ArticleLiterature Review

Strength Training for Athletes: Does It Really Help Sports Performance?

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Abstract

The use of strength training designed to increase underlying strength and power qualities in elite athletes in an attempt to improve athletic performance is commonplace. Although the extent to which strength and power are important to sports performance may vary depending on the activity, the associations between these qualities and performance have been well documented in the literature. The purpose of this review is to provide a brief overview of strength training research to determine if it really helps improve athletic performance. While there is a need for more research with elite athletes to investigate the relationship between strength training and athletic performance, there is sufficient evidence for strength training programs to continue to be an integral part of athletic preparation in team sports.

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... In elite sports, resistance training programs are designed to improve the physical performance of athletes, and hence, their ability to effectively execute technical and tactical actions [1,2]. Relevant reviews have addressed this issue, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to encourage the frequent use of these strategies in athletes' preparation [1,2]. ...
... In elite sports, resistance training programs are designed to improve the physical performance of athletes, and hence, their ability to effectively execute technical and tactical actions [1,2]. Relevant reviews have addressed this issue, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to encourage the frequent use of these strategies in athletes' preparation [1,2]. The importance of strength and power for athletic development may also be supported by a range of cross-sectional studies showing close associations between strength-power-related variables and various performance measures (e.g., sprint time, topspeed, and jump height), as well as their potential to discriminate between athletes from distinct competitive levels [1][2][3][4][5]. ...
... Relevant reviews have addressed this issue, concluding that there is sufficient evidence to encourage the frequent use of these strategies in athletes' preparation [1,2]. The importance of strength and power for athletic development may also be supported by a range of cross-sectional studies showing close associations between strength-power-related variables and various performance measures (e.g., sprint time, topspeed, and jump height), as well as their potential to discriminate between athletes from distinct competitive levels [1][2][3][4][5]. Whereas correlational and comparative investigations can be complementary in many respects, the lack of long-term interventions in team-sports, ...
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This study aimed to determine, through the use of a highly sensitive statistical tool, whether real changes in performance were present; and compare the rates of meaningful variations in strength, speed, and power parameters at different time-points during the competitive season in national team rugby players. Thirty-two players were assessed 5 times across the season using the following tests: squat jump and countermovement jump tests; 30-m sprint velocity; and one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the half-squat and bench-press exercises. A repeated-measures analysis of variance was conducted to test for differences between successive time-points. Individual coefficients of variation values were used to set target scores for post-measurements and examine whether changes in performance parameters were greater than the natural test variance, thus providing an indication of whether “true changes” occurred. No significant changes were detected in the vertical jump height, 1RM measures, and sprint velocity and momentum throughout the 11-month period (P > 0.05). True changes occurred much more frequently for strength-power measures than for sprint velocity and momentum. Elite rugby union players did not exhibit significant variations in neuromuscular performance across the competitive period, when a group-based analysis was conducted. However, at the individual level, “true changes” in strength-power- (but not in speed-) related qualities were consistently observed over the competitive season.
... Whereas little is known how S&C guidelines and research are used by S&C coaches in elite level sport. For example, it is recognized that general and sport-specific strength training is commonly integrated into S&C training programs using periodization strategies, with the aim of improving elite athletes' sports performance and resilience to injury [15]. However, given the difficulties in conducting such research at the elite level and scarcity of available data [15][16][17], it is proposed that researchers may need to use alternative methods to explore and understand the use and efficacy of S&C training methods [15]. ...
... For example, it is recognized that general and sport-specific strength training is commonly integrated into S&C training programs using periodization strategies, with the aim of improving elite athletes' sports performance and resilience to injury [15]. However, given the difficulties in conducting such research at the elite level and scarcity of available data [15][16][17], it is proposed that researchers may need to use alternative methods to explore and understand the use and efficacy of S&C training methods [15]. ...
... For example, it is recognized that general and sport-specific strength training is commonly integrated into S&C training programs using periodization strategies, with the aim of improving elite athletes' sports performance and resilience to injury [15]. However, given the difficulties in conducting such research at the elite level and scarcity of available data [15][16][17], it is proposed that researchers may need to use alternative methods to explore and understand the use and efficacy of S&C training methods [15]. ...
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The practices of strength and conditioning (S&C) coaches have been reported in various professional sports. This study aims to comprehensively assess this available evidence to help establish whether theoretical, practical, and evidence-based guidelines align with the practices employed by these experienced S&C coaches. Three databases were searched (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Cochrane) until November 2020. Studies surveying the practices of S&C coaches in professional sports using a survey design with common questions, written in English, and published in peer-reviewed journals were reviewed. Eight studies (n = 318 S&C coaches) were finally included. All studies adapted a similar survey, providing a strong basis for comparison between sports. Periodization strategies were widely used (89%), with training volume consistently reduced during the in-season period. Olympic weightlifting was commonly used across sports, except in baseball (29%). Plyometric exercises were predominantly prescribed for speed development (74%) and lower body power (68%), which were mostly programed as complex training (45%) and conducted all year round (52%). Flexibility exercises were mostly performed before practice (83%) for 6-10 min (40%). Physical tests were mainly conducted during the pre-season period (66%), with body composition (86%) being the most used test. S&C coaches generally adhered to current guidelines and research in S&C concerning training prescription and physical testing. Whereas, inter-sport differences were also noted and further discussed. Results of this study can be used by S&C coaches to plan, implement, and review their professional practices. Furthermore, may inform the development of general and sport-specific guidelines, and future research in S&C.
... Through weightlifting, a key component of strength training for other sports, as well as a competitive sport in its own right, an athlete develops muscle strength, muscle mass, and joint strength (17,18). There are a multitude of lifts an athlete can execute to achieve desired results, depending on the muscles and equipment used during the exercise, as well as the speed, duration, and complexity of the movements (17,18). ...
... Through weightlifting, a key component of strength training for other sports, as well as a competitive sport in its own right, an athlete develops muscle strength, muscle mass, and joint strength (17,18). There are a multitude of lifts an athlete can execute to achieve desired results, depending on the muscles and equipment used during the exercise, as well as the speed, duration, and complexity of the movements (17,18). An athlete's attentional focus has found to play a large part in the level of results as well (15,16,19). ...
... At the very end of the body scan, the athlete then takes three deep breaths as they transfer their focus to the task at hand. By performing a body scan during rest periods of a workout, one can assist the parasympathetic response while building mindful awareness simultaneously (17,18). ...
... Muscle hypertrophy occurs by increasing protein synthesis and decreasing protein breakage. Thus, a positive protein balance promotes muscular hypertrophy [33]. It is essential to highlight that protein synthesis is related to the level of training of athletes/practitioners, i.e., a higher level of training results in less muscle damage caused by the exercise. ...
... The performance of exercises that include large muscle masses (Olympic weightlifting exercises, squat, deadlift, row, and bench press, among others) at the beginning of the training; as these exercises stimulate acute increases in the total circulating testosterone concentrations and because the training of smaller muscle groups at the beginning of training may result in a decreased performance in exercises with large muscle groups [27]. Another justification for this order is that multi-articular exercises require more neural demand and more intense, resulting in greater total energy expenditure than smaller exercises performed isolated [33]. Besides, exercising larger muscle groups first provides greater stimulation for all muscles involved in training and may provide a greater potential for remodeling the muscle tissue [70]; ...
... Maximal strength training for the beginner or untrained practitioners should be performed 2-3 times a week on alternate days [33,114,115]; ...
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p>This chapter deals with historical aspects of strength training, contextualizing the relevance of strength training for combat sports to maximize the performance of grapplers, strikers, and mixed martial artists. Scientific articles were listed that presented data related to maximum strength in the leading research databases. Scientific evidence presented in official and simulated matches, and official competitions are presented. Likewise, longitudinal studies on the development of maximal strength in combat sports athletes, maximal strength tests for combat sports athletes (dynamic, isometric, and isokinetic tests), and reference for maximal strength (dynamic and isometric exercises) values in several exercises, as well as normative tables are presented. Another point approached was training prescription for muscle hypertrophy and maximal strength development (dynamic and isometric) for combat sports athletes.</p
... Enhancing athletic performance is possible using various resistance training methods across the force-velocity continuum that target multiple neuromuscular adaptations [1]. For instance, heavy resistance training primarily targets the development of maximal strength [2]. Conversely, ballistic resistance training involves explosively projecting an individual's body or an external load into the flight phase [3]. ...
... A more detailed analysis of the scientific literature [5] reveals that complex training has been applied using four different combinations: (i) complex-descending, i.e., high-load exercise sets followed by low-load exercise sets (e.g., three heavy squat sets completed before three standing broad jump sets) [10], (ii) complex-ascending, i.e., low-load exercise sets followed by high-load exercise sets (e.g., three standing broad jump sets completed before three heavy squat sets), (iii) complex-contrast (CCT), i.e., heavy-load and low-load exercises in a setby-set fashion (e.g., one heavy squat set followed by one set of standing broad jumps]) [11], and (iv) French-contrast training, i.e., subset of contrast training in which a 1 Weaker individuals targeting maximal strength development may also improve rate of force development and power production capacity. 2 The force-velocity curve is the inverse relationship between force and velocity. The force-velocity relation denotes reduced movement velocity at high forces and reduced force output at high movement velocities. ...
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Background The complex-contrast training (CCT) method utilizes two exercises with different loads and movement velocities in a set-by-set fashion to induce multiple neuromuscular adaptations. The speculated primary mechanism involves the post-activation potentiation or post-activation performance enhancement (PAPE) of the muscles used during the heavy load (low velocity) exercise, thereby improving the performance of lower load (high velocity) exercise. However, no previous study has attempted to systematically synthesize the available evidence on CCT (e.g., if post-activation potentiation or PAPE was measured during the training sessions during the intervention period). This study aimed to synthesize the available evidence on CCT using a systematic scoping review approach. More specifically, we identified gaps in the literature using an evidence gap map (EGM), and provided future directions for research. Methods Three electronic databases (PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science) were searched up to 20th February 2024. Data were extracted under a PICO framework: (a) Participants-related data (e.g., age, sex, type of sport); (b) Intervention-related data (e.g., duration of training); (c) Comparators (when available); and (d) Outcomes (e.g., measures of physical fitness). Interactive EGMs were created using the EPPI mapper software. Results From the 5,695 records screened, 68 studies were eligible for inclusion, involving 1,821 participants (only 145 females from 5 studies). All CCT interventions lasted ≤ 16 weeks. More than half of the studies assessed countermovement jump, sprint, and maximal strength performances. No studies were identified which examined upper-body CCT exercises alone, and no study assessed PAPE during the CCT sessions. Overall, the available evidence was rated with a low level of confidence. Conclusions In conclusion, whether CCT produces a PAPE that translates into longitudinal performance gains remains unclear. Moreover, the available evidence on the effects of CCT on various outcomes provides low confidence regarding the most effective way to implement this training method, particularly among females, and beyond long-term interventions.
... Change of direction (COD) is one of the most important motor qualities in almost all current sports; therefore, it is frequently assessed to predict performance outcomes (3,11,26,30). Although strength training is commonly used by athletes to improve their performance, it is currently inconclusive whether muscular strength correlates to COD performance (17,25,(31)(32)(33)35) and improving COD has proven to be difficult because athletes exhibit inconsistent COD results after training (5,17,21,25). Thus, strength and conditioning coaches have focused instead on using power movements such as plyometric exercises or squat jumps to improve COD performance (8,11,21,22). ...
... Change of direction (COD) is one of the most important motor qualities in almost all current sports; therefore, it is frequently assessed to predict performance outcomes (3,11,26,30). Although strength training is commonly used by athletes to improve their performance, it is currently inconclusive whether muscular strength correlates to COD performance (17,25,(31)(32)(33)35) and improving COD has proven to be difficult because athletes exhibit inconsistent COD results after training (5,17,21,25). Thus, strength and conditioning coaches have focused instead on using power movements such as plyometric exercises or squat jumps to improve COD performance (8,11,21,22). ...
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Cooley, C, Simonson, SR, and Maddy, DA. The force-vector theory supports use of the laterally resisted split squat to enhance change of direction. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 835–841, 2024—The purpose of this study was to challenge the conventional change of direction (COD) training methods of the modern-day strength and conditioning professional. A new iteration of the modified single-leg squat (MSLS), the laterally resisted split squat (LRSS), is theorized to be the most effective movement for enhancing COD performance. This study lays out a rationale for this hypothesis by biomechanically comparing the LRSS, bilateral back squat (BS), and MSLS with a COD task (90-degree turn). One repetition maximum (1RM) for LRSS, MSLS, and BS was measured for 23 healthy active female subjects. Peak ground reaction forces (GRF) for the dominant leg were recorded when performing COD and the LRSS, MSLS, and BS at 70% 1RM. Peak frontal plane GRF magnitude and angle were calculated for each task and submitted to repeated measures ANOVA. Peak GRF magnitude was significantly larger for COD (2.23 ± 0.62 body weight) than the LRSS, MSLS, and BS ( p ≤ 0.001). Peak GRF angle was not significantly different between COD and the LRSS ( p = 0.057), whereas the MSLS and BS ( p < 0.001) vector angles were significantly greater than COD. In this application of the force-vector theory, the LRSS more closely matches COD than the MSLS or BS. Thus, the LRSS has the greater potential to enhance COD.
