Maytenus heterophylla and Maytenus senegalensis, two traditional herbal medicines

Abstract

Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. and Zeyh.) N.K.B. Robson and Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell are two African shrubs or trees that go under the common name of spike thorn, which belong to the Celastraceae family. Different plant parts of this species are largely used in traditional medicine for infectious and inflammatory diseases treatment. Several studies have been reported for both these species, but there are no recent review articles focusing microscopic, phytochemistry and pharmacological studies. The aim of this review is to summarize the information about these two African traditional medicines. Such kind of data can be applied in future experimental work and may guide future studies, namely in the field of validation of traditional medicine.

Full text

59 Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
Maytenus heterophylla
and
Maytenus
senegalensis
, two traditional herbal medicines
Review Article
Abstract
Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. and Zeyh.) N.K.B. Robson and Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell are two African shrubs or trees
that go under the common name of spike thorn, which belong to the Celastraceae family. Different plant parts of this species are
largely used in traditional medicine for infectious and infl ammatory diseases treatment. Several studies have been reported for
both these species, but there are no recent review articles focusing microscopic, phytochemistry and pharmacological studies.
The aim of this review is to summarize the information about these two African traditional medicines. Such kind of data can be
applied in future experimental work and may guide future studies, namely in the fi eld of validation of traditional medicine.
Key words: African traditional knowledge, ethnopharmacology, Maytenus heterophylla, Maytenus senegalensis, microscopy,
phytochemistry.
G. da Silva, R. Serrano,
O. Silva
iMed.UL, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-019 Lisboa, Portugal
Address for correspondence:
Gustavo da Silva, iMed.UL, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto,
1649-019 Lisboa, Portugal, E-mail: galfdsilva@ff.ul.pt
INTRODUCTION
African traditional medicine is one of the oldest and
perhaps the most diverse of all medicine systems. Africa
is considered to be the cradle of mankind, with a rich
biological and cultural diversity, and there are marked
differences between different regions of this continent
when it comes to healing practices.[1]
Maytenus heterophylla (Eckl. and Zeyh.) N.K.B. Robson and
Maytenus senegalensis (Lam.) Exell are African shrubs or trees
that go under the common name of spike thorn, which
belong to the Celastraceae family. According to Neuwinger,
M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis are two of the most
frequently used species of the Maytenus Molina genus in
the African traditional medicine (along with M. acuminata,
M. buchananii, M. mossambicensis, M. obscura, M. peduncularis,
M. putterlickioides, M. serrata and M. undata).[2]
In this paper, we will summarize and review the information
about these important African traditional medicines
that are currently of particular interest in new product
development.
Most of the African cultures have a verbal tradition and,
therefore, written information on cultural features in the
past are not so readily available from Africa as from many
other parts of the world.[3] The ethnobotanical information
on the uses of these plants was sometimes documented
on herbarium labels and, in this way, ethnobotanical
information on a number of plants began to accumulate.[3]
Systematic accounts in written form dealing with medicinal
plants in Africa are of a fairly recent date, while reports
dealing with ethnopharmacological aspects are more
recent. A number of traditional national pharmacopeias
have appeared, starting with the Madagascar Pharmacopeia
in 1957, and research in the fi eld of ethnobotany and
ethnopharmacology has developed rapidly in many African
countries.[3] The African Pharmacopoeia, covering traditional
medicine of many African countries, has been published
by the Scientifi c Technical Research Commission of the
Organization of African Unity, starting with volume 1 in
1985 (African Pharmacopoeia, Vol. 1, 1985). Recently,
the Association for African Medicinal Plants Standards,
from Mauritius, started the publication of Medicinal
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Da Silva
et al
.:
Maytenus heterophylla
and
Maytenus senegalensis
ethnobotanical review
60Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
Plants Monographs, providing botanical, phytochemical,
