner abuse (see Saunders, 1986; Stets & Straus, 1990), as well as increasing
evidence of gender differences in the risk factors for self-harm (see Gratz, 2003; Gratz, Conrad,
& Roemer, 2002), the relationships between difficulties in emotion regulation and these outcome
variables were examined separately for women and men. A history of at least one incident of
self-harm was reported by 35% of the women and 44% of the men (with more than 10 incidents
reported by 15% of the women and 14% of the men). A history of at least one act of intimate
partner abuse was reported by 24% of the women and 17% of the men (with 12% of the women
and 8% of the men reporting more than three acts of abuse in the past). These rates are consistent
with past studies on these behaviors among other samples from this urban university (see Gratz
et al., 2002; Lisak, Hopper, & Song, 1996). Rates of self-harm and partner abuse did not differ
significantly across gender (
χ
2 = 2.62 for self-harm and
χ
2 = 2.10 for partner abuse; ps > .10).
Emotion Regulation 21
Before conducting analyses, logarithms were used to transform the DSHI and PH
frequency scores, as the raw frequency scores of both measures were highly positively skewed
(as would be expected when assessing these constructs). Following transformations, both
variables approximated normal distributions among female participants. While the transformed
DSHI scores approximated a normal distribution among male participants, their PH scores
remained positively skewed and kurtotic (skewness = 2.73, kurtosis = 7.63). However, Kline
(1998) reviewed Monte Carlo studies that indicate that non-normality is not problematic unless
skewness > 3 and kurtosis > 10; therefore, analyses were conducted using these transformed
variables for women and men.
As shown in Table 8, the correlations between the overall DERS score and self-harm
were significant (and in the expected direction) among both women and men, and the correlation
between the overall DERS score and intimate partner abuse (also in the expected direction) was
significant among men. The overall DERS score was significantly more highly correlated with
frequency of partner abuse among men than among women (z = 2.26, p < .05; see Cohen &
Cohen, 1983, for a test of the significance of the difference between independent rs), consistent
with the emphasis in the literature on the emotion regulatory function of partner abuse among
men in particular.
Providing support for the validity of the factor solution, the DERS subscales showed a
differential pattern of association with self-harm and intimate partner abuse, within and across
gender. Frequency of self-harm was significantly associated with the NON-ACCEPTANCE and
IMPULSE subscales among men, but not among women (for whom correlations with the other
four subscales were significant). However, none of the correlations between frequency of self-
Emotion Regulation 22
harm behavior and the DERS subscales differed significantly from one another among women or
men, and none differed significantly across gender.
As for the relationships between different aspects of emotion regulation and intimate
partner abuse, frequency of partner abuse was significantly associated with only the IMPULSE
subscale among women, and with the GOALS, IMPULSE, and STRATEGIES subscales among
men. For women, the correlation between the IMPULSE subscale and frequency of partner abuse
was significantly higher than the correlations between the NON-ACCEPTANCE, GOALS,
AWARENESS, and STRATEGIES subscales and frequency of partner abuse (ts > 2.16, ps < .
05). Among men, the correlation between the GOALS subscale and frequency of partner abuse
was significantly higher than the correlations between the AWARENESS and CLARITY
subscales and frequency of partner abuse (ts > 2.00, ps < .05). The GOALS subscale also was
significantly more highly correlated with frequency of partner abuse among men than among
women (z = 2.96, p < .01). These findings support the proposed association between difficulties
in emotion regulation and partner abuse among men, and suggest that for women this
relationship may exist only for the specific dimension of difficulties controlling one’s behavior
when distressed.
To explore whether the DERS explains additional variance in these clinical outcomes
above and beyond that accounted for by an extant measure of emotion regulation, partial
correlations between the DERS overall and subscale scores and these behavioral outcome
measures were computed, controlling for the NMR. As shown in Table 8, there is some evidence
that the DERS accounts for unique variance in clinically-relevant behaviors, when controlling for
that accounted for by the NMR. Specifically, the NON-ACCEPTANCE subscale accounted for a
significant amount of additional variance in frequency of self-harm among men, whereas the
Emotion Regulation 23
GOALS subscale accounted for a significant amount of additional variance in frequency of
partner abuse among men. In addition, the IMPULSE subscale explained a significant amount of
additional variance in frequency of partner abuse among women. When controlling for the NMR,
the overall DERS score explained a significant amount of the variance in frequency of partner
abuse among men.