... Resistance training involves muscle contractions against an external resistance using free weights, machine weights, resistance bands, or bodyweight. This type of exercise is encouraged for various populations, including athletes (29,37), clinical populations (23), and apparently healthy adults (74). Athletes participate in resistance training as part of their programs to assist with performance development (37) and prevention of injuries (29). ...
... This type of exercise is encouraged for various populations, including athletes (29,37), clinical populations (23), and apparently healthy adults (74). Athletes participate in resistance training as part of their programs to assist with performance development (37) and prevention of injuries (29). In clinical populations, resistance training has been shown to be effective for the management of numerous chronic conditions, such as arthritis, diabetes, or heart disease (23). ...
Article
Hackett, DA, Li, J, Wang, B, Way, KL, Cross, T, and Tran, DL. Acute effects of resistance exercise on intraocular pressure in healthy adults: A systematic review. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2023—Intraocular pressure (IOP) tends to fluctuate during a resistance exercise (RE). This systematic review examines the acute effects of RE on IOP in healthy adults and factors that influence changes in IOP. Five electronic databases were searched using terms related to RE and IOP. A strict inclusion criterion was applied, which included being 55 years or younger with no medical conditions and RE intensity needing to be quantifiable (e.g., based on a maximal effort). Thirty-four studies met the inclusion criteria for this review. Isometric and isotonic contractions produced similar changes in IOP during RE up to 28.7 mm Hg. Exercises that involved larger muscle mass, such as squats and leg press, were found to produce changes in IOP during exercise ranging from 3.1 to 28.7 mm Hg. Smaller changes in IOP during RE were found for exercises engaging less muscle mass (e.g., handgrip and bicep curls). Intraocular pressure was found to increase during RE when lifting heavier loads and with longer exercise durations (e.g., greater repetitions). The Valsalva maneuver (VM) and breath-hold during RE accentuated the change in IOP, with more extreme changes observed with the VM. However, most studies showed that postexercise IOP returned to baseline after approximately 1 minute of recovery. An acute increase in IOP is observed during RE in healthy adults with fluctuations of varying magnitude. Factors that independently increase IOP during RE include exercises involving larger muscle mass, heavy loads, greater set duration, and when the VM or breath-hold is performed.
... Lower-body strength and power have been shown to be one of the driving factors of sport success from a physical standpoint (2)(3)(4)(5)7,16,20,23,33). Recent investigations have shown correlations between absolute and relative lower-body strength and performance within different athletic key performance indicators such as jumping, sprinting, and changing directions efficiently (2,21,22,24,30). More specifically, the relationship between lower-body strength and linear sprint performance has been of interest to practitioners and researchers within previously conducted studies (5,20,21,24,27,29). ...
... Recent investigations have shown correlations between absolute and relative lower-body strength and performance within different athletic key performance indicators such as jumping, sprinting, and changing directions efficiently (2,21,22,24,30). More specifically, the relationship between lower-body strength and linear sprint performance has been of interest to practitioners and researchers within previously conducted studies (5,20,21,24,27,29). A growing body of literature suggests substantial relationships between strength and sprinting performance, with increases in strength coinciding with improvements in sprint performance over shorter distances (27). ...
Article
Philipp, NM, Crawford, DA, Cabarkapa, D, and Fry, AC. Strength and power thresholds to identify high and low linear sprint speed performers in collegiate American football players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000–000, 2023—Lower-body strength and power are commonly measured performance qualities across a number of sports. In recent years, more attention has been given to relationships, primarily between lower-body strength and linear speed performance. While still limited, evidence is in agreement that lower-body strength positively contributes to linear speed performance. However, what is less well understood is if there comes a point in an athlete's development, at which, further working on increasing maximal strength may not fully compliment additional gains in speed performance. Within this study, authors aimed to provide practitioners with lower-body strength and power thresholds that can discriminate between slow and fast performers, within a group of collegiate American football players. The sample was further divided into a high-body and low-body weight group, and authors hypothesized that by using logistic regression, supplemented with receiver operator curve analyses, optimal cut-off points (i.e., relative lower-body strength thresholds) that are able to significantly discriminate between slow and fast linear speed performers may be identified. Findings indicate that optimal cut-off scores differed between the groups of athletes, as well as the lower body strength and power tests. All models were able to significantly distinguish between slower and faster performers, and area under the curve values ranged from 0.695 to 0.903. Although thresholds will likely vary based on factors such as sex, training age, and sport, findings from this investigation may be used to benchmark athletes and to further individualize training aimed at improving linear speed performance.
... Instead, outcomes examined in the literature are mainly linked to general athletic performance markers that are suggested to influence sport performance outcomes (e.g., physiological, neuromuscular and psychological factors). Thus, the term sport performance has not been clearly defined nor delineated from human performance research (McGuigan et al., 2012). Clearly delineating sport performance outcomes, as opposed to general athletic performance factors that influence sport performance outcomes, is important to move the field forward. ...
... GAP markers can be developed and objectively identified concurrently with specific sport skills (e.g., batted ball velocity, throwing velocity, throwing accuracy, etc.); however, improvements in GAP markers and sport skills do not always guarantee significant positive changes in SP rank or outcomes (B. Alejo, personal communication, July 13, 2019;McGuigan et al., 2012;Stone et al., 2002;Stone et al., 2003;Suchomel et al., 2016). GAP may assist specific SP rank and outcomes in many scenarios, such as having the speed and agility to out maneuver defenders to catch or strike a moving implement to score a goal / touchdown (e.g., football receiver, soccer midfielder / striker), or jumping high enough to hit over defenders to win the rally (e.g., volleyball outside hitter). ...
Thesis
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A foundational principle in sport science involves applying an evidence-based approach to training and development of athletes. The primary objective is to provide an effective training program, while monitoring general athletic performance (GAP) development (i.e., athlete-monitoring), ensuring intended adaptations are occurring. Much of the literature has focused on GAP markers (e.g., physical qualities related to strength, speed, power, agility, and endurance) which are only suggested to influence competitive sport performance (SP) outcomes (e.g., yards per carry, batting average, hitting percentage, rank or placement, etc.; B. Alejo, personal communication, July 13, 2019). This gap in the literature should be filled via examination of motor control principles and theories (i.e., impulse-variability theory) as it relates to GAP and SP. The work presented herein focuses on investigating the relationship of non-traditional GAP markers (e.g., squat jump peak velocity and impulse-momentum) and tenants of the impulse-variability theory to SP outcomes (e.g., intra-team rank of SP and starter vs non-starter group membership) in an elite (e.g., top 8 nationally ranked) NCAA DI beach volleyball team (n = 20; age = 19.75 ± 1.52; height = 173.32 ± 6.49 cm). The first study examined associations between traditional and non-traditional maximal output GAP markers to each other, as well as associations and contribution of GAP markers to SP outcomes (e.g., intra-team rank of SP and group membership). Results demonstrate strong associations between traditional and non-traditional GAP markers, while non-traditional demonstrated strong association and independent contribution to SP outcomes. Intra-set jump-based GAP variability (i.e., variable error) was examined in study two where only squat jump peak velocity variability demonstrated strong association and contribution to SP group membership. Study three examined predictive utility of the combined effects of maximal output GAP markers and jump-based GAP variability to SP group membership. Results demonstrated squat jump peak velocity maximum and variability correctly classified SP group membership at a 100% success rate. Overall, these data suggest non-traditional GAP maximal output and variability provide strong predictive utility to SP group membership. Future research should examine the generalizable utility of impulse-variability theory as it relates to GAP development (e.g., physical education to elite athletes) and SP outcomes. Recommended Citation Scruggs II, S. K.(2021). Relationship of General Athletic Performance Markers to Intra-Team Ranking Of Sport Performance. (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from https://scholarcommons.sc.edu/etd/6194
... Yanı sıra kuvvet antrenmanlarının atletik popülasyonda dayanıklılık, güç ve hız performansını artırdığı bilinmektedir. (38) Bir sporcunun maksimum kuvvetini geliştirerek izometrik gücünü (38,39) ve reaktif gücünü (41,42,43) artırılabileceği unutulmamalıdır. ...
... Yanı sıra kuvvet antrenmanlarının atletik popülasyonda dayanıklılık, güç ve hız performansını artırdığı bilinmektedir. (38) Bir sporcunun maksimum kuvvetini geliştirerek izometrik gücünü (38,39) ve reaktif gücünü (41,42,43) artırılabileceği unutulmamalıdır. ...
Chapter
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GİRİŞ Sporcuların mevcut spor branşlarındaki başarısını etkileyen önemli faktörlerden biri o spor branşının gerektirdiği fiziksel ve fizyolojik özelliklere sahip olabilmektir.(1) Her spor branşının kendine özgü birtakım özellikleri mevcuttur. Branşların gerektirdiği fiziksel ve fizyolojik özellikleri bilmek sporcuların performans gelişimine katkı sağlamaktadır. Branşın gerektirdiği özellikleri bilmek; spor elamanlarına, antrenörlere, spor bilimcilere antrenman programı yazma ve planlama konusunda, sporcuların gelişimlerini takip etmekte yardımcı unsurdur. Bunun doğrultusunda spor bilimciler, antrenörler, spor yöneticileri fiziksel, psikolojik, antropometrik ve teknik kriterleri kullanarak şampiyon adaylar seçme ve yetiştirmeye çalışmaktadırlar.(2) Sporcunun performans durumundan söz edebilmek için branşa özgü birkaç parametreyi veya tüm parametreleri tanımlamak gerekmektedir.(3) Her branş kendine özgü teknik ve zihinsel becerinin yanı sıra temel-spesifik özellikleri barındırmaktadır. Badminton uzun süren, yorucu bir branştır. Badminton branşının genel özelliği, doğası gereği kısa veya uzun rallilerin yapılması, kısa dinlenme süresinin olması ve yüksek yoğunluklu aktiviteler içermesidir. Ralli esnasında hızlı bir hamlenin yapılması, ani dönüş ve sonrasında başka bir yöne doğru hareket edilmesi, patlayıcı kas gücüne maç boyunca ihtiyaç olduğunu göstermektedir. Bu nedenle de alt ekstremite kas yapısı badminton branşında önem arz etmektedir. Badminton branşı dayanıklılık, hız, güç, kuvvet, çeviklik, denge, koordinasyon gibi temel 1
... Another aspect that deserves attention regarding muscle power training is the possibility of transference and consequent improvement of the performance in specific gestures of the modality practiced, in our case combat sports, by using strength and power exercises [23]. Nowadays, it is not possible to determine in which extent the load that maximizes power output performing a general exercise is related with power in a specific combat sport action. ...
... These studies indicate the most appropriate situation to achieve an acute improvement in performance (Table 6). The use of strength and power exercises may benefit the athletes when performing the specific gesture [23,28]. In combat sports, the ability to perform force quickly is often more important than reaching maximum force. ...
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In combat sports, the specificity of the training requires that the athlete improve all performance indicators associated with the match. For this reason, muscle power seems to be determinant during the application of the techniques that result in scores, specifically punches, kicks, elbows, knees, throwing techniques, transitions to the groundwork and some groundwork techniques and sometimes, the win match by knockout. Based in these information's, the present chapter will approach items referring to the muscle power manifestation and monitoring, and to the training prescription of exercises for the grappling, striking and mixed combat sports.
... Upper limb muscular performance has previously been evaluated via medicine ball throws, bench press, and timed push-ups. [1][2][3][4][5] These methods tend to report power as a measurement of distance thrown rather than as a rate or time quantity, which suggests these tests are more representative of work output, not power produced. These movements also require the incorporation of the whole body, and as such, it is difficult to isolate the specific contribution by the upper limb. ...
... 7 Athletes who require fast, explosive patterns, upper limb plyometrics, such as the countermovement push-up (CMPU), which optimize the SSC are considered elemental for inducing adaptation, as well as an important component to end stage rehabilitation. 1,8,9 The plyometric push-up negates the limitations of the medicine ball throws and bench press throw (BPT), allowing an athlete to explosively displace body mass through a vertical plane ballistic in nature; explosive push-ups do not require the application of a preselected load like BPT. ...