pharmacological and commercial information on the most
important medicinal plants used in Africa.[4]
In Africa, the ethnopharmacological and botanical
knowledge on the uses of medicinal plants is often orally
passed down from generation to generation.[5] Although
traditional medicine has been recognized as a part of
primary health care programs in many African countries,[6]
there is a need to evaluate scientifi cally the crude extracts
of plants for their medicinal and pharmacodynamic
properties, clinical usefulness and toxicological potential.[7]
Higher plants are still poorly explored as sources of
new drugs.[8] There are several ways in selecting plant
materials when searching for new medicinal plants/
active compounds. Ethnopharmacological information
on medicinal plants is often of substantial importance for
the fi nding of new potential medicinal plants/new ways
of using an already known plant. It has been estimated
that 74% of the pharmacologically active plant-derived
components were discovered after the ethnomedical
uses of the plants started to be investigated.[9-10] Another
important way of discovering new medicinal plants and
lead compounds is the phylogenetic approach, in which
a number of closely related species of plants, assumed to
contain related chemical compounds (chemotaxonomy),
are screened for their biological effects.[11-12] Random
sampling, i.e. collecting plant samples from certain habitats
with high-species diversity (e.g., tropical rainforests), can
be benefi cial for fi nding novel chemical entities, but is
somewhat time-consuming and requires hard work.[12] This
kind of sampling is likely to be the industrial approach and
most likely to be used for evaluating plants for bioactive
compounds.[13]
Both species mentioned above are traditionally used
as antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory agents. More
specifi cally, M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis are used to
treat respiratory ailments and infl ammation.[14-15] Table 1
compares M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis, referring the
respective synonyms (the most common ones appear in
bold), the English names, the local vernacular names (in
Mozambique and in the Zulu territories) as well as the most
common traditional uses. The use of these plants as anti-
infl ammatory herbal drugs is also common in other African
countries like Benin, Kenya, Zambia, Tanzania, Senegal
and Zimbabwe. In Tropical and Southwestern Africa,
M. heterophylla leaves are also employed in the treatment of
dysmenorrhoea and M. senegalensis leaves are used to treat
toothaches, in India.[14-17]
Botanical description
The Celastraceae classifi cation at the generic level has
undergone changes. As currently circumscribed, the
genus Maytenus Molina, even after the reinstatement of
Gumnosporia, is still clearly a heterogeneous group of
species, a view also supported by others authors.[18-22]
M. heterophylla [Figure 1] has Gymnosporia heterophylla
(Eckl. and Zeyh.) Loes. as synonym homotypic, and
is an evergreen shrub, tree or, more rarely, a shrublet,
often spreading or straggling, which grows up to 9 m
high, unarmed or with green to brown spines up to 24
cm long (axillary spines or terminating short axillary
branches), glabrous or very rarely with young branches
lined or angular. The leaves are petiolated, alternated
or often fascicled. The lamina of M. heterophylla is pale
to deep green (or rarely glaucous above, concolorous
or often grey–green below), often with a pale midrib,
petiole up to 10 mm long. Spathulated, oblanceolated to
ovated or elliptic margins, up to 9.5 cm × 5 cm, irregularly
serrulated to entire. Dichasial cymes, located on solitary
and axillary shoots or in axillary panicles. The fl owers
are dioecious, unscented, with peduncle 1–30 mm long,
pedicels up to 7 mm, circular to triangular–lanceolate
sepals 5(6) up to 1.5 mm long, white elliptic–oblong to
oblong–spathulate petals 5(6) up to 3.5 mm long (with
margin fi nely ciliolate to entire). The fl owers bloom in
dense, short racemes between the leaves (May/June),
sometimes not until December. Yellow to red obovoid
or subpyriform to subglobosoid capsule, 3–10 mm long,
ovary 2–3 locular, coriaceous or succulent, smooth or
rugulose. Reddish–brown 1–3(4) seeds, glossy, with a thin
yellowish aril obliquely covering the lower 1/2–2/3.[14,23]
M. senegalensis [Figure 2] has Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.)
Loes. as synonym homotypic, and is a shrub, tree or, more
rarely, a shrublet, which grows up to 15 m high, unarmed or
with spines up to 7 cm long (axillary or terminating short
axillary branches), glabrous, without latex, young branches
almost unlined, often glaucous.