Study 2
Method
Participants and Procedure
In order to assess the test-retest reliability of the DERS, a second sample was obtained.
As part of a larger, unrelated study, 194 participants were recruited from tables located in public
areas on the University of Massachusetts Boston campus to complete a questionnaire packet that
included the DERS (in addition to other measures for the unrelated study). Of these participants,
21 agreed to complete the DERS again four to eight weeks later, in exchange for a small
monetary compensation. This subset of participants ranged in age from 18 to 48, with a mean age
of 25.95 (SD = 8.94). Sixty-two percent of these participants were female. In regard to the
racial/ethnic background of these participants, 67% were White, 24% were Black/African-
American, 5% were Asian/Pacific Islander, and 5% were of an unspecified racial/ethnic
background. This sample completed only the DERS, and not the other measures described above.
Results
For the 21 participants in the test-retest sample, intraclass correlation coefficients were
computed for scores on the first and second administration of the DERS in order to determine the
test-retest reliability of the DERS scores. Results indicate that the overall DERS score had good
test-retest reliability over a period ranging from 4 to 8 weeks (ρI = .88, p < .01). The test-retest
Emotion Regulation 24
reliability of the DERS subscales was adequate (ρI s = .69 for NON-ACCEPTANCE, .69 for
GOALS, .57 for IMPULSE, .68 for AWARENESS, .89 for STRATEGIES, and .80 for
CLARITY; all ps < .01).
General Discussion
The results of these studies contribute to and expand upon literature on the
conceptualization of emotion regulation and provide preliminary support for the DERS as a
measure of difficulties in emotion regulation. Results suggest the presence of six separate (albeit
related) dimensions of emotion regulation wherein difficulties may occur, including (a) lack of
awareness of emotional responses, (b) lack of clarity of emotional responses, (c) non-acceptance
of emotional responses, (d) limited access to emotion regulation strategies perceived as effective,
(e) difficulties controlling impulses when experiencing negative emotions, and (f) difficulties
engaging in goal-directed behaviors when experiencing negative emotions. These findings
suggest the importance of distinguishing between the awareness and understanding of emotional
responses, as well as between the ability to act in desired ways and refrain from acting in
undesired ways when experiencing negative emotions.
Findings provide empirical support for a multi-dimensional conceptualization of emotion
regulation. Correlations of the DERS variables with several clinically-relevant constructs
revealed a differential pattern of associations amongst the different DERS subscales, with certain
subscales showing stronger relationships with particular constructs and/or behavioral outcomes
than others. Significant associations between DERS subscales assessing deficits in awareness,
understanding, and acceptance of emotions and the clinically-relevant constructs of emotional
avoidance and expressivity support the comprehensive conceptualization of emotion regulation
on which the DERS is based. Furthermore, the significant relationships between these subscales
Emotion Regulation 25
and the behavioral outcome of self-harm among both women and men (specifically, the
AWARENESS and CLARITY subscales among women and the NON-ACCEPTANCE subscale
among men) suggest their clinical relevance. Findings that the subscales focusing on difficulties
controlling behavior when emotion is present (i.e., GOALS and IMPULSE), rather than on
difficulties controlling emotion, were significantly related to clinical outcomes suggest the
usefulness of considering the impact of these particular dimensions within the clinical realm.