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Context: Maximal power describes the ability to immediately produce power with the maximal velocity at the point of release, impact, and/or take off-the greater an athlete's ability to produce maximal power, the greater the improvement of athletic performance. In reference to boxing performance, regular consistent production of high muscular power during punching is considered an essential prerequisite. Despite the importance of upper limb power to athletic performance, presently, there is no gold standard test for upper limb force development performance. Objective: To investigate the test-retest reliability of the force plate-derived measures of countermovement push-up in elite boxers. Design: Test-retest design. Setting: High Performance Olympic Training Center. Participants: Eighteen elite Olympic boxers (age = 23 [3] y; height = 1.68 [0.39] m; body mass = 70.0 [17] kg). Intervention: Participants performed 5 repetitions of countermovement push-up trials on FD4000 Forcedeck dual force platforms on 2 separate test occasions 7 days apart. Main outcome measures: Peak force, mean force, flight time, rate of force development, impulse, and vertical stiffness of the bilateral and unilateral limbs from the force-time curve. Results: No significant differences between the 2 trial occasions for any of the derived bilateral or unilateral performance measures. Intraclass correlation coefficients indicated moderate to high reliability for performance parameters (intraclass correlation coefficients = .68-.98) and low coefficient of variation (3%-10%) apart from vertical stiffness (coefficient of variation = 16.5%-25%). Mean force demonstrated the greatest reliability (coefficient of variation = 3%). In contrast, no significant differences (P < .001) were noted between left and right limbs (P = .005-.791), or between orthodox or southpaw boxing styles (P = .19-.95). Conclusion: Force platform-derived kinetic bilateral and unilateral parameters of countermovement push-up are reliable measures of upper limb power performance in elite-level boxers; results suggest unilateral differences within the bilateral condition are not the norm for an elite boxing cohort.
... An efficient training regimen includes strength, speed, endurance, coordination and flexibility. [20] It also stresses the value of routinely reviewing and assessing training initiatives. This will allow the trainer to modify the training regimen and make sure the athlete makes rapid advancements towards attaining the training objectives. ...
... With increasing competitiveness in sports, conventional training methodologies frequently lag in fulfilling athletes' requisites for augmenting their competitive prowess (McGuigan et al., 2012).Improving muscle explosiveness represents a prevalent objective among athletes engaged in disciplines such as throwing, jumping, and various other sports. ...
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Objective This meta-analysis aims to systematically evaluate the impact of blood flow restriction training (BFRT) on muscle activation and post-activation potentiation (PAP) in the upper limbs, to provide guidance for upper limb protocols aiming to enhance explosive strength and activation. Methods PubMed, CNKI, Web of Science, and EBSCO databases were queried to identify randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of upper limb BFRT on muscle activation and PAP. Inclusion and exclusion criteria were applied using the Cochrane bias risk tool. Literature quality assessment and statistical analysis were conducted using Revman 5.4 and Stata 17.0 software. Sensitivity analysis and funnel plots were utilized to assess result stability and publication bias. Results A total of 31 articles involving 484 participants were included in the analysis. Meta-analysis results showed that upper limb BFRT significantly increased muscle iEMG values [SMD = 0.89, 95%CI (0.21, 1.58), p = 0.01]. BFRT had a significant effect on upper limb explosive force [SMD = 0.73, 95%CI (0.41, 1.04), p < 0.00001]. Subgroup analysis based on literature heterogeneity (I ² = 92%, 80%) showed that exhaustive BFRT significantly decreased upper limb iEMG [SMD = −0.67, 95%CI (−1.25, −0.09), p = 0.01], with exercise modes including maximum output power of bench press [SMD = 1.87, 95%CI (0.22, 3.53), p < 0.0001], exercise intensity of 40%–70% 1RM [SMD = 1.31, 95%CI (0.61, 2.01), p < 0.0001], and pressure intensity of ≥60% AOP [SMD = 0.83, 95%CI (0.43, 1.23), p < 0.0001] reaching maximum effects and statistical significance. Conclusion Upper limb BFRT can induce muscle activation and PAP. BFRT with 40%–70% 1RM and ≥60% AOP in the upper limbs is more likely to promote PAP. Systematic Review Registration http://inplasy.com, identifier INPLASY202430008.
... Resistance training is important for athletes, but also for patients undergoing rehabilitation. Whereas athletes use resistance training to enhance exercise performance based on specific strength and power improvements (Beattie et al. 2014;Cormie et al. 2011;McGuigan et al. 2012), patients mainly aim to gain or regain function and mobility leading to a higher quality of life (Hearn and Cross 2020;Perret et al. 2022). Different modalities to execute resistance training exist. ...
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Purpose Eccentric strength training is an innovative and promising approach to improve exercise performance. However, most eccentric training studies in the past were performed with a focus on the lower extremities. The present study aimed to test the feasibility and effects on strength and power adaptations of a structured upper-body eccentric training program. Methods Fourteen (median age (Q1–Q3) 29 years (27–32); 9 females, 5 males) healthy, regularly exercising individuals performed 20 progressive training sessions (2–3 sessions/week at 20–50% peak power for 8–14 min) on a symmetric eccentric arm-crank ergometer. Before and after the intervention, anaerobic peak power (PP) and maximal concentric aerobic power output (POmax) on an arm-crank ergometer as well as the one repetition maximum (1RM) for bench press were determined as main outcome parameters. A p-value ≤ 0.05 was considered statistically significant. Results Significant improvements in PP (+ 4% (1–8), p = 0.007), POmax (+ 6% (0–8); p = 0.01), and 1RM (+ 12% (10–17); p < 0.001) were found. Exercise intensity was relatively low at 64% (55–70) of maximum heart rate. Conclusions Twenty progressive training sessions on a symmetric arm-crank ergometer are effective in inducing significant aerobic and anaerobic performance and strength improvements in the upper body. This intervention is safe and feasible, and can be performed at relatively low cardiovascular intensities. Therefore, this training method offers an interesting approach from elite sports to rehabilitation.
... The existing literature indicates that NLMF may have an acute negative effect on the strength performance of the nonexercised ipsilateral limb (Ciccone et al., 2014;Šambaher et al., 2016). However, despite the importance of explosive strength for athletic performance in multiples sports (McGuigan et al., 2012), previous studies have focused on the acute effect of NLMF on maximal strength performance or the acute training volume. In turn, it remains unknown whether NLMF may influence acute explosive strength performance in the nonexercised limb. ...
... Resistance training (RT) serves as a pivotal modality for athletes to optimize their athletic prowess and safeguard against injuries [1,2]. Moreover, it represents a potent avenue for individuals in the general population to ameliorate their overall health status [3]. ...
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This systematic review aimed to evaluate the reliability and validity of the two-point method in predicting 1RM compared to the direct method, as well as analyze the factors influencing its accuracy. A comprehensive search of PubMed, Web of Science, Scopus, and SPORTDiscus databases was conducted. Out of the 88 initially identified studies, 16 were selected for full review, and their outcome measures were analyzed. The findings of this review indicated that the two-point method slightly overestimated 1RM (effect size = 0.203 [95%CI: 0.132, 0.275]; P < 0.001); It showed that test-retest reliability was excellent as long as the test loads were chosen reasonably (Large difference between two test loads). However, the reliability of the two-point method needs to be further verified because only three studies have tested its reliability. Factors such as exercise selection, velocity measurement device, and selection of test loads were found to influence the accuracy of predicting 1RM using the two-point method. Additionally, the choice of velocity variable, 1RM determination method, velocity feedback, and state of fatigue were identified as potential influence factors. These results provide valuable insights for practitioners in resistance training and offer directions for future research on the two-point method.
... Strength and conditioning is a vehicle to working with elite athletes in a professional capacity, requiring qualifications in exercise sciences(Fletcher, Abrams, Gates, & Abrams, 2012), including physiology, biomechanics and strength training principles(McGuigan, Wright, & Fleck, 2012). Professional interest in sports conditioning and coaching has increased exponentially without an increase in the proportion of women employed in the profession.At the Centre of Sports Science and Human Performance at a large regionalPolytechnic in New Zealand, female students demonstrate prowess and passion for the strength and conditioning discipline early in their education. ...
Thesis
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A substantial issue in sporting professions today, including elite strength and conditioning is gender imbalance. Attitudes towards women's roles are complex and institutionally entrenched, contributing to barriers to women's success. While real issues still exist for today's elite female strength and conditioners, murmurings of change are audible. Further research on why gender imbalance in strength and conditioning matters as well as the creation of a culture where women feel included and wanted is part of the solution. This research focuses on women leaders in strength and conditioning, their experiences, the barriers they perceive and their ways of overcoming them.
... Athletes who want to make it to the elite level must practise for an enormous number of hours for years (2,15). Strength and conditioning (S&C) play an important role in athlete development and preparing athletes, so they perform their best (27). While many athletes find enjoyment in sport (33), burnout can cause some to drop out of sport entirely (2). ...
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This paper aims to explore the relationships between basic psychological needs and motivation, and their relationship with athlete burnout. 10 articles were found by searching in two databases over the past 20 years using three groups of keyword searches. The inclusion criteria were that articles examined the relationships between basic psychological needs and/or motivation, and burnout in athletes through the lens of self-determination theory. Results suggest that need-supportive coaching behaviours do not contribute to burnout, whereas need-thwarting or controlling coaching behaviours can cause burnout in athletes. Similarly, athletes who are intrinsically motivated are unlikely to experience burnout, but amotivation can lead to burnout. Therefore, coaches who adopt need-supportive coaching behaviours directly promote need-satisfaction that, in turn, encourages more self-determined motivation in their athletes. However, few studies explore both basic psychological needs and motivation, and their relationship with burnout; thus, future research should investigate these relationships. Limited and equivocal findings as to whether extrinsic motivation is associated with burnout (non-self-determined) or protects against burnout (self-determined) warrant further research. Need satisfaction promotes self-determined motivation, which should reduce burnout in athletes. Strength and conditioning coaches are encouraged to adopt behaviours that facilitate need satisfaction and self-determined motivation. To develop a need-supportive environment, coaches can provide athletes with choice, opportunities for initiative, rationale for tasks, non-controlling competence feedback, acknowledge their feelings and perspective, avoiding controlling behaviour, and prevent ego-involvement in athletes.
... However, optimal power assessment can be complex. In the past, medicine ball throws, bench presses, and the number of push-ups performed in a given periodic time was used to monitor and evaluate the effectiveness of training on upper extremity muscle performance [9][10][11]. More recently, force platforms have been used to evaluate upper extremity force-time and power outputs through countermovement and plyometric push-up tests [12][13][14]. ...
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Although it is known that swimming training can improve upper extremity performance, the force-time characteristics of the upper extremity during different training periods are not well understood. The objective of this study was to measure changes in the force-time characteristics of the upper extremity of young swimmers during different training periods within a season. Seventeen young swimmers, comprising 5 males (age: 15.4 ± 0.54 years); 12 females (16.4 ± 2.6 years) participated in this study. They were tested at four experimental test time points: baseline (E1), post-general preparation (E2), post-specific preparation (E3), and taper season (E4). The countermovement push-up test was performed using a force plate to measure force time parameters. Differences in force, time, velocity and impulse parameters were evaluated between the different periods. The study found that vertical take off velocity significantly increased across the assessed periods (F = 11.79; p = .001; η² = .424), with significant increases from E1 to E2 (p < .001) and from E3 to E4 (p = .016). Flight Time also significantly increased across the assessed periods (F = 11.79; p = .001; η² = .424), with significant increases from E1 to E2 (p < .001), from E1 to E4(p = .001), and from E3 to E4 (p = .005). The Force Impulse significantly increased throughout the assessed periods (F = 5.84; p = .012; η² = .267), with significant increases from E1 to E2, (p = .006), from E1 to E3 (p = .016), and from E1 to E4 (p = .003). As this study shows, periods of increased training intensity can affect athletic progression, even though training aims to improve strength, speed, and performance. While some practical aspects such as strength, flight time, and impulse parameters may change during a macrocycle, the countermovement push-up test can provide trainers with an alternative and convenient way to monitor anaerobic force, speed, and performance, as well as measure explosive force-time performance in the upper body.
... The main findings of this study and regarding the first hypothesis show a higher prevalence of the risk of developing ED in the young population practicing sports (77.7%) compared to other studies for the same age group [16]. Moreover, the fact that the athletic population shows a higher prevalence of risk of developing ED than the non-athletic population is due to the demands or standards considered beneficial for performance [19,21], such as height [40], weight [41] and necessary meager percentage [42,43]. ...
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Eating disorders are a growing societal problem, especially among young people. This study aims to determine the individual and social factors that support and perpetuate the risk of eating disorders (ED) and their possible consequences on an individual’s athletic and academic performances. The sample consisted of 395 athletes between 12 and 16 years of age (M = 14.07; SD = 1.35), of whom 142 (35.9%) were female, and 253 (64.1%) were male. A questionnaire was administered to collect information on sociodemographic data, body image, use of social networks, social relationships, sports practice, risk of developing ED, and academic and sports performance. In the resulting analysis, an initial cross-tabulation was carried out to observe the body distortion of the respondents as a function of BMI, followed by a linear regression to analyze the factors influencing the risk of suffering from ED. In addition, correlations were made to determine the relationship between the risk of manifesting ED and academic and sports performance. The main results show that 77.7% of the young athletes present a risk of ED (M = 13.3; DT = 3.33) due to a high body image distortion, which becomes the determining factor. In addition, relationships with family and friends have a significant influence on this. On the other hand, behaviors related with eating disorders affect concentration (r = −0.122; p = 0.01) and fatigue (r = −0.376; p < 0.01). For all these reasons, generating and promoting prevention and early detection guidelines during adolescence is necessary.
