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The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance: A meta-analysis
Abstract
There is a substantial body of literature related to the effects of a single session of exercise on cognitive performance. The premise underlying this research is that physiological changes in response to exercise have implications for cognitive function. This literature has been reviewed both narratively and meta-analytically and, although the research findings are mixed, researchers have generally concluded that there is a small positive effect. The purpose of this meta-analysis was to provide an updated comprehensive analysis of the extant literature on acute exercise and cognitive performance and to explore the effects of moderators that have implications for mechanisms of the effects. Searches of electronic databases and examinations of reference lists from relevant studies resulted in 79 studies meeting inclusion criteria. Consistent with past findings, analyses indicated that the overall effect was positive and small (g=0.097 n=1034). Positive and small effects were also found in all three acute exercise paradigms: during exercise (g=0.101; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.041-0.160), immediately following exercise (g=0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147), and after a delay (g=0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170). Examination of potential moderators indicated that exercise duration, exercise intensity, type of cognitive performance assessed, and participant fitness were significant moderators. In conclusion, the effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance are generally small; however, larger effects are possible for particular cognitive outcomes and when specific exercise parameters are used.
... Increases in BDNF from acute, vigorous intensity exercise have demonstrated short-term learning effects, (Loprinzi et al., 2023) and the duration of exercise (Crush & Loprinzi, 2017;Hacker et al., 2020). Previous work has demonstrated intensity-specific effects on other domains of cognition; acute moderate-intensity exercise suggested to positively influence higher order cognitive function, such as executive function (Chang et al., 2012;Pontifex et al., 2009), whereas acute vigorous-intensity exercise potentially benefitting highly automated behavior (McMorris, 2016), such as reaction time (Chueh et al., 2023). Minimal work has focused on the effects of acute exercise duration on short-and long-term memory, which will be addressed further in subsequent sections and is the primary purpose of this experiment. ...
... Their meta-analysis found that acute exercise of short (i.e., < 20-min) and medium (i.e., 20-40-min) duration had the largest effects on long-term memory; however, this sub-group analysis included studies implementing various exercise durations. Additionally, Chang et al. (2012) conducted a meta-analysis that evaluated numerous moderators of the acute exercise-cognition interaction. Regarding acute exercise duration, they demonstrated that longer durations (20 + min) improved cognitive performance. ...
... An exploratory, secondary objective was to evaluate if BMI influenced this relationship. Although the results of the current experiment are in line with previous studies regarding the beneficial effect of acute exercise on memory recall performance using other modalities, durations, and intensities (Roig et al., 2013;Chang et al., 2012;Loprinzi et al., 2019), memory performance did not differ between the two experimental manipulations of exercise duration. As for the exploratory analyses, there was a significant three-way interaction between condition, duration, and BMI, such that, for example, memory performance was greater for individuals with a higher BMI when they engaged in shorter (20 min) acute exercise compared to longer (40 min) exercise. ...
Acute moderate-intensity exercise has been demonstrated to improve memory performance. It is less clear, however, whether the duration of acute exercise and body mass index (BMI) may moderate this effect. Thus, the purpose of this experiment was to evaluate the effects of differing exercise durations (20- and 40-minutes) on immediate and long-term memory performance, while considering BMI as a moderating factor in this exercise duration and memory performance relationship. Twenty-three young healthy adults participated in a within-subjects experiment. Participants completed four different experimental visits including either exercising at a moderate intensity (or standing on a treadmill) for 20- or 40-minutes, followed by an immediate free-recall memory assessment and then a delayed 24-hr recall. Acute moderate-intensity exercise improved memory performance, regardless of the duration of exercise. Further, long-term memory performance was greater for individuals with a higher BMI when they engaged in shorter (20 min) exercise compared to longer (40 min) exercise.
... For instance, chronic exercise (longer term exercise including multiple sessions) has been shown to improve selective attention, inhibition, and working memory capacity (WMC), among other cognitive abilities, in populations of all ages (for reviews, see Guiney & Machado, 2013;Hillman et al., 2008;Kirk-Sanchez & McGough, 2013). In addition, acute bouts of exercise (typically a single session) have also been shown to improve cognitive functions (for reviews, see Chang, Labban, et al., 2012;Chen et al., 2020;Tomporowski, 2003). Not only have interventions involving acute bouts of exercise been shown to be effective in reversing the physical decline of elderly patients (e.g., Martínez-Velilla et al., 2019), but exercise has been shown to improve cognitive function in the elderly as well (e.g., Molloy et al., 1988). ...
... Thus, while much of the literature reports generally positive effects of acute bouts of exercise on cognition, there is variability reported in the size of the effect. There are several experimental factors that could explain the variability including the timing of the exercise relative to the cognitive task, the specific cognitive function being evaluated (memory, inhibitory control, attention, etc.), how it has been operationalized (memory task, Trail Making Test, Stroop task, etc), and the duration and intensity of the specific type of exercise (i.e., aerobic, anaerobic) employed in the study (Chang, Labban, et al., 2012). Of particular interest here is that very few studies examine how learning itself is affected by acute bouts of exercise. ...
... Several meta-analyses have found that participant fitness levels were a significant moderator of the effect of exercise on cognition with differing effects. Chang, Labban, et al. (2012) found that the largest positive effects occurred in young and young adult individuals who were highly fit; Chen et al. (2020) found that older individuals who lived a sedentary life had the greatest improvement. Similarly, Vidoni et al. (2015) assigned underactive or sedentary participants without cognitive impairment into one of four groups: a no-change control, 75, 150, or 225 min per week of moderateintensity aerobic exercise. ...