Although the DERS and its subscales accounted for additional variance in clinical
constructs and behavioral outcomes above and beyond that accounted for by the NMR, many of
the relationships between the DERS scales and the behavioral outcomes did not remain
statistically significant after controlling for the NMR. This is likely due to the rather high
correlations between the NMR and some of the DERS subscales, suggesting that despite the
NMR’s theoretical emphasis on emotional avoidance and inclusion of emotional control items,
there is some overlap between the DERS and NMR. Nevertheless, the fact that some unique
relationships remained between the DERS and behavioral outcomes after controlling for the
NMR suggests that the NMR does not capture all clinically-relevant aspects of emotion
regulation. It will be important to continue to investigate the clinical utility of the DERS in
explaining a broad range of behavioral outcomes.
Despite preliminary findings that the DERS has high internal consistency, good test-retest
reliability, and adequate construct and predictive validity, the present studies have limitations
that should be addressed in future research. One limitation is that the test-retest reliability results
are based on a small sample size (N=21), thus requiring replication with a larger sample. Another
limitation is the reliance on a few select self-report measures of emotional responding to provide
data on the construct validity of the DERS. As a result, the relationships between the DERS and
Emotion Regulation 26
other aspects of emotional responding remain to be determined. Moreover, the reliance on only
self-reported emotional responding is limiting, as it is likely that some individuals do not have
full awareness of their emotional responses, thereby reducing the extent to which they can
accurately report on those responses.
Despite the comprehensive nature of the DERS, omitted constructs should be noted.
DERS items focus primarily on the regulation of negative emotional states (i.e., many items
begin with the phrase “When I’m upset”), as difficulties in this domain are likely to have the
most clinical relevance. Future research may want to incorporate items assessing difficulties with
the regulation of positive emotional states as well. Also, although results support the clinical
utility of the NON-ACCEPTANCE subscale, it is important to note that the items included in
this subscale assess only one aspect of the non-acceptance of emotional responses, secondary
emotional reactions to one’s negative emotions. This form of emotional non-acceptance was
emphasized due to its clinical relevance and proposed association with negative emotional and
behavioral consequences (see Greenberg & Paivio, 1997); however, future research on scale
development should include items assessing other aspects of emotional non-acceptance.
The extent to which the results of this study can be generalized to men or individuals
from diverse ethnic/racial backgrounds remains an empirical question. Although the sample
comes from a diverse urban university that draws heavily from the community and attracts a
large number of older, nontraditional college students, the majority of the participants were
White women. Given evidence of the role of gender socialization and culture in emotional
appraisal and expression (see Kitayama & Markus, 1997; Manstead, 1992), it is possible that the
factor structure of emotion regulation and/or the relationships of these factors to clinical
constructs differs as a function of gender or cultural background. It is also important to note that
Emotion Regulation 27
the validity of the DERS for a clinical population has yet to be determined (see Haynes, Richard,
& Kubany, 1995).
Given the preliminary nature of this study, replication of the results with different
samples, under different circumstances (e.g., different assessment procedures), and across
different functions is necessary to ensure the robustness and generalizability of the findings
(Haynes et al., 1995). Examination of the psychometric properties and factor structure of the
DERS among diverse non-clinical populations, as well as relevant clinical populations (such as
individuals with borderline personality disorder; see Linehan, 1993), is necessary. Future
research on the validity of the DERS should examine its relationships with a broader range of
self-report measures of emotional responding (such as the TMMS and other measures of
emotional awareness and understanding), as well as assessments of emotional responding in
other domains (e.g., physiological responding, the coding of facial expressivity). Further research
is also needed to examine the discriminant validity of the DERS, especially with respect to other
measures of general distress or psychopathology, such as anxiety and depression.
Further research is needed on the predictive validity of the DERS as well. The behavioral
outcomes of self-harm and intimate partner abuse were chosen to provide preliminary data in this
area in part because of the theoretical support for the role of emotion dysregulation in both
behaviors, and in part because of their interest to these authors. There are many other clinically-
relevant behaviors and constructs that are also thought to be associated with deficits in emotion
regulation, including post-traumatic stress disorder and generalized anxiety disorder, and future
research on the relationships between the DERS subscales and these clinical outcomes is needed.
Research exploring the differential role of the various dimensions of emotion dysregulation in
clinical problems will be especially important, as it may suggest specific targets for intervention.