... In the event that aerobatic developments are performed suitably, they impact each part of one's life and dramatically affect your wellness. Aerobatic aid improvement of large number of 10 parts of wellness: exactness, nimbleness, balance, coordination, cardiovascular continuance, adaptability, control, speed, quality as well as stamina (McGuigan, 2012). Nothing beats acrobatic as far as building up the four neurological parts of the 10: coordination, deftness, parity, and precision. ...
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This investigation aimed to look at connection between coaching style and the performance of gymnasts. Literature indicated mainly two types of the coaching styles including autocratic and democratic. There were three main objectives of study including, to see relationship amid perceived coaching styles and professional skills of gymnasts; to see the relationship of autocratic coaching style and collective efficacy of gymnasts; and to see the relationship of the democratic coaching style and perceived team cohesion and collective efficacy. Negative connection amid autocratic style and sports performance, and a positive connection between democratic style and sports performance was observed. The multivariate analysis demonstrated that autocratic style indicated negative association with performance of the gymnasts. On other hand, different dimensions of the democratic style were positively associated with different tasks including affiliation, socialization, integration, ability to do well; unity; persistence; preparation and effort demonstrated a positive association with performance of gymnasts. Outcomes indicated that mentors’ coaching style was stated to be vital for progress of competitors’ professional skills and performance.
... For decades the literature has been investigating the ideal dose-response regarding the frequency, intensity and volume of training that optimize the increase in muscle strength and power in athletes and non-athletes (1)(2)(3) . The use of strength training designed to increase underlying strength and power qualities in elite athletes is common, and there is sufficient evidence for strength training programs to continue to be an integral part of athletic preparation in team sports (4) . ...
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Background: For decades the literature has been investigating the ideal dose-response regarding the frequency, intensity and volume of training that optimize the increase in muscle strength and power in athletes and non-athletes. Objective: Evaluate the effects of strength training from a nonlinear (NLP) and non-periodized (NP) model on muscular peak power in soccer players. Methods: Twelve male junior football players from a professional team in Cabo Frio (Brazil) were recruited and randomly divided into two groups (6 in each group). The groups were randomly divided into: G1 - (Body mass: 64.7 ± 6.5 kg; Height: 172.3 ± 5.8 cm; % fat: 5.1 ± 2.7; Age: 17.5 ± 1.0 years) performed RT with NLP model; G2 - (Body mass: 66.1 ± 4.7; Height: 177.1 ± 6.1 cm; % fat: 5.1 ± 1.2, age: 17.6 ± 0.5 years) performed RT with NP model. Both groups are subjected to 12 weeks of training. PNL strength training consisted of weight training sessions on alternate days, 3 times a week, the rest intervals were 120s among the exercises and included 10 exercises. NLP distribution was as follows: Day 1 (3x4-6 maximum repetitions [RM] with rest intervals of 120 sec between sets); Day 2 (3x8-10RM with 60-90 rest intervals between sets); and day 3 (3x12-15RM with rest intervals of 60 sec between sets). NP training performed the same duration, weekly frequency, exercises and number of sets (3 sets 8-10RM and 60-90 sec rest intervals). Before and after NP and NLP training, muscle peak, speed and agility were evaluated. Results: The ANOVA with mixed model showed no significant interaction between group and moment (F(1,10) = 0.133; p=0.72), and no significant main effect for group (F(1,10) = 0.032; p=0.86) in muscular peak power. There was a significant main effect for moment (F(1,10) = 14.872; p=0.003), where were showed that Post-training presented higher values of muscular peak power compared to Baseline (p= 0.003). Conclusion: It is concluded that both training organization models are effective and can be used to develop peak muscle power.
... Human muscle, tendinous tissue, and their corresponding collagen-rich extracellular matrix (ECM) produce and transmit muscular force to the skeleton and are sensitive to environmental factors such as mechanical 1,2 and nutritional 3,4 stimuli. Consequently, resistance training (RT), or a combination of RT and nutrition, facilitates remodeling these tissues to enhance physical function and resilience, 5,6 injury prevention/rehabilitation, 7,8 or healthy aging. 9 The musculotendinous remodeling that occurs after RT includes increases in muscle size (hypertrophy 10 ), force per unit muscle area (specific tension 11 ), muscle fascicle reorganization, 12 and enhanced tendon mechanics (stiffness 13 ). ...
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Aim: Bioactive collagen peptides (CP) have been suggested to augment the functional, structural (size and architecture) and contractile adaptations of skeletal muscle to resistance training (RT), but with limited evidence. This study aimed to determine if CP vs placebo (PLA) supplementation enhanced the functional and underpinning structural, and contractile adaptations after 15 weeks of lower body RT. Methods: Young healthy males were randomized to consume either 15 g of CP (n=19) or PLA (n=20) once every day during a standardized program of progressive knee extensor, knee flexor and hip extensor RT 3 times/wk. Measurements pre and post RT included: knee extensor and flexor isometric strength; quadriceps, hamstrings and gluteus maximus volume with MRI; evoked twitch contractions, 1RM lifting strength and architecture (with ultrasound) of the quadriceps. Results: Percentage changes in maximum strength (isometric or 1RM) did not differ between groups (0.684≤P≤0.929). Increases in muscle volume were greater (quadriceps 15.2 vs. 10.3%; vastus medialis (VM) 15.6 vs. 9.7%; total muscle volume 15.7 vs. 11.4%; [all] P≤0.032) or tended to be greater (hamstring 16.4 vs. 12.5%; gluteus maximus 16.6 vs. 12.9%; 0.089≤P≤0.091) for CP vs. PLA. There were also greater increases in twitch peak torque (22.3 vs. 12.3%; P=0.038) and angle of pennation of the VM (16.8 vs. 5.8%, P=0.046), but not other muscles, for CP vs. PLA. Conclusions: CP supplementation produced a cluster of consistent effects indicating greater skeletal muscle remodelling with RT compared to PLA. Notably, CP supplementation amplified the quadriceps and total muscle volume increases induced by RT.
... Resistance training sessions are usually composed of multiple exercises, performed with different objectives and intensities (26,31). Among these exercises, the squat and its variations are often the most frequently used by coaches from a variety of sports (14,33). ...
Article
The aim of this study was to compare the peak-force (PF), peak-power (PP), and peak velocity (PV) outputs produced during half-squat (HS) and jump-squat (JS) exercises executed at 20, 40, 60, and 80% of one-repetition maximum (1RM) in the HS (HS 1RM); and to compute and compare the strength deficit (SDef) achieved in these exercises across these loads. Twenty-four national rugby union players (age: 25.7 ± 3.6 years) performed HS-1RM and a progressive loading test in the HS and JS exercises. The PF, PP, and PV values were obtained in all loads for both exercises and the SDef was calculated as the percentage difference between the PF at distinct relative intensities and the PF at HS-1RM. The differences in HS and JS variables were determined using an analysis of variance with repeated measures. Higher PF, PP, and PV outputs were generated in the JS in comparison with the HS exercise (P<0.05); moreover, the SDef magnitudes were significantly lower in the JS (P<0.01), for all loading conditions. Importantly, the differences in SDef, and as a consequence, in PF, PP, and PV decreased progressively with increasing load. Overall, the loaded JS exhibited increased levels of PF, PP, and PV and reduced levels of SDef when compared to the traditional HS performed across a range of loads. The JS is indicated to reduce the SDef and improve the athletes’ ability to apply force at higher velocities. Nevertheless, with heavier loads (i.e., ≥ 80% HS-1RM), its potential advantages and effectiveness may be seriously compromised.
... Resistance training is an essential tool in the pursuit of athletic performance (McGuigan et al., 2012) and for improving health (El-Kotob et al., 2020). To optimize the effects of resistance training, the manipulation of several factors, primarily training volume, load, and frequency, is central (American College of Sports Medicine, 2009). ...
Article
Background: Postural balance represents a fundamental movement skill for the successful performance of everyday and sport-related activities. There is ample evidence on the effectiveness of balance training on balance performance in athletic and non-athletic population. However, less is known on potential transfer effects of other training types, such as plyometric jump training (PJT) on measures of balance. Given that PJT is a highly dynamic exercise mode with various forms of jump-landing tasks, high levels of postural control are needed to successfully perform PJT exercises. Accordingly, PJT has the potential to not only improve measures of muscle strength and power but also balance. Objective: To systematically review and synthetize evidence from randomized and non-randomized controlled trials regarding the effects of PJT on measures of balance in apparently healthy participants. Methods: Systematic literature searches were performed in the electronic databases PubMed, Web of Science, and SCOPUS. A PICOS approach was applied to define inclusion criteria, (i) apparently healthy participants, with no restrictions on their fitness level, sex, or age, (ii) a PJT program, (iii) active controls (any sport-related activity) or specific active controls (a specific exercise type such as balance training), (iv) assessment of dynamic, static balance pre- and post-PJT, (v) randomized controlled trials and controlled trials. The methodological quality of studies was assessed using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) scale. This meta-analysis was computed using the inverse variance random-effects model. The significance level was set at p < 0.05. Results: The initial search retrieved 8,251 plus 23 records identified through other sources. Forty-two articles met our inclusion criteria for qualitative and 38 for quantitative analysis (1,806 participants [990 males, 816 females], age range 9–63 years). PJT interventions lasted between 4 and 36 weeks. The median PEDro score was 6 and no study had low methodological quality (�3). The analysis revealed significant small effects of PJT on overall (dynamic and static) balance (ES = 0.46; 95% CI = 0.32–0.61; p < 0.001), dynamic (e.g., Y-balance test) balance (ES = 0.50; 95% CI = 0.30–0.71; p < 0.001), and static (e.g., flamingo balance test) balance (ES = 0.49; 95% CI = 0.31–0.67; p<0.001). The moderator analyses revealed that sex and/or age did not moderate balance performance outcomes. When PJT was compared to specific active controls (i.e., participants undergoing balance training, whole body vibration training, resistance training), both PJT and alternative training methods showed similar effects on overall (dynamic and static) balance (p = 0.534). Specifically, when PJT was compared to balance training, both training types showed similar effects on overall (dynamic and static) balance (p = 0.514). Conclusion: Compared to active controls, PJT showed small effects on overall balance, dynamic and static balance. Additionally, PJT produced similar balance improvements compared to other training types (i.e., balance training). Although PJT is widely used in athletic and recreational sport settings to improve athletes’ physical fitness (e.g., jumping; sprinting), our systematic review with meta-analysis is novel in as much as it indicates that PJT also improves balance performance. The observed PJT-related balance enhancements were irrespective of sex and participants’ age. Therefore, PJT appears to be an adequate training regime to improve balance in both, athletic and recreational settings.
... Resistance training is an essential tool in the pursuit of athletic performance (McGuigan et al., 2012) and for improving health (El-Kotob et al., 2020). To optimize the effects of resistance training, the manipulation of several factors, primarily training volume, load, and frequency, is central (American College of Sports Medicine, 2009). ...
Article
Studies comparing children and adolescents from different periods have shown that physical activity and fitness decreased in the last decades, which might have important adverse health consequences such as body fat gain and poor metabolic health. The purpose of the current article is to present the benefits of high-intensity multimodal training (HIMT), such as CrossFit, to young people, with a critical discussion about its potential benefits and concerns. During HIMT, exercise professionals might have an opportunity to promote positive changes in physical function and body composition in children and adolescents, as well as to promote improvements in mental health and psychosocial aspects. Moreover, this might serve as an opportunity to educate them about the benefits of a healthy lifestyle and overcome the perceived barriers for being physically active. In technical terms, the characteristics of HIMT, such as, the simultaneous development of many physical capacities and diversity of movement skills and exercise modalities might be particularly interesting for training young people. Many concerns like an increased risk of injury and insufficient recovery might be easily addressed and not become a relevant problem for this group.
... However, it is well established that explosive strength is highly susceptible to changes in acute fatigue. 10 Considering the importance of explosive upper body strength for multiple sport and/or rehabilitation settings, 11 data concerning acute residual effects of lower body endurance loading on explosive upper body strength could provide important insights into the structure of training programs in an attempt to avoid a potential interference effect. In line with this, it is of similar importance to assess how different concurrent training sessions (ie, lower body endurance loading, and lower or upper body strength loading) acutely affect the explosive upper and lower body strength performance. ...