Acute bouts of exercise have been shown to have measurable positive impacts on cognition. Here participants either watched a movie (control), walked (moderate exercise), or ran (vigorous exercise) on a treadmill for 30 min while their heart rate was measured before completing a paired associative learning task in which they learned 40 word pairs over the course of 10 trials. We defined learning rate as how fast the participants correctly learned the word pairs. Two days later, all participants were given a surprise recall task, and we defined long-term memory as the number of word pairs correctly recalled. We also measured working memory capacity, anxiety, and sleep quality. We found that while there was no difference between exercise conditions in the rate of learning, participants in the vigorous condition recalled more word pairs 2 days later. Analyses revealed that average heart rate and condition were the only significant predictors of long-term recall. Potential mechanisms to explain the benefits of the vigorous exercise condition on long-term retention, but not on short-term retention, are discussed.
... It is accepted that exercise has an impact on athletes' cognitive function, and though no consensus is present on the effects of high intensity team sport on cognitive load, there seems to be a trend towards a resulting impairment in executive function (Costello et al, 2023;Browne et al., 2017;Chang et al., 2012). The Computerised Mental Performance Assessment System (COMPASS, Northumbria University, UK) was administrated to measure a range of cognitive function. ...
... Individual studies yielded varied outcomes; however, the consensus among narrative reviews was that acute exercise might elicit a small, positive enhancement in cognitive performance (Chang et al., 2012;Tomporowski, 2003;Brisswalter, et al., 2002). ...
... The cognitive function assessment system (COMPASS) had previously been demonstrated to have a sensitivity to exercise interventions, intensified periods of high-intensity exercise, and autonomic recovery in trained athletes (Costello et al., 2022;Ali et al., 2016;Thompson et al., 2014;Hynynen et al., 2008). However, this contributes to the literature suggesting that a consensus on the relationship between acute exercise and cognitive performance is yet to be established (Browne et al., 2017;Ali et al., 2016;Chang et al., 2012). Cognitive measures have been shown to be ineffective in identifying overreaching periods in highly trained cyclists (Costello et al., 2023), and no differences in Stroop performance were found between overreached and well-trained athletes (Dupuy et al., 2010). ...
Association Football (soccer) is characterised by intermittent bouts of high-intensity activity interspersed with periods of low-to moderate-intensity exercise that places significant physical demands on players (Beato & Drust, 2021; Akenhead et al., 2016; Rampinini et al., 2011; Mohr et al., 2005, 2003). These match demands can lead to fatigue, defined as a symptom of tiredness or weakness underscored by complex physiological and psychological processes (Thomas et al., 2018). High-intensity match efforts can result in signs of fatigue, manifesting in altered neuromuscular and physical function and reduced perceived wellness, which can persist for at least 48 h (Cross et al., 2023; Hubbard et al., 2023; Brownstein et al., 2017; Thomas et al., 2017; Rampinini et al., 2011). This research project aimed to comprehensively understand the training effects in a professional academy soccer cohort.
Chapter 4 and Chapter 5 were focused on firstly determining the between-day reliability and sensitivity of neuromuscular, physical, perceptual, and cognitive function measures, alongside establishing the minimal detectable change (MDC) to identify the true change thresholds of each variable. All measures, except some athlete reported outcome measures (AROMs), displayed acceptable reliability (CV ≤ 10%). The MDC values for neuromuscular function (maximum voluntary contraction [MVC], 26 N; potentiated twitch force [Qtw,pot], 20 N; voluntary activation [VA], 1.6%) and physical performance (ten to five repeated jump test [10/5 RJT], 0.14 m.s-1; countermovement jump [CMJ], 3.3 cm) measures were calculated. The sensitivity findings (displaying a desired signal [change values] to noise [MDC] ratio of greater than one) revealed that MVC (–2.41 S:N ratio) and VA (–2.18), alongside perceptual muscle soreness (–1.32), were the most sensitive to training effects. Furthermore, potentiated twitch force (–0.83) and physical performance jump tests (10/5 RJT, –0.96; CMJ, –0.80) exhibited moderate sensitivity to training, showing S:N ratios close to one and reporting statistically significant training-induced responses. These findings offer practitioners valuable guidance for selecting reliable and sensitive measurement tools to assess training impact, and this range of neuromuscular, physical, and perceptual measures is recommended for implementation in applied soccer settings.
Chapter 6 explored in greater detail the training effects of a mixed-content standard training week. Neuromuscular, physical, and perceptual tests were carried out at before and after a strenuous training day, and at 24, 48, and 72 h post-session. The initial strenuous day and combined effects of two days training led to immediate alterations in neuromuscular function (MVC, pre to post-session a 11% reduction), both central (VA, 4%) and peripheral (Qtw,pot, 11%) in origin, lasting several days and persisting at 24 h (VA) and 72 h (MVC & Qtw,pot) post-strenuous training day. The substantial neuromuscular function impairments were mainly due to reductions in contractile function (peripheral mechanisms), highlighting the need for practitioners to focus restoring peripheral (skeletal muscle) function following intense exercise and match-play. These changes were accompanied by reductions in physical performance and increased levels of perceived muscle soreness. The MVC, Qtw,pot, VA, 10/5 RJT, and perceptual soreness all exhibited changes (signal) in response to training that exceeded the MDC (noise) of the testing tools, indicating true changes in performance. Therefore, it is recommended that these measurement tools be adopted in applied professional academy soccer settings.
In terms of seasonal variation of responses (early, mid, and late stages of the season; Chapter 7), the study found no interaction effect between stage of the season and response to training across a week for any measurement variable, suggesting the response to training in these players did not change over the course of a season. It implied a conformity in training response with negligible seasonal variation. However, an increase in neuromuscular function was evident from early- to mid-season (Qtw,pot & VA, P ≤ 0.05), followed by