Emotion Regulation 28
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Emotion Regulation 33
Author Note
Kim L. Gratz, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston; Lizabeth
Roemer, Department of Psychology, University of Massachusetts Boston.
Kim L. Gratz is now at the Center for the Treatment of Borderline Personality Disorder,
McLean Hospital/Harvard Medical School.
This research was part of the first author’s dissertation, and portions were previously
presented at the annual meeting of the Association for Advancement of Behavior Therapy in
November, 2001. This research was supported in part by a grant to the first author from the
Office of Research and Sponsored Programs at the University of Massachusetts Boston. The
authors wish to thank Matthew Tull, Amy Wagner, and two anonymous reviewers for their
helpful comments on earlier versions of the measure and/or previous drafts of this manuscript.
Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kim L. Gratz, McLean
Hospital, 115 Mill Street, Belmont, Massachusetts 02478. E-mail: KLGratz@aol.com
Emotion Regulation 34
Footnotes
1In addition to its relationship to several conceptualizations of emotion regulation
reviewed above, this definition shares many characteristics with Saarni’s (1999) definition of
“emotional competence,” which includes awareness of one’s emotional experience, the capacity
for adaptive coping in response to distressing contexts or when experiencing aversive emotions,
and acceptance and allowance of one’s emotional experience.
2Due to limited space, communality estimates (i.e., the squared multiple correlation of
each variable with the other variables in the analysis) for the 36 items included in the final factor
analysis could not be published. These data are available upon request from the authors.
Emotion Regulation 35
Table 1.
Factor Loadings for the 36 DERS Items Included in the Final Factor Analysis (N = 357)
Factor
_____________________________________________________
_
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
DERS29
.91 .09 -.05 .14 -.19 -.10
DERS25 .76 -.07 .01 .03 .06 .06
DERS15 .72 .07 -.07 .03 -.07 .15
DERS14 .53 -.06 .10 -.01 .19 .04
DERS33 .48 -.04 .09 -.03 .35 .05
DERS27 .41 .04 .11 .11 .25 -.14
DERS30 .14 .88 -.10 -.03 -.10 .03
DERS22 .00 .88 .05 -.16 -.09 .11
DERS16 -.01 .85 -.03 -.03 .04 .02
DERS38 .07 .65 .06 -.10 .18 -.05
DERS24 -.17 .64 .11 .25 -.04 -.01
DERS37 .08 -.10 1.00 .06 -.11 -.11
DERS31 -.05 .05 .79 .09 .04 -.11
DERS17 -.03 .05 .75 -.04 -.02 .13
DERS23 -.06 -.00 .58 -.14 .24 .18
DERS4 .09 .04 .52 -.06 .02 .23
DERS28 -.10 .10 .40 .27 .08 -.08
Factor
_____________________________________________________
_
Item 1 2 3 4 5 6
DERS7 -.01 -.04 .02 .74 -.01 .08
DERS3 -.11 -.00 -.04 .67 .04 .21
DERS12 .15 -.08 -.01 .61 -.05 -.04
DERS21 .17 -.05 .03 .59 -.13 -.07
DERS9 -.00 -.14 .07 .58 .06 .08
Emotion Regulation 36
DERS39 .06 .15 .10 .57 -.09 -.06
DERS20 .01 -.08 -.01 -.01 .86 .04
DERS19 -.07 -.08 .04 -.06 .79 .13
DERS35 .16 .01 -.02 -.05 .64 -.11
DERS40 .00 .18 .02 -.07 .61 -.09
DERS32 .17 -.03 -.02 .07 .59 .02
DERS26 -.09 .21 -.03 .43 .49 -.21
DERS41 .03 .20 .19 -.09 .45 .02
DERS34 .34 .06 -.08 -.07 .45 .08
DERS6 .08 .06 .02 .01 -.10 .81
DERS5 .05 -.07 .25 .04 -.16 .71
DERS10 -.03 .05 -.12 -.06 .20 .69
DERS8 -.06 .07 -.12 .32 .05 .59
DERS1 .03 .00 -.13 .38 .10 .42
Emotion Regulation 37
Table 2.