Article
Purpose: This study examined the acute effects of lower-body high-intensity interval loading (HIIT) on explosive upper- and lower-body strength, as well as the combined effect of HIIT and bench-press loading versus HIIT and squat loading on the explosive upper- and lower-body strength. Methods: Fifteen physically active men completed 2 sessions consisting of HIIT (4 × 4 min cycling at 80% of peak power output) immediately followed by lower- (HIIT + LBS) or upper-body (HIIT + UBS) strength loading (3 × 5 + 3 × 3 repetitions at 80% 1-repetition maximum [ie, 6 sets in total]) in a randomized order. Squat and bench-press mean propulsive velocity (MPV) was assessed before HIIT (T0), immediately after HIIT (T1), immediately after the strength loading (T2), and 24 hours after the experimental session (T3). Results: Squat MPV decreased to a similar magnitude at T1 in HIIT + LBS (-5.3% [7.6%], P = .117, g = .597) and HIIT + UBS (-5.7% [6.9%], P = .016, g = .484), while bench press remained unchanged (-1.4% [4.7%], P = 1.000, g = .152, and -1.0% [7.0%], P = 1.000, g = .113, respectively). Both squat and bench-press MPV were statistically reduced at T2 compared to T0 (HIIT + LBS: -7.5% [7.8%], P = .016, g = .847, and -6.8% [4.6%], P < .001, g = .724; HIIT + UBS: -3.9% [3.8%], P = .007, g = .359, and -15.5% [6.7%], P < .001, d = 1.879). Bench-press MPV at T2 was significantly lower in HIIT + UBS when compared to HIIT + LBS (P = .002, d = 1.219). Conclusion: These findings indicate lower- but not upper-body explosive strength to be acutely reduced by preceding lower-body HIIT. However, lower-body HIIT combined with either upper- or lower-body strength loading resulted in a similar acute reduction of both squat and bench-press explosive strength.
... Therefore, performance staff are tasked with implementing a range of preparation strategies to ensure that athletes can meet the demands of competition (20). These strategies are often categorized into chronic or acute interventions (15) and can vary depending on the sport, the specific positional demands, and the individual needs of an athlete (25). ...
Article
The aim of this study was to identify game day preparation strategies used by performance staff to improve team sport performance and to determine consensus regarding the application and importance of these strategies. Twenty-five performance staff working in high performance or professional team sports participated in this Delphi study, which implemented 3 survey rounds. The first round sought responses to open-ended questions relating to the use of game day preparation strategies. These responses were developed into statements and recirculated (round-2 survey), with subjects asked to rate their level of agreement with each statement. The third and final survey presented revised versions of statements that did not reach a consensus in the previous round, along with new statements derived from subject responses. A thematic analysis of the open-ended responses in the first survey identified 5 key themes relating to game day preparation strategies: “exercise,” “nutrition,” “psychological,” “technical and tactical,” and “other.” The round-2 survey included 38 statements across the 5 themes, with 22 reaching the consensus threshold ($75%) for agreement. The remaining 16 statements did not reach consensus. The final survey included 18 statements (16 revised and 2 new) with 12 reaching the consensus threshold for agreement. Key preparation strategies identified in this study include structured and progressive warm-ups, strength and power–based priming sessions, individualized nutrition plans, and precooling in hot conditions. Performance staff working in similar environments should consider adopting these strategies to improve athlete or team performance.
... Resistance training is an essential tool in the pursuit of athletic performance (McGuigan et al., 2012) and for improving health (El-Kotob et al., 2020). To optimize the effects of resistance training, the manipulation of several factors, primarily training volume, load, and frequency, is central (American College of Sports Medicine, 2009). ...
Article
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The main goal of the current study was to compare the effects of volume-equated training frequency on gains in muscle mass and strength. In addition, we aimed to investigate whether the effect of training frequency was affected by the complexity, concerning the degrees of freedom, of an exercise. Participants were randomized to a moderate training frequency group (two weekly sessions) or high training frequency group (four weekly sessions). Twenty-one participants (male: 11, female: 10, age: 25.9 ± 4.0) completed the 9-week whole-body progressive heavy resistance training intervention with moderate (n = 13) or high (n = 8) training frequency. Whole-body and regional changes in lean mass were measured using dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry, while the vastus lateralis thickness was measured by ultrasound. Changes in muscle strength were measured as one repetition maximum for squat, hack squat, bench press, and chest press. No differences between groups were observed for any of the measures of muscle growth or muscle strength. Muscle strength increased to a greater extent in hack squat and chest press than squat and bench press for both moderate (50 and 21% vs. 19 and 14%, respectively) and high-frequency groups (63 and 31% vs. 19 and 16%, respectively), with no differences between groups. These results suggest that training frequency is less decisive when weekly training volume is equated. Further, familiarity with an exercise seems to be of greater importance for strength adaptations than the complexity of the exercise.
... (Lauersen, Andersen, & Andersen, 2018.) For athletes a very important added benefit is that strength training as a mean to increase athletic performance is well known and documented in the literature (Mcguigan, Wright, & Fleck, 2012). Progressively improving strength training has numerous benefits including positive causations to health and wellbeing such as strengthening of the bones and connective tissue which decreases musculoskeletal injury risk, carbohydrate metabolism, and many other general health adaptations and positive effects on quality of life, mood, self-image, self-esteem, and self-efficacy. ...
... Resistance training plays a pivotal role in enhancing strength, power, linear sprint and change of direction speed (CODs) performance in a wide range of healthy and athletic population [1][2][3]. It is well known that maximizing the resistance training effects largely depends on the manipulation of the program variables such as the intensity, volume, rest interval, duration, etc [4]. ...
Article
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Background There has been a surge of interest on velocity-based training (VBT) in recent years. However, it remains unclear whether VBT is more effective in improving strength, jump, linear sprint and change of direction speed (CODs) than the traditional 1RM percentage-based training (PBT). Objectives To compare the training effects in VBT vs. PBT upon strength, jump, linear sprint and CODs performance. Data sources Web of science, PubMed and China National Knowledge Infrastructure (CNKI). Study eligibility criteria The qualified studies for inclusion in the meta-analysis must have included a resistance training intervention that compared the effects of VBT and PBT on at least one measure of strength, jump, linear sprint and CODs with participants aged ≥16 yrs. and be written in English or Chinese. Methods The modified Pedro Scale was used to assess the risk of bias. Random-effects model was used to calculate the effects via the mean change and pre-SD (standard deviation). Mean difference (MD) or Standardized mean difference (SMD) was presented correspondently with 95% confidence interval (CI). Results Six studies met the inclusion criteria including a total of 124 participants aged 16 to 30 yrs. The differences of training effects between VBT and PBT were not significant in back squat 1RM (MD = 3.03kg; 95%CI: -3.55, 9.61; I² = 0%) and load velocity 60%1RM (MD = 0.02m/s; 95%CI: -0.01,0.06; I² = 0%), jump (SMD = 0.27; 95%CI: -0.15,0.7; I² = 0%), linear sprint (MD = 0.01s; 95%CI: -0.06, 0.07; I² = 0%), and CODs (SMD = 0.49; 95%CI: -0.14, 1.07; I² = 0%). Conclusion Both VBT and PBT can enhance strength, jump, linear sprint and CODs performance effectively without significant group difference.
... The ultimate goal of professional soccer players is to maximize performance during competition [28], where the ability to produce high levels of muscle power is considered of fundamental importance [29]. To date, coaches and researchers have provided some practical recommendations to properly assess power output in soccer players [6,30]. ...
Article
Several studies have confirmed the efficacy of strength training to maximize soccer player performance during competition. The aim of this meta-analysis was to determine the effects of different strength training protocols on short-sprint and vertical jump performance of professional soccer players from the first division of their countries. The following inclusion criteria were employed for the analysis: (a) randomized studies; (b) high validity and reliability instruments; (c) studies published in a high-quality peer-reviewed journal; (d) studies involving professional soccer players from the first division; (e) studies with descriptions of strength training programs; and (f) studies where countermovement jump and 10-m sprint time were measured pre and post training. Overall, the different strength-oriented training schemes produced similar performance improvements, which seem not to depend on the training strategy. Strength training appears to have a lower effect when applied during in-season than when applied in pre-season periods in first division soccer players. In this meta-analysis it is not possible to confirm that strength training in isolation is capable of improving the short-sprint and jump performance of elite soccer players. The congested fixture schedule and, thus, the limited time to perform complementary (non-specific) training sessions, may contribute to these reduced effects.
... These findings suggest that EIMD may impair match-specific performance tasks and training quality [16], the reported EIMD was a result of match-simulated training sessions. However, match-simulated training may not replicate resistance exercises with external loads that localise physiological stress to particular muscle groups [17]. The acute physiological stress induced by resistance training, and its impact on sport-specific performance, may differ following resistance exercises (i.e., heavy external loads) compared to that of repeated anaerobic activities performed during a match (i.e., against bodyweight only). ...
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The current study examined the acute effects of a bout of resistance training on cricket bowling-specific motor performance. Eight sub-elite, resistance-untrained, adolescent male fast bowlers (age 15 ± 1.7 years; height 1.8 ± 0.1 m; weight 67.9 ± 7.9 kg) completed a bout of upper and lower body resistance exercises. Indirect markers of muscle damage (creatine kinase [CK] and delayed onset of muscle soreness [DOMS]), anaerobic performance (15-m sprint and vertical jump), and cricket-specific motor performance (ball speed, run-up time, and accuracy) were measured prior to and 24 (T24) and 48 (T48) hours following the resistance training bout. The resistance training bout significantly increased CK (~350%; effect size [ES] = 1.89–2.24), DOMS (~240%; ES = 1.46–3.77) and 15-m sprint times (~4.0%; ES = 1.33–1.47), whilst significantly reducing vertical jump height (~7.0%; ES = 0.76–0.96) for up to 48 h. The ball speed (~3.0%; ES = 0.50–0.61) and bowling accuracy (~79%; ES = 0.39–0.70) were significantly reduced, whilst run-up time was significantly increased (~3.5%; ES = 0.36–0.50) for up to 24 h. These findings demonstrate that a bout of resistance training evokes exercise-induced muscle damage amongst sub-elite, adolescent male cricketers, which impairs anaerobic performance and bowling-specific motor performance measures. Cricket coaches should be cautious of incorporating bowling sessions within 24-h following a bout of resistance training for sub-elite adolescent fast bowlers, particularly for those commencing a resistance training program.
... Therefore, stronger trunk muscles may generate better kicking performance. This result expands our previous knowledge about the relationship between strength and football velocity [17][18], from whom a new strategy for football kicking training may come out. ...
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Football, as the most popular sport in the world, has a very wide spread worldwide. With the wide spread of football, more and more people participate in football activities. Football is a very strenuous sport and athletes are easily injured. This article examines the problem of kicking through two experiments, one is the normal kicking process, and the other is the process of imitating the kicking. The two sets of experiments use the same motions, but their applied external forces are different. In the normal kicking, the football will receive a force on the foot during the kicking process. Conversely, in the imitation kicking, the foot is not in contact with the football and no extra force is apply on the foot. Analyze the impact of football on the body by comparing the above two experiments. OpenSim software is used to calculate the forces of each muscle by simulating the process of kicking a ball to analyze the muscle fatigue. It is judged that those muscles are vulnerable to injury during the kick. Athletes should focus on strengthening the exercise of these muscles, increase the strength of related muscles, and focus on protecting related muscles during exercise to reduce injuries.
... To maximise performance, team-sport scientists and strength and conditioning coaches implement various training programs that target specific strength-power related qualities, hence optimising athletes' power production (McGuigan et al., 2012;Newton & Kraemer, 1994). Accordingly, greater maximal impulse capabilities are found with stronger individuals (Cormie et al., 2009;James et al., 2018). ...
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This study aimed to systematically review training methods prescribed to develop lower-body power and determine their effectiveness for the development of lower-body mechanical power and their implementation in an annual training cycle amongst team-sport athletes. The absolute and relative outcome values of concentric mean power, peak power, and mean propulsive power were extracted from 19 studies. Outcomes were assessed using baseline to postintervention percent change, effect sizes, and the level of evidence concerning the methods effectiveness. A thorough analysis of the literature indicated that, based on the high level of evidence, traditional (e.g., strength training alone) and combination training (e.g., complex and contrast) methods should be considered. Further, optimal load and velocity-based training can be implemented if coaches have access to the appropriate equipment to monitor movement velocity and mechanical power in every session. This is of particular importance in periods of the season where high volumes of technical-tactical training and congested fixture periods are present. Also, flywheel, eccentric overload, and weightlifting methods have been shown to be effective although the level of evidence is low. Future research should expand on current training practices whilst adequately reporting actual training loads from sport-specific training and games alongside strength-power training protocols.
... Resistance training is one of the most widely used methods of enhancing athletic performance [1][2][3]. One of the challenging problems faced by practitioners is the issue of how to optimally choose the exercises to maximize training effects when prescribing resistance training programs. ...