Leaves are petiolated, alternated or fascicled, usually
glaucous, and coriaceous (with lateral nerves and
relatively lax reticulate venation slightly prominent or not
prominent). The lamina of M. senegalensis is pale green pale,
petiole up to 20 mm (9) long. Margins are spathulated,
ovated to oblong–elliptic, up to 13 cm x 6 cm, often
densely serrulated. Dichasial cymes located on short axillary
shoots (or occasionally in axillary panicles). The fl owers are
dioecious (or rarely monoecious), scented peduncle 1–16
mm long, pedicels up to 6 mm long, oblong–lanceolate
to ovate–triangular sepals (5) up to 1.2 mm long, pale
yellow elliptic or oblanceolate petals 1–3.5 mm long (with
margin fi nely ciliolate). The capsule is reddish, globosoid
or pyriform, 2–6 mm long, ovary 2–3 locular, smooth.
Reddish–brown 1–2 seeds, glossy, with a fl eshy smooth

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Maytenus heterophylla
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Maytenus senegalensis
ethnobotanical review
61 Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
woody lianas with a Gondwanan distribution.[24]
Geographically, M. heterophylla is mainly distributed in the
east coast of Africa, whereas M. senegalensis has a wider
distribution, concerning Arabia, Afghanistan and India
Table 1: Comparasion betwen the synonyms, common names and the ethnopharmacological uses of
M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis
Maytenus heterophylla Maytenus senegalensis
Synonyms Catha heterophylla (Eckl and Zeyh.) Presl.[15]
Celastrus buxifolius L.[15]
Celastrus heterophyllus Eckl. and Zeyh.[15]
Celastrus lanceolatus E. Mey. ex Sond[15]
Celastrus linearis L. f.[15]
Gymnosporia buxifolia (L.) Szyszyl.[15]
Gymnosporia crataegifl ora Davidson[15]
Gymnosporia heterophylla (Eckl. and Zeyh.) Loes.[15]
Gymnosporia lanceolata (E. Mey. ex Sond.) Loes.[15]
Gymnosporia linearis (L. f.) Loes.[15]
Maytenus angolensis Exell and Mendonça[15]
Maytenus cymosa (Soland.) Exell[15]
Celastrus senegalensis Lam.[15]
Catha senegalensis (Lam.) G. Don[15]
Gymnosporia senegalensis (Lam.) Loes.[15]
English
names
Common spike-torn[15]
Gewone pendoring[15]
Gifdoring[15]
Lemoendoring[15]
Pendoring[15]
Red spike-thorn[15]
Rooipendoring[15]
Vernacular
names
Mozambique
N’qokola, chichangua (Maputo), chichangua (Gaza),
libatzondze (Inhambane), dimbazou (Manica), muiua
(Zambézia), khala-mavu (Tete).[14]
Zulu territories
Ingqowangane, ingqwangane yehlanze, isibhubu,
isibulu, isihlangu, umkhokhozo, umquqo, usala,
usolo.[15]
Mozambique
Chichanga, chicangua, xihlangua, xilangua (Maputo), chixangua,
chilhaungua (Gaza), nhaquitoforofo (Inhambane), tambanzato,
cungamacheze, tombanzato, mutumbotumbo, mutunga-macheche
(Sofala), mutuluca (Manica), muia, tombassato, patchocolo
(Zambézia), tsucamano, sucamano, tombatsato, tomatsatu (Tete),
napidji, nacôtocôto, m’tocoma (Nampula), bobué, fogolia (Cabo
Delgado).[14]
Zulu territories
Ubuhlangwe, isihlangu, isihlangwane.[15]
Traditional
uses
Leaf infusion for pulmonary coughs.[14]
Leaf infusion for amebic dysentery.[14]
Crushed leaves applied on wounds.[14]
Roots or thorns for coughs.[14]
Leaves and roots used as anti-infl ammatory.[14]
Leaves macerated in water to be consumed twice a day for the
treatment of tuberculosis.[14]
Leaf infusion considered to be very effi cient in the treatment of
amebic dysentery.[14]
Roots or leaves are used for various respiratory ailments, including
pneumonia and tuberculosis.[14]
Roots or leaves used for snakebites.[14]
Figure 2: General aspect of
Maytenus senegalensis
in the natural
habitat. Reproduction size: column width
rose–pink in yellowish aril obliquely covering the lower
1/2–2/3.[14,23]
Geographic distribution
Celastraceae is a large family comprising trees, shrubs and
Figure 1: General aspect of Maytenus heterophylla in the natural
habitat. Reproduction size: column width

Da Silva
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Maytenus heterophylla
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Maytenus senegalensis