Eigenvalues and Percentage of Variance Accounted for by the Six Factors in the Final Factor
Analysis (N = 357)
Initial eigenvalues
______________________
Extraction sums of squared
loadings
______________________
Rotation sums of
squared loadings
_______________
Factor Total
Percent of
variance Total
Percent of
variance Total
1 11.105 30.846 10.693 29.703 5.585
2 3.852 10.701 3.362 9.339 6.704
3 2.939 8.165 2.532 7.033 6.764
4 1.953 5.424 1.623 4.509 3.874
5 1.562 4.340 1.105 3.068 9.074
6 1.130 3.139 .731 2.030 6.071
Emotion Regulation 38
Table 3.
Items Composing the Six DERS Factors
Factor Item
1: Non-Acceptance
of Emotional
Responses (NON-
ACCEPTANCE)
29) When I’m upset, I feel guilty for feeling that way.
25) When I’m upset, I feel ashamed with myself for feeling that way.
15) When I’m upset, I become embarrassed for feeling that way.
14) When I’m upset, I become angry with myself for feeling that way.
33) When I’m upset, I become irritated with myself for feeling that way.
27) When I’m upset, I feel like I am weak.
2: Difficulties
Engaging in Goal-
Directed Behavior
(GOALS)
30) When I’m upset, I have difficulty concentrating.
22) When I’m upset, I have difficulty focusing on other things.
16) When I’m upset, I have difficulty getting work done.
38) When I’m upset, I have difficulty thinking about anything else.
24) When I’m upset, I can still get things done. (r)
3: Impulse Control
Difficulties
(IMPULSE)
37) When I’m upset, I lose control over my behaviors.
31) When I’m upset, I have difficulty controlling my behaviors.
17) When I’m upset, I become out of control.
23) When I’m upset, I feel out of control.
4) I experience my emotions as overwhelming and out of control.
28) When I’m upset, I feel like I can remain in control of my behaviors. (r)
Factor Item
4: Lack of
Emotional
7) I am attentive to my feelings. (r)
3) I pay attention to how I feel. (r)
12) When I’m upset, I acknowledge my emotions. (r)
21) When I’m upset, I believe that my feelings are valid and important. (r)
Emotion Regulation 39
Awareness
(AWARENESS)
9) I care about what I am feeling. (r)
39) When I’m upset, I take time to figure out what I’m really feeling. (r)
5: Limited Access
to Emotion
Regulation
Strategies
(STRATEGIES)
20) When I’m upset, I believe that I’ll end up feeling very depressed.
19) When I’m upset, I believe that I will remain that way for a long time.
35) When I’m upset, I believe that wallowing in it is all I can do.
40) When I’m upset, it takes me a long time to feel better.
32) When I’m upset, I believe that there is nothing I can do to make myself
feel better.
26) When I’m upset, I know that I can find a way to eventually feel better. (r)
41) When I’m upset, my emotions feel overwhelming.
34) When I’m upset, I start to feel very bad about myself.
6: Lack of
Emotional Clarity
(CLARITY)
6) I have difficulty making sense out of my feelings.
5) I have no idea how I am feeling.
10) I am confused about how I feel.
8) I know exactly how I am feeling. (r)
1) I am clear about my feelings. (r)
Note. (r) = reverse-scored item
Emotion Regulation 40
Table 4.
Correlations among Factors, Computed as Unweighted Sums of the Items Composing Each
Scale (N=357)
Factor 1 2 3 4 5 6
1 ----
2 .33** ----
3 .39** .50** ----
4 .14** .08 .22** ----
5 .63** .62** .61** .16** ----
6 .44** .32** .39** .46** .49** ----
Note. Factor 1 = Non-Acceptance of Emotional Responses (NON-ACCEPTANCE); Factor 2 =
Difficulties Engaging in Goal-Directed Behavior (GOALS); Factor 3 = Impulse Control
Difficulties (IMPULSE); Factor 4 = Lack of Emotional Awareness (AWARENESS); Factor 5 =
Limited Access to Emotion Regulation Strategies (STRATEGIES); Factor 6 = Lack of
Emotional Clarity (CLARITY).