Article
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Exercises can be categorized into either unilateral or bilateral movements. Despite the topic popularity, the answer to the question as to which (unilateral or bilateral) is superior for a certain athletic performance enhancement remains unclear. To compare the effect of unilateral and bilateral resistance training interventions on measures of athletic performance. Keywords related with unilateral, bilateral and performance were used to search in the Web of Science, PubMed databases, and Google Scholar and ResearchGate™ websites. 6365 articles were initially identified, 14 met the inclusion criteria and were included in the final analysis, with overall article quality being deemed moderate. The quantitative analysis comprised 392 subjects (aged: 16 to 26 years). Sub-group analysis showed that unilateral exercise resistance training resulted in a large effect in improving unilateral jump performance compared to bilateral training (ES = 0.89 [0.52, 1.26]). In contrast, bilateral exercise resistance training showed a small effect in improving bilateral strength compared to unilateral (ES = -0.43 [-0.71, -0.14]). Non-significant differences were found in improving unilateral strength (ES = 0.26 [-0.03, 0.55]), bilateral jump performance (ES = -0.04 [-0.31, 0.23]), change of direction (COD) (ES = 0.31 [-0.01, 0.63]) and speed (ES = -0.12 [-0.46, 0.21]) performance. Unilateral resistance training exercises should be chosen for improving unilateral jumping performance, and bilateral resistance training exercises should be chosen for improving bilateral strength performance.
... Muscle strength is considered one of the most important attributes among a set of qualities that have a significant impact on sport performance [1]. Furthermore, the ability to apply high levels of force at high velocities (i.e., power) is also recognized for its crucial role in many sport tasks, such as sprinting and jumping [2,3]. Although maximum strength and power have been extensively investigated and described in the literature [1,2], there is still a need to better understand the individual capacity to exert large amounts of force when submaximal loads are lifted [4]. ...
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The aim of this study was to examine the effects of a traditional resistance training scheme on the relative strength (RS), relative peak-force (RPF), strength deficit (SDef), and vertical jump and sprint abilities in elite young soccer players. Thirty-five under-20 soccer players from two professional clubs were assessed before and after a 4-week competitive period. One team performed 12 sessions of a structured resistance training program and the other maintained their regular soccer-specific training and competitive routines. The resistance training program consisted of performing half-squat and jump squat exercises at distinct percentages of the one-repetition maximum. Both teams performed pre- and post-measurements in the following order: (1) countermovement jump (CMJ), (2) 20-m sprint, and (3) half-squat one-repetition maximum to determine the RS, RPF, and SDef. A two-way analysis of variance was used to test for group x time interaction among variables. Effect sizes (ES) and 95% confidence intervals (CI) were also calculated. Group x time interactions were demonstrated for RS ([ES [95%CI] = 1.21 [0.57; 1.85], P = 0.001), RPF (ES [95%CI] = 1.18 [0.52; 1.80], P = 0.001), SDef (ES [95%CI] = 0.86 [0.01; 1.71], P = 0.04), and CMJ (ES [95%CI] = 0.64 [0.28; 0.99], P = 0.001); whereas a non-significant interaction was observed for 20-m sprint performance (ES [95%CI] = 0.02 [-0.32; 0.36], P = 0.85). Traditional strength-power oriented training resulted in improved maximum strength performance and CMJ ability but, paradoxically, increased the SDef. As a consequence, stronger athletes are not necessarily able to use greater percentages of their peak-force against relatively lighter loads.
... Professional rugby league games comprise of two 40-minute halves of play, with a 10-minute half-time period, and players are expected to be physically competent in a range of areas to be competitive (for example, aerobic fitness, strength, and power) (14). Physical training is important for professional athletes because fitter and stronger athletes may be able to outperform their competition and be less susceptible to injury (27,30). In fact, previous research in rugby league has shown that stronger and more powerful athletes relative to their own body mass are able to run faster than relatively weaker athletes (2,9). ...
Article
Glassbrook, DJ, Fuller, JT, Wade, JA, and Doyle, TLA. Not all physical performance tests are related to early season match running performance in professional rugby league. J Strength Cond Res 36(7): 1944-1950, 2022-This study aimed to determine which physical tests correlate with early season running performance. Sixteen professional rugby league players performed the 30-15 intermittent fitness test (IFT), 1.2-km time trial, 1 repetition maximum (RM) barbell back squat, isometric midthigh pull (IMTP), countermovement jump (CMJ), barbell squat jump (SJ), and ballistic bench press throw (BBP). Bivariate Pearson's correlations and linear regression were used to compare physical tests with peak match running intensities recorded by a portable Global Positioning System and represented by peak match velocity and acceleration, as well as peak 1-, 4-, 6-, and 8-minute instantaneous acceleration/deceleration periods of play. Significant (p < 0.05) negative correlations (r = -0.55 to -0.60) were observed between the IFT and relative 1-, 4-, 6-, and 8-minute peaks, and between the relative 1RM back squat and relative 1-, 4-, 6-, and 8-minute peaks. Significant positive correlations (r = 0.52-0.84) were observed between the following physical tests and match performance pairs: IFT and peak acceleration; relative 1RM back squat and peak acceleration; SJ peak power (relative and absolute) and peak acceleration; CMJ peak force (relative and absolute) and peak acceleration; CMJ peak power (relative and absolute) and peak acceleration and 1-, 4-, 6-, and 8-minute peaks; and relative BBP peak power and peak velocity and peak acceleration. The results of this study highlight that not all generic tests of physical qualities are related to peak match running performance and only those with significant correlations are likely to be able to indicate how players may perform during match-play.
... These types of adaptations enable an increase in strength and power-both of them have been extensively proven to be related to sport performance across a continuum of sports events [2]. Consequently, strength training has become a cornerstone of strength and conditioning programs for athletes [3]. In addition, optimizing the load and time spent in strength training may be one of the most important considerations for strength and conditioning coaches (especially in team sports), where success is multifaceted and with a broad spectrum of physical, physiological, technical and tactical abilities that need to be targeted regularly in the training process and integrated periodization [4]. ...
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The main aim of the present study was to compare the effects of flywheel strength training and traditional strength training on fitness attributes. Thirty-six well trained junior basketball players (n = 36; 17.58 ± 0.50 years) were recruited and randomly allocated into: Flywheel group (FST; n = 12), traditional strength training group (TST; n = 12) and control group (CON; n = 12). All groups attended 5 basketball practices and one official match a week during the study period. Experimental groups additionally participated in the eight-week, 1–2 d/w equivolume intervention conducted using a flywheel device (inertia = 0.075 kg·m−2 ) for FST or free weights (80%1 RM) for TST. Pre-to post changes in lower limb isometric strength (ISOMET), 5 and 20 m sprint time (SPR5m and SPR20m), countermovement jump height (CMJ) and change of direction ability (t-test) were assessed with analyses of variance (3 × 2 ANOVA). Significant group-by-time interaction was found for ISOMET (F = 6.40; p = 0.000), cmJ (F = 7.45; p = 0.001), SPR5m (F = 7.45; p = 0.010) and T test (F = 10.46; p = 0.000). The results showed a significantly higher improvement in cmJ (p = 0.006; 11.7% vs. 6.8%), SPR5m (p = 0.001; 10.3% vs. 5.9%) and t-test (p = 0.045; 2.4% vs. 1.5%) for FST compared to the TST group. Simultaneously, th FST group had higher improvement in ISOMET (p = 0.014; 18.7% vs. 2.9%), cmJ (p = 0.000; 11.7% vs. 0.3%), SPR5m (p = 0.000; 10.3% vs. 3.4%) and t-test (p = 0.000; 2.4% vs. 0.6%) compared to the CON group. Players from the TST group showed better results in cmJ (p = 0.006; 6.8% vs. 0.3%) and t-test (p = 0.018; 1.5% vs. 0.6%) compared to players from the CON group. No significant group-by-time interaction was found for sprint 20 m (F = 2.52; p = 0.088). Eight weeks of flywheel training (1–2 sessions per week) performed at maximum concentric intensity induces superior improvements in cmJ, 5 m sprint time and change of direction ability than equivolumed traditional weight training in well trained junior basketball players. Accordingly, coaches and trainers could be advised to use flywheel training for developing power related performance attributes in young basketball players.
Article
Biscardi, LM, Miller, AD, Andre, MJ, and Stroiney, DA. Self-efficacy, effort, and performance perceptions enhance psychological responses to strength training in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I athletes. J Strength Cond Res 38(5): 898–905, 2024—This study examined the effect of self-efficacy, effort, and perceived performance on positive well-being (PWB) and psychological distress (PD) following high-intensity resistance training sessions in collegiate student-athletes. An observational field study design was used to collect data before and after resistance training sessions in a 4-week preseason strength training block. A multilevel model assessed day-level and person-level variance in acute PWB and PD. Interaction terms were also tested at the day level. Alpha was set at 0.05. Within a 4-week training block, training session intensity did not predict changes in acute psychological responses. After controlling for an athlete's preexercise psychological state, higher self-efficacy, daily effort, and perceived performance predicted higher PWB and lower PD following training ( p < 0.05). Self-efficacy moderated the relationships of daily effort and performance with PD ( p < 0.05). When athletes experienced lower self-efficacy, producing a higher effort and perceiving better performance reduced the negative psychological response. These findings highlight the important mediating role of cognitive variables in the acute psychological response to high-intensity resistance training. Coaches should identify and mitigate low cognitive states to facilitate a positive psychological response to resistance training. This strategy promotes a positive psychological response without altering training prescription.
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O objetivo deste trabalho foi realizar uma breve revisão descritiva da literatura para analisar os aspectos neurofisiológicos e metodológicos do "complex training”, ou, conforme a tradução, Treinamento Complexo. Para tanto, foram coletados estudos nas plataformas PubMed, Scielo e Google acadêmico para a devida construção da linha de discussão deste trabalho. Em geral, apesar da literatura ainda apresentar lacunas para a perfeita compreensão dos aspectos neurofisiológicos e metodológicos deste fenômeno por conta da diminuta quantidade de estudos sobre a temática, os resultados da literatura apontam que o “Complex Training” parece ser uma forma de treinamento fundamental para atletas de alto rendimento, cujas respostas agudas a nível muscular podem potencializar a força máxima e potente de forma imediata, e a longo prazo maximizar os ganhos dessas capacidades físicas. Contudo, é necessário compreender que este método de treinamento ainda necessita de novos estudos aprofundados para melhor entendimento da metodologia e aplicabilidade da técnica.
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Predkladaná vedecká monografia je dielom pozostávajúcim zo štyroch samostatných kapitol. V jej prvej časti charakterizujeme športové odvetvie džuda a analyzujeme dostupné poznatky o štruktúre športového výkonu. Zásadná je tretia kapitola o štruktúre a cieľoch jednotlivých etáp dlhodobej športovej prípravy. Podrobne rozoberáme tréningový obsah v jednotlivých etapách prípravy od detí cez mládež, dorast až k juniorom, resp. seniorom. V každej etape uvádzame „ideálne“ parametre tréningu i jeho nedostatky vyplývajúce z každodennej praxe. Podstatnú časť v jednotlivých etapách tvorí diagnostika trénovanosti, pri ktorej uvádzame výskumné dáta o úrovni trénovanosti slovenských džudistov. Zameriavame sa na oblasť somatických, motorických a funkčných parametrov. Nechýba ani diagnostika pohybových vzorov. Trénovanosť porovnávame u detí najprv s bežnou populáciou, u starších kategórií s džudistami svetovej úrovne i s normami vytvorenými pre jednotlivé vekové kategórie a pohlavia. Analyzujeme zistené skutočnosti o dosiahnutej úrovni trénovanosti a naznačujeme aj možné riešenia smerujúce k optimalizácii tréningu. V poslednej kapitole uvádzame podrobný obsah týždenných mikrocyklov v jednotlivých etapách športovej prípravy, aby čitateľ získal ucelený obraz o špecifikách a odlišnostiach tréningu detí, mládeže, dorastencov a juniorov. Zbieranie dát prebiehalo v spolupráci s oddielom džuda Slávia Slovenskej technickej univerzity v Bratislave a Národným športovým centrom. Vzhľadom na obsah a zameranie ju odporúčame študentom trénerstva so špecializáciou na džudo, trénerom v praxi, ktorí pracujú s deťmi, mládežou a džudistami najvyššej výkonnostnej úrovne. Vhodná je aj pre pracovníkov diagnostických centier, širšiu úpolovú komunitu a v neposlednom rade pre samotných športovcov.
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Penelitian ini berasal dari masalah daya ledak maksimum yang rendah dan kecepatan maksimum dalam waktu cepat di atlet Karate UKA Universitas Negeri Padang bertujuan untuk mengungkapkan pengaruh metode pelatihan menggunakan Push-Up dan menggunakan Medicine Ball Throw pada ledakan otot lengan. Jenis penelitian ini adalah eksperimen kuasi. Sampel dalam penelitian ini berjumlah 20 orang adalah atlet Karate UKA Karate dari Universitas Negeri Padang Sampling menggunakan Purposive sampling. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan: Ada efek latihan Medicine Ball Throw terhadap daya ledak otot lengan Karate UKA Universitas Negeri Padang dengan nilai 6,94 > ttabel 2.093. Push up latihan melawan ledakan otot lengan Karate UKA Universitas Negeri Padang dengan nilai thitung 6,77 > ttabel. Perbedaan pengaruh latihan Medicine Ball Throw dengan latihan push up dimana latihan latihan Medicine Ball Throw lebih baik dari pada push up exercise dengan nilai 8,93 > ttabel 2.093
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In der vorliegenden Arbeit werden die positiven Entwicklungstendenzen im Mittel- und Langstreckenlauf in den USA thematisiert. Der Autor verfolgt dabei das Ziel, Ursachen für diese Entwicklungen mittels einer systematischen Literaturrecherche herauszuarbeiten und das Konzept des Erfolges darzustellen. Hierbei wird im ersten Teil anhand von Nationenwertungen und Analysen der Jahresbestzeiten sowie der Platzierungen in den Weltjahresbestenlisten diese Entwicklung konkretisiert. Der zweite Abschnitt beinhaltet die möglichen Ursachen, wobei der Autor vorerst auf den High School und College Bereich, an-schließend auf den professionellen Hochleistungsbereich eingeht. Es konnte festgestellt werden, dass die positiven Entwicklungen geschlechts- und disziplinübergreifend sind und ihren Ursprung 2001 im Nachwuchsbereich hatten. Für den Hochleistungsbereich lässt sich der Beginn der positiven Tendenzen mit der Weltmeisterschaft 2007 festhalten. Der Autor kommt des Weiteren zu dem Ergebnis, dass sowohl trainingsmethodische, als auch leistungssportstrukturelle Ursachen auf allen Ebenen des US- amerikanischen Leistungssportsystems diese starken Steigerungsraten erklären lassen. Als Kernaspekt wird auf das Modell der Trainingszentren eingegangen, wobei der Autor im Schlussteil versucht, Anregungen für den deutschen Mittel- und Langstreckenlauf zu geben.
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Pre-sleep protein intake is a topic that has been studied frequently in the recent years. Protein taken before sleep is thought to be effectively digested and absorbed during nighttime sleep, thus increasing the muscle protein synthesis rate during the night. The effects of pre-sleep protein intake are substantial, as physically active individuals and athletes want to maximize their physiological adaptation and improve their performance. The purpose of the present review is to examine the current studies on muscle protein synthesis, muscle mass and strength of pre-sleep protein intake, and provide up-to-date and complementary information on the subject by summarizing the acute and chronic effects.
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This study determined the behavior in sports activity of student-athletes of Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite. Specifically, the study sought answers to the following questions: What is the status of profile of student-athletes of the Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite in terms of; age; sex; gender; sports event? What is the level of behavior of students-athlete in terms of: physical activity; emotional Behavior; social activity; psychological? What is the level of sports activity in terms of: training; coaching; tune up games; competition? Is the demographic profile of the student athletes has a significant effect in the sports activity? Is the behavior of the student has a significant effect in the sports activity? In order to conduct this study, letters was sent to Ms. Kimberly Joy E. Alcaraz OIC Head, Research and Publications Office and the University Headmaster, Mr. Mhar Angelo A. Bayot asking permission and approval to conduct the study. Permission from the OIC Head, Research and Publications Office and university headmaster for each department. Preparation of self-made questionnaire by the researcher followed in order to obtain the necessary data on the behavior in sports activity amidst pandemic of student-athletes of Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite. The respondents of the study included approximately fifty (50) student-athletes of different event enrolled in the Lyceum of the Philippines University, Cavite. The copies were multiples and others sent by the google form considering the health protocols. The main source of data which prepared by the researcher were statistically use a simple descriptive statistic such as T-test formula and the weighted mean to determine the mean level to know the behavior in sports activity amidst pandemic of student-athletes of Lyceum of the Philippines, Cavite. readiness of the student-athletes to the new normal sports competition participated by the Cavite.
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Volume 16(1s) ~ 2021 ~ DOI: 10.18002/rama.v16i1s Strength and conditioning for combat sports athletes
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Nuzzo, JL. History of strength training research in man: an inventory and quantitative overview of studies published in English between 1894 and 1979. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-Limited scholarship exists on the history of strength training research. The current review advances existing qualitative and biographical work by inventorying all experimental studies and case reports published before 1980 on the effects of ≥1 week of strength training on human health and function. Data on authors, journals, citations, study samples, training interventions, study outcomes, and study themes were extracted and summarized. Three hundred thirty-nine strength training studies were published between 1894 and 1979. Studies included 14,575 subjects, with 10,350 undergoing strength training. Subjects were usually healthy (81.1% of articles), university students (51.0%), or aged 18-65 years (86.7%). Men comprised 70.0% of subjects. Interventions typically involved isoinertial only (64.6%) or isometric only (35.4%) training. Upper-body interventions were more common (35.4%) than lower-body interventions (27.4%). Duration and frequency of training were typically 4-8 weeks (55.3%) and 3 days per week (39.2%), respectively. Isometric maximal voluntary contractions (54.0%) and one repetition maximum (20.4%) were the most common muscle strength tests. Other common outcomes included limb girths (20.9%) and muscle endurance (19.5%). Common research themes were physiology (54.3%), physical fitness (28.9%), and injury/rehabilitation (20.4%). The 339 studies have been cited 21,996 times. Moritani and deVries' 1979 article on time course of neuromuscular adaptations is the most highly cited (1,815 citations). DeLorme (5 articles and 772 citations), Hellebrandt (4 articles and 402 citations), Rasch (9 articles and 318 citations), and Berger (12 articles and 1,293 citations) made the largest contributions. Research Quarterly published the most articles (27.4%). The history of strength training research is discussed in the context of the results.
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Ballistic resistance training involves explosive movements against resistance at the fastest velocity possible. This study examined the effect of a ballistic resistance training program on baseball throwing and base running speed. Eighteen National League baseball players from two teams took part in the 10-week training study in conjunction with their normal preseason baseball training. Nine subjects from one team served as the control group and did not take part in any form of ballistic resistance training. Nine from the other team served as the training group and performed explosive squat jumps and bench throws with a light load that maximized power output (approx. 30-50% 1-RM). Both groups also participated in normal baseball training. Pre- and posttraining throwing speed and average running speed were recorded. The training group significantly improved throwing speed by 2.0 ± 1.5% (p ≤ 0.05); no change was recorded for the control group. Both groups increased running speed, but the increases were significantly greater for the training group. It is concluded that ballistic resistance training can increase performance in baseball throwing and base running, thus such training methods should be incorporated in baseball training programs.
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This study investigated the tackling ability of high-performance rugby league players and determined the relationship between physiological and anthropometric qualities and tackling ability in these athletes. Twenty professional (National Rugby League) and 17 semiprofessional (Queensland Cup) rugby league players underwent a standardized 1-on-1 tackling drill in a 10-m grid. Video footage was taken from the rear, side, and front of the defending player. Tackling proficiency was assessed using standardized technical criteria. In addition, all players underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of 7 skinfolds), acceleration (10-m sprint), change of direction speed (505 test), and lower body muscular power (vertical jump). Professional players had significantly greater (p ≤ 0.05) tackling proficiency than semiprofessional players (87.5 ± 2.0 vs. 75.0 ± 2.3%). Professional players were significantly (p ≤ 0.05) older, more experienced, leaner, and had greater acceleration than semiprofessional players. The strongest individual correlates of tackling ability were age (r = 0.41, p ≤ 0.05), playing experience (r = 0.70, p ≤ 0.01), skinfold thickness (r = -0.59, p ≤ 0.01), acceleration (r = 0.41, p ≤ 0.05), and lower body muscular power (r = 0.38, p ≤ 0.05). When hierarchical multiple regression analysis was performed to determine which of the variables predicted tackling ability, playing experience and lower body muscular power were the only variables that contributed significantly (r2 = 0.60, p ≤ 0.01) to the predictive model. From a practical perspective, strength and conditioning coaches should emphasize the development of acceleration, lower body muscular power, and lean muscle mass to improve tackling ability in high-performance rugby league players.
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This study investigated the physiological, anthropometric, and skill characteristics of rugby league players and determined the relationship between physical fitness and playing ability in these athletes. Eighty-six rugby league players (mean +/- SD age, 22.5 +/- 4.9 years) underwent measurements of standard anthropometry (height, body mass, and sum of 4 skinfolds), muscular power (vertical jump), speed (10-, 20-, and 40-m sprint), agility (L run), and estimated maximal aerobic power (multistage fitness test). In addition, 2 expert coaches independently assessed the playing ability of players using standardized skill criteria. First-grade players had significantly greater (p < 0.05) basic passing and ball-carrying ability and superior skills under fatigue, tackling and defensive skills, and evasion skills (i.e., ability to beat a player and 2 verse 1 skills) than second-grade and third-grade players. While no significant (p > 0.05) differences were detected among playing levels for body mass; skinfold thickness; height; 10-, 20-, or 40-m speed; agility; vertical jump height; or estimated maximal aerobic power, all the physiological and anthropometric characteristics were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with at least 1 measure of playing ability. The results of this study demonstrate that selected skill characteristics but not physiological or anthropometric characteristics discriminate between successful and less successful rugby league players. However, all physiological and anthropometric characteristics were related to playing ability. These findings suggest that while physiological and anthropometric characteristics do not discriminate between successful and less successful rugby league players, a high level of physical fitness contributes to effective playing ability in these athletes. A game-specific training program that incorporates both physical conditioning and skills training may facilitate a greater transfer of physical fitness to competitive performances in rugby league.
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The purpose of this study was to compare anthropometric and athletic performance variables during the playing career of NCAA Division III college football players. Two hundred and eighty-nine college football players were assessed for height, body mass, body composition, 1-repetition-maximum (1RM) bench press, 1RM squat, vertical jump height (VJ), vertical jump peak, and vertical jump mean (VJMP) power, 40-yd sprint speed (40S), agility, and line drill (LD) over an 8-year period. All testing occurred at the beginning of summer training camp in each of the seasons studied. Data from all years of testing were combined. Players in their fourth and fifth (red-shirt year) seasons of competition were significantly (p < 0.05) heavier than first-year players. Significant increases in strength were seen during the course of the athletes' collegiate career (31.0% improvement in the 1RM bench press and 36.0% increase in squat strength). The VJ was significantly greater during the fourth year of competition compared to in the previous 3 years of play. Vertical jump peak and VJMP were significantly elevated from years 1 and 2 and were significantly higher during year 4 than during any previous season of competition. No significant changes in 40S or LD time were seen during the athletes playing career. Fatigue rate for the LD (fastest time/slowest time of 3 LD) significantly improved from the first (83.4 ± 6.4%) to second season (85.1 ± 6.5%) of competition. Fatigue rates in the fourth (88.3 ± 4.8%) and fifth (91.2 ± 5.2%) seasons were significantly greater than in any previous season. Strength and power performance improvements appear to occur throughout the football playing career of NCAA Division III athletes. However, the ability to significantly improve speed and agility may be limited.
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Fifteen elite male handball players were studied to examine the effects of an entire season of play on physical fitness and throwing velocity. One repetition maximal bench press (1RMBP), jumping explosive strength, power-load relationship of the leg and arm extensor muscles, 5- and 15-m sprint running time, endurance running, and handball throwing velocity (standing and three-step running throw) were assessed on four times (T1, T2, T3, and T4), during a 45-wk season. Individual volumes and intensities of training and competition were quantified for 11 activities. From T1 to T3, significant increases occurred in free fatty mass (1.4%), 1RMBP (1.9%), standing throwing velocity (6.5%), and three-step throwing velocity (6.2%). No significant changes were observed throughout the season in endurance running and explosive strength-related variables. Significant correlations (P < 0.05-0.01) were observed between strength training time and changes in standing throwing velocity as well as between high-intensity endurance training time and changes in endurance running. In addition, linear inverse relationships were observed between low-intensity endurance training time and changes in muscle power output of the lower extremities. The handball season resulted in significant increases in maximal and specific strength of the upper-extremity but not in the lower-extremity actions. The correlations observed suggest that training time at low intensity should be given less attention, whereas the training stimuli for high-intensity endurance running and leg strength training should be given more careful attention in the full training season program.
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In all codes of football, it is advantageous to be able to achieve a high ball speed or distance in a kick. An important determinant of ball speed and kick distance is the velocity of the foot at impact with the ball. Therefore, it is of interest to strength and conditioning practitioners to identify training programs that can increase foot velocity. The purpose of this review is to identify the factors influencing kicking performance and the research evidence relating to resistance training designed to enhance foot velocity in kicking. The review has been divided into 3 main sections. The first addresses the biomechanics of kicking to provide insights into the physical demands. The second section reviews the relationships between various measures of strength with performance indicators of maximum kicking, and the third part explores the research investigating the effects of resistance training on maximum kicking performance. Kicking can be described as a skill involving proximal-to-distal muscle activation. Foot velocity is determined by a complex sequencing of hip flexor and knee extensor concentric contractions and also involves hip extensor and knee flexor activation to assist with movement control. Research reporting correlations between strength and kicking performance support the importance of hip flexor and quadriceps strength. Although unclear, there is some evidence that adequate strength of the support leg, trunk muscles, hip adductors, and the muscles that control pelvic rotations are important. Strength training studies have shown that foot velocity and kicking performance can be enhanced by supplementary programs to regular football training, especially in nonelite athletes. Potentially valuable training includes plyometrics, exercises that simulate the whole kicking action, and kicking weighted balls. Exercises that isolate parts of the kicking action are not recommended because these do not appear to transfer well to kicking performance. There are many unanswered questions that await future research.
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The purpose of this study was to investigate (a) the cross-sectional relationship of strength, power, and performance variables in trained female athletes and (b) determine if the relationship between these variables changes over the course of a season. Ten female softball players (age = 18.1 +/- 1.6 years, height = 166.5 +/- 8.9 cm, and weight = 72.4 +/- 10.8 kg) from a state Australian Institute of Sport softball team were tested for maximal lower body strength (one repetition maximum [1RM]), peak force (PF), peak velocity (PV), and peak power (PP) during jump squats unloaded and loaded, unloaded countermovement vertical jump height (VJH) 1 base and 2 base sprint performance and change of direction performance on dominant and nondominant sides. The testing sessions occurred pre, mid, and post a 20-week training period. Relationship between body weight (BW), relative strength (1RM/BW), VJH, relative PP, relative PF, PV, speed, and change of direction variables were assessed by Pearson product-moment correlation coefficient at each testing session. Significant relationships were found across all time points with BW, speed, and change of direction measures (r = 0.70-0.93) and relative strength and measures of speed and change of direction ability (r = -0.73-0.85). There were no significant relationships between VJH and any measure of performance at any time point. In conclusion, BW and relative strength have strong to very strong correlations with speed and change of direction ability, and these correlations remain consistent over the course of the season. However, it seems as if many relationships vary with time, and their relationships should therefore be investigated longitudinally to better determine if these cross-sectional relationships truly reflect a deterministic relationship.
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To compare the effects of explosive strength (ExpS) vs. repeated shuttle sprint (RS) training on repeated sprint ability (RSA) in young elite soccer players, 15 elite male adolescents (14.5 ± 0.5 years) performed, in addition to their soccer training program, RS (n = 7) or ExpS (n = 8) training once a week for a total of 10 weeks. RS training consisted of 2-3 sets of 5-6 × 15- to 20-m repeated shuttle sprints interspersed with 14 seconds of passive or 23 seconds of active recovery (≈2 m·s⁻¹); ExpS training consisted of 4-6 series of 4-6 exercises (e.g., maximal unilateral countermovement jumps (CMJs), calf and squat plyometric jumps, and short sprints). Before and after training, performance was assessed by 10 and 30 m (10 and 30 m) sprint times, best (RSAbest) and mean (RSAmean) times on a repeated shuttle sprint ability test, a CMJ, and a hopping (Hop) test. After training, except for 10 m (p = 0.22), all performances were significantly improved in both groups (all p's < 0.05). Relative changes in 30 m (-2.1 ± 2.0%) were similar for both groups (p = 0.45). RS training induced greater improvement in RSAbest (-2.90 ± 2.1 vs. -0.08 ± 3.3%, p = 0.04) and tended to enhance RSAmean more (-2.61 ± 2.8 vs. -0.75 ± 2.5%, p = 0.10, effect size [ES] = 0.70) than ExpS. In contrast, ExpS tended to induce greater improvements in CMJ (14.8 ± 7.7 vs. 6.8 ± 3.7%, p = 0.02) and Hop height (27.5 ± 19.2 vs. 13.5 ± 13.2%, p = 0.08, ES = 0.9) compared with RS. Improvements in the repeated shuttle sprint test were only observed after RS training, whereas CMJ height was only increased after ExpS. Because RS and ExpS were equally efficient at enhancing maximal sprinting speed, RS training-induced improvements in RSA were likely more related to progresses in the ability to change direction.
Article
The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship of flexibility, power, and strength to club head speed (CHS) in male golfers. Fifteen golfers (mean age +/- SD: 34.3 +/- 13.6 years) with a handicap of </=8 volunteered for the study. Following a standardized warm-up, subjects proceeded to hit 5 wiffle golf balls with a 5 iron while their CHS was measured. Rotational trunk flexibility was measured on a trunk rotator machine. An index of total body rotational power was measured through a hip toss with a 3-kg medicine ball while an 8-repetition maximum (RM) on a pec deck machine was used to measure chest strength. Pearson correlations were used to assess the magnitude of the relationships between CHS and the measures of flexibility, power, and strength. Partial correlations were then run to assess the effect of handicap on the observed relationships. The only variables that were significantly correlated to CHS were chest strength (r = 0.69, p < 0.05) and total body rotational power (r = 0.54, p < 0.05). These relationships were unchanged when the effect of handicap was controlled for. The results of this study show that strength of the chest in the pec deck motion and total body rotational power significantly correlate with CHS in male golfers. This information can be used by practitioners to develop training programs and field tests for golfers.
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The authors investigate the correlation between National Football League (NFL) combine test results and NFL success for players drafted at three different offensive positions (quarterback, running back, and wide receiver) during a recent 6-year period, 1999-2004. The combine consists of series of drills, exercises, interviews, aptitude tests, and physical exams designed to assess the skills of promising college football players and to predict their performance in the NFL. Combine measures examined in this study include 10-, 20-, and 40-yard dashes, bench press, vertical jump, broad jump, 20- and 60-yard shuttles, three-cone drill, and the Wonderlic Personnel Test. Performance criteria include 10 variables: draft order; 3 years each of salary received and games played; and position-specific data. Using correlation analysis, we find no consistent statistical relationship between combine tests and professional football performance, with the notable exception of sprint tests for running backs. We put forth possible explanations for the general lack of statistical relations detected, and, consequently, we question the overall usefulness of the combine. We also offer suggestions for improving the prediction of success in the NFL, primarily the use of more rigorous psychological tests and the examination of collegiate performance as a job sample test. Finally, from a practical standpoint, the results of the study should encourage NFL team personnel to reevaluate the usefulness of the combine's physical tests and exercises as predictors of player performance. This study should encourage team personnel to consider the weighting and importance of various combine measures and the potential benefits of overhauling the combine process, with the goal of creating a more valid system for predicting player success.
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The relationships between football playing ability (FPA) and selected anthropometric and performance measures were determined among NCAA Division I-A football players (N = 40). Football playing ability (determined by the average of coaches' rankings) was significantly correlated with vertical jump (VJ) in all groups (offense, defense, and position groups of wide receiver-defensive back, offensive linemen-defensive linemen, and running back-tight end-linebacker). Eleven of 50 correlations (groups by variables), or 22%, were important for FPA. Five of the 11 relationships were related to VJ. Forward stepwise regression equations for each group explained over half of the criterion variable, FPA, as indicated by the R(2) values for each model. Vertical jump was the prime predictor variable in the equations for all groups. The findings of this study are discussed in relation to the specificity hypothesis. Strength and conditioning programs that facilitate the capacity for football players to develop forceful and rapid concentric action through plantar flexion of the ankle, as well as extension of the knee and hip, may be highly profitable.
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Ninety-five rugby league players ranging from junior high-school to elite professionals were compared for measures of strength and power. Strength was assessed by 1 repetition maximum bench press strength (1RM BP). Upper-body and lower-body power outputs were assessed during bench press throws and jump squats with a resistance of 20 kg (BT P20 and JS P20, respectively). The 1RM BP was a potent descriptor of playing achievement levels and was significantly different among all groups investigated. Both the BT P20 and JS P20 of the elite professional National Rugby League (NRL) group were significantly higher than those of the college-aged rugby league (CRL) group, which in turn were significantly higher than those of the 3 high-school groups. Senior high-school players were more powerful in the upper body compared with nonresistance-trained junior high-school players but not with resistance-trained junior high-school players. There was no difference in lower-body power output among any of the 3 high-school groups. The correlation between players achievement level and 1RM BP, BT P20, and JS P20 was significant for all 3 tests, with relations of r = 0.80, r = 0.74, and r = 0.61, respectively. The results of this study suggest that young rugby league players should strive to increase strength and power to attain NRL professional status in the future.
Article
The purpose of this investigation was to observe changes in maximal upper-body strength and power and shifts in the load-power curve across a multiyear period in experienced resistance trainers. Twelve professional rugby league players who regularly performed combined maximal strength and power training were observed across a 4-year period with test data reported every 2 years (years 1998, 2000, and 2002). Upper-body strength was assessed by the 1 repetition maximum bench press and maximum power during bench press throws (BT Pmax) with various barbell resistances of 40-80 kg. During the initial testing, players also were identified as elite (n = 6) or subelite (n = 6), depending upon whether they participated in the elite first-division national league or second-division league. This subgrouping allowed for a comparison of the scope of changes dependent upon initial strength and training experience. The subelite group was significantly younger, less strong, and less powerful than the elite group, but no other difference existed in height or body mass in 1998. Across the 4-year period, significant increases in strength occurred for the group as a whole and larger increases were observed for the subelite than the elite group, verifying the limited scope that exists for strength gain in more experienced, elite resistance-trained athletes. A similar trend occurred for changes in BT Pmax. This long-term observation confirms that the rate of progress in strength and power development diminishes with increased strength levels and resistance training experience. Furthermore, it also indicates that strength and power can still be increased despite a high volume of concurrent resistance and endurance training.
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Presently the degree to which peak force influences power production or explosive performance such as strength training movements or throwing (shot-put and weight-throw) is unclear. This study describes the relationships between a measure of maximum strength, isometric peak force (IPF), dynamic peak force (PF), peak power (PP), the 1-repetition movement power snatch (SN), and throwing ability over an 8-week training period. Five male and 6 female (n = 11) well-trained collegiate throwers participated. PF was measured using an AMTI force plate; PP was measured using an infrared-ultrasonic tracking device (V-Scope, Lipman Electronics). Clean pulls from the midthigh position were assessed isometrically and dynamically at a constant load, 30% and 60% of IPF. Specific explosive strength was evaluated using an SN and using the shot-put (SP) and weight-throw (WGT) measured under meet conditions. Variables (PF, PP, SN) were assessed 3 times at 0 weeks, 4 weeks, and 8 weeks. Each measurement period preceded a field meet by 3 days. Peak force, peak rate of force development, and PP increased over the 8 weeks. Correlation coefficients (r) indicate that IPF is strongly related to dynamic PF and PP 30%, 60% of the IPF. Furthermore, strong correlations were found for the SN and the distance for the SP and WGT, and these relationships tended to increase over time. Results suggest that maximum strength (i.e., IPF) is strongly associated with dynamic PF. In addition, maximum strength is strongly associated with PP even at relatively light loads such as those associated with sport-specific dynamic explosiveness (i.e., SN, SP, WGT).
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Despite the important role of agility in successful performance in many team and racket sports, little is known about their physiological and muscular basis. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between the leg extensor strength and power and agility performance. Male physical education students (n=76) were assessed by means of 3 typical agility performance tests (lateral stepping, 20-yard shuttle run, and slalom run). Six tests of leg extensor strength (isoinertial squat, isometric squat, and one-leg rising) and power (squat jump power, hopping power, and standing long jump distance) were also obtained. The correlations between strength and power, and each agility performance were generally low. As a consequence, the multiple correlation coefficients between strength and power predictors and agility, albeit significant (P<0.01), were also rather low (r=0.33, 0.44, and 0.35 for the lateral stepping, 20-yard shuttle run, and slalom run, respectively). The highest relationship with each of the agility tests was revealed by the one-leg rising test (r within -0.3 and -0.44; P<0.02). The results of the present study suggest that most of the multijoint leg extensor strength and power measures are poor predictors of agility in physically active men. Thus, the effects of interventions aimed towards the improvement of functional movement performance may not require evaluation by means of the common tests of muscular strength and power. A more specific approach including both the functional strength tests and functional movement performance tests could be recommended instead.
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The present study assessed the effects of specific leg strength training (as part of a broader exercise program) on running speed and agility in young professional soccer players. Twenty-six male players (ages 17 to 19 years) were divided into 3 groups. The reference group (Re) performed individual technical work only, the coordination group (Co) performed a circuit designed to promote agility, coordination, and balance control (together with some technical work) and the Squat group (Sq) underwent 3 series of 3 squat repetitions (at 90% of the individual maximum value) and a sprint, before competition of the agility circuit and some technical work. These specific training programs were performed 5 times a week for 3 weeks. Before the experimental session and at the end of each week, all players were assessed using 4 types of tests, (agility, a shuttle test with changes of direction, and 2 sprints over 10 and 7.32 meters, respectively), with completion time being the only performance parameter recorded. Our results indicate that in the short sprints or shuttle sprint with changes in direction, lower limb strengthening did not improve performance. Performance improved in all 3 groups in the agility test but more so in the reference and coordination groups. It appears that soccer-specific training composed of exercise circuits specifically adapted to the different types of effort actually used in match play can enhance agility and coordination.