ethnobotanical review
62Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
as well.[14] Therefore, the distribution of M. heterophylla
is apparently confi ned from Ethiopia, the Sudan and East
Congo southward to the Cape and westward to Angola and
Southwestern Africa (Matobo and Bulalima-Mangwe districts
of Zimbabwe), whereas M. senegalensis is widespread in the
Savannah regions of tropical Africa.[23]
The habitat of these species is also different. M. heterophylla
grows in forest, fringing forest margins, thickets and woodland
or on termite mounds or sand dunes, whereas M. senegalensis
occupies a wide variety of habitats, from deciduous woodland,
thickets, scrub and wooded grassland and also on river banks
and swamp margins.[23]
MICROSCOPIC STUDIES
Establishment of the quality control parameters necessary to
profi t herbal materials as raw materials for the manufacture
of herbal medicines is one of the goals of our research
team. Microscopy is one of the recognized techniques of
identification of herbal raw materials and a mandatory
technique for identifi cation of herbal drugs according to
offi cial pharmacopoeias.
Some South American species of the genus Maytenus
(M. ardisiaefolia, M. brasiliensis, M. cestrifolia, M. communis,
M. ilicifolia and M. obtusifolia) were already microscopically
characterized by other authors.[25-26] However, no studies
were found to be related to the botanical identification
of M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis leaves as herbal drugs
and, in sequence, these kind of studies were conducted by
our research team. The methodology includes the analysis
of the whole, fragmentized and powdered plant material
(M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis leaves) by light and scanning
electron microscopy techniques.
• For M. heterophylla, among the identifi ed characters, the
most useful for leaf identifi cation of M. heterophylla
includes the typical leaf bilateral organization; the
presence of anomocytic stomata, more frequent in
lower epidermis, and surrounded by a ring of four to
six subsidiary cells appear with an irregular distribution;
papillate cells on the surface of epidermal cells;
multicelled uniseriate covering trichomes (rare). Calcium
oxalate cluster crystals are present frequently in the
palisade parenchyma, near the phloem cells of the midrib
and occasionally occur on the epidermis.[27]
• For M. senegalensis leaf identifi cation, the most useful
characteristics are the isobilateral organization of
the parenchyma, with palisade parenchyma on both
epidermises; the presence of calcium oxalate cluster
crystals, isolated or inserted into the palisade parenchyma;
and the characteristic epidermal cells with sinuous walls,
a smooth cuticle and paracytic stomata more frequent in
the lower epidermis.[28]
CHEMICAL CONSTITUENTS
The Celastraceae family is a source of important bioactive
secondary metabolites. Alkaloid amines such as cathine
often occur in this botanical family as also, rarely,
benzylisoquinolide alkaloids.[15] Celastraceae members
are commonly tanniferous, containing anthocyanins,
sometimes saponiferous, only rarely cyanogenic and
without iridoid compounds.[15] Among the compounds
isolated from their species, triterpenes and triterpenoid
quinonemethides are of great interest due to their wide
range of biological activities.[17] Constituents as β-amyrin,
lupane derivatives and quinoid pigments are considered
typical of the Celastraceae family members.[15]
Compounds isolated from the Maytenus genus include
the ansa macrolide, maytansine, and related macrolides
such as normaytansine, maytanprine and maytanbutine.[15]
Other isolated compounds include spermidine alkaloids
(celacinnine and celallocinine) and nicotinoyl sesquiterpene
alkaloids (maytoline and maytolidine) as well as catechin,
procyanidins and phenoldienone triterpenoids.[16]
Table 2 summarizes the chemical compounds identifi ed in
M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis.
BIOLOGICAL ACTIVITY
Previous biological studies were reported in both species.
The in vivo antiplasmodial activity of M. heterophylla and
M. senegalensis root-bark extracts against resistant strains
of P. berghei was determined.[34] M. senegalensis root and
stem extracts demonstrated in vitro antiplasmodial activity
against a cloroquine-sensitive strain of P. falciparum
(D10).
[35] Another study evaluated the in vitro activity of M.
senegalensis leaf and stem-bark extracts against two strains
of P. falciparum (cloroquine and pyrimethamine sensitive
3D7 strain; cloroquine-resistant and pyrimethamine-
sensitive Dd2 strain).[36] An extract of the stem-bark of
M. senegalensis demonstrated in vitro antileishmanial activity
against promastigotes of Leishmania major reference
vaccine strain (5AKSH).[37] Pristimerin was identifi ed as
the antileishmanial agent of M. senegalensis and proved to
be active against resistant strains of P. falciparum.[38]
Stem-bark and root-bark extracts of M. senegalensis
were tested against Bacillus subtilus, Micrococcus luteus and
Staphylococcus aureus.[39] Maytenonic acid-isolated root-
bark has a proven antibacterial activity against B. subtilus,
Escherichia coli, Klebsiella pneumoniae and S. aureus.[33] An
acetone extract of the aerial parts of this species has
been revealed to be active against a sensitive strain of
Mycobacterium tuberculosis (H37Rv strain, 0.5 mg/mL).[40]

Da Silva
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Maytenus heterophylla
and
Maytenus senegalensis
ethnobotanical review
63 Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
Table 2: Chemical constituents of M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis
M. heterophylla M. senegalensis
Alkaloids 1β-acetoxy-9α-benzoyloxy-2β,6α-dinicotinoyloxy-β-
dihydroagarofuran[29]
Celacinnine[15]
Ephedrine[30]
Norephedrine[30]
l-stachidrine[17]
Wilforine[17]
Alkanes and alkanols Hexacosanol[30]
Hexosan[30]
Triacontanol[30]
Maytansinoids Maytansine[15] Maytanbutine[30]
Maytanprin[30]
Maytanbutan[30]
Phenolic compounds (−)-epicatechin[29] Anthocyans[30]
(−)-4′-methylepigallocatechin[29] epicatechin (4β→8) epicatechin[31]
Tannins[14] (−)-epicatechin (4β→8)
(−)-4′-methylepigallocatechin[31]
epicatechin (4β→8) epigallocatechin[31]
(−)-epigallocatechin[30-31]
Ferula acid[30]
Kaempferol derivatives[17]
Leucoanthocyans[30]
(−)-4′-methylepigallocatechin[31]
(+)-4′-methylepigallocatechin 3’-O-β-
glucopyranoside[31]
(−)-4′-methylepigallocatechin 5-O-β-
glucopyranoside[31]
Phloroglucinol 1-O-β-D-
glucopyranoside[31]
Prenyletin[17]
Quercetin derivatives[17]
Scopoletin[17]
Tannins[15,17]
Vanillic acid[30]
Sugars Dulcitol[15] Dulcitol[17]
Glucose[17]
Saccharose[17]
Xylose[17]
Monoterpenes Geraniol[30]
Linalool[30]
Terpineol[30]
Triterpenes β-amyrin[29] 3-O-acetyloleanol acids[30]
epifriedelanol[15]
epifriedelinol[15]
β-amyrin[17,30]
Betulin[30]
Friedelin[15] Iguestrin[30]
3α-hydroxy-2-oxofriedelane-20α-carboxylic acid[30]
lup-20(29)-ene-1β,3β-diol[29]
Lupenone[17]
Maytenoic acid[32]
Maytenonic acid[33]
Maytenfolic acid[29] Pristimerin[30]
β-sitosterol[17,30]
β-sitosterol xyloside[17]
Tingenone[30]
Other constituents Celastrin[15] Quinoid pigments[17]
Despite the use of different species of the genus Maytenus
in African traditional medicine to prepare infusions or
decoctions as anti-infl ammatory and analgesic remedies
for oral and/or topical administration,[41] biological studies
concerning the evaluation of the anti-inflammatory
activity of the African Maytenus species are scarce.
However, the anti-infl ammatory activity of the South
American species of this genus was already performed,
and the activity of M. ilicifolia,[41] M. aquifolium,[42]
M. boaria[43] and M. rigida[44] was already verifi ed. This kind
of activity could be justifi ed by the presence of phenol
and triterpen metabolites.[41]
Recently, the anti-infl ammatory activities of M. heterophylla

Da Silva
et al
.:
Maytenus heterophylla
and
Maytenus senegalensis
ethnobotanical review
64Journal of Natural Science, Biology and Medicine | January 2011 | Vol 2 | Issue 1
and M. senegalensis ethanol extracts (70%) were determined
in Wistar albino rats by the carrageenan-induced paw
edema method. These extracts exhibited signifi cant anti-
infl ammatory activity (120 mg/kg, per os), reducing edema
by 51% and 35%, respectively.[45]
TOXICITY
Toxicity studies are particularly relevant because the risks
differ from the type of extract and depend on the route
and form of administration. Tradition and the knowledge
accumulated over generations are commonly evoked to
justify the activity and harmlessness of herbal products.
Therefore, pharmacological and toxicological assays are
essential to substantiate this knowledge and to guarantee
that these extracts are devoid of toxicity (the difference
between medicine and toxin is the dose).
Acute and sub-acute toxicity screening of M. heterophylla
and M. senegalensis ethanol extracts (70%) was evaluated
in adult male CD-6 mice. While M. heterophylla extract at
1200 mg/kg is shown to be non-toxic, M. senegalensis extract
indicated some toxicity.[45]
CONCLUSION
It can be concluded that M. heterophylla and M. senegalensis
have been used in African traditional medicine for the
treatment of numerous ailments, including respiratory
diseases, infl ammation, microbial affections and topical
application for healing wounds.
Biological activity studies confi rm most of the traditional
uses of these herbal drugs and toxicity studies meet the
safe use of M. heterophylla. However, further detailed in
vivo studies are needed to investigate this possibility. Most
of the active compounds have not yet been isolated.
There are still many constituents of M. heterophylla and
M. senegalensis, with potential pharmacological activity,
which have never been investigated. It is very likely that
both species contain many benefi cial pharmacological
properties due to their wide spectrum of uses in the
African traditional medicine. Therefore, in vivo and clinical
investigations regarding their pharmacological effects
could provide valuable evidence and insights into their
potential benefi ts for future clinical management of many
human diseases.
There is also a great deal of research pertaining to the
discovery and characterization of new active therapeutic
agents for several diseases such as tuberculosis and
cancer. Academic institutions should invest more in
ethnopharmacological researches and, thus, contribute
to a wider benefi t of the populations where this kind of
medicine is essential to a better healthcare system.
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How to cite this article: da Silva G, Serrano R, Silva O. Maytenus
heterophylla and Maytenus senegalensis, two traditional herbal medicines.
J Nat Sc Biol Med 2011;2:59-65.
Source of Support: Nil. Confl ict of Interest: None declared.