** p < .01.
Emotion Regulation 41
Table 5.
Means and Standard Deviations for DERS Scales among Women (n = 260) and Men (n =97)
Women
______________________
Men
_________________________
Scale Mean SD Mean SD
DERS Overall 77.99 20.72 80.66 18.79
NON-ACCEPTANCE 11.65 4.72 11.55 4.20
GOALS 14.41 4.95 14.34 5.16
IMPULSE 10.82 4.41 11.55 4.59
AWARENESS 14.34 4.60 16.26 4.61
STRATEGIES 16.16 6.19 16.23 6.26
CLARITY 10.61 3.80 10.74 3.67
Emotion Regulation 42
Table 6.
Internal Consistency Reliability Analyses for DERS Subscales (N=357)
Subscale
No. of
Items
Cronbach’s
alpha
Range of
item-total
correlations
Range of
inter-item
correlations
Mean inter-item
correlation
NON-ACCEPTANCE 6 .85 .52 - .71 .33 - .67 .50
GOALS 5 .89 .59 - .81 .47 - .75 .62
IMPULSE 6 .86 .45 - .76 .31 - .73 .52
AWARENESS 6 .80 .49 - .67 .29 - .64 .40
STRATEGIES 8 .88 .46 - .75 .27 - .69 .47
CLARITY 5 .84 .56 - .71 .39 - .67 .51
Emotion Regulation 43
Table 7.
Correlations and Partial Correlations among DERS Scales and Constructs of Interest (N=357)
Scale NMR (N=348) Experiential avoidance Emotional expressivity
DERS Overall
Controlling for NMRa
-.69** .60**
.33**
-.23**
-.09
NON-ACCEPTANCE
Controlling for NMRa
-.42** .39**
.18**
-.14**
-.05
GOALS
Controlling for NMRa
-.53** .44**
.19**
-.04
.11*
IMPULSE
Controlling for NMRa
-.46** .41**
.18**
-.04
.09
AWARENESS
Controlling for NMRa
-.34** .32**
.14**
-.46**
-.42**
STRATEGIES
Controlling for NMRa
-.69** .56**
.28**
-.10
.11*
CLARITY
Controlling for NMRa
-.39** .38**
.20**
-.25**
-.18**
Note. NMR = Generalized Expectancy for Negative Mood Regulation Scale.
a N = 348.
* p < .05. ** p < .01.
Emotion Regulation 44
Table 8.
Correlations and Partial Correlations among DERS Scales and Clinical Outcome Variables of
Frequency of Self-Harm and Intimate Partner Abuse among Women and Men
Self-harm
______________________
Intimate partner abuse
_________________________
Scale
Women
(N=260)
Men
(N=97)
Women
(N=256)
Men
(N=96)
DERS Overall
Controlling for NMR
.20**
.02a
.26*
.16
.08
.11b†
.34**
.25*
NON-ACCEPTANCE
Controlling for NMR
.11†
-.00a
.28**
.21*
.04
.05b
.18†
.09
GOALS
Controlling for NMR
.13*
-.01a
.13
.02
.03
.04b
.37**
.30**
IMPULSE
Controlling for NMR
.11†
-.01a
.24*
.16
.19**
.22b**
.29**
.20†
AWARENESS
Controlling for NMR
.13*
.02a
.07
.04
-.02
-.02b
.10
.06
STRATEGIES
Controlling for NMR
.20**
.03a
.16
.02
.05
.07b
.24*
.10
CLARITY
Controlling for NMR
.16*
.05a
.16
.12
.06
.06b
.13
.08
Note. NMR = Generalized Expectancy for Negative Mood Regulation Scale.
a N = 251. b N = 247.
† p < .10. * p < .05. ** p < .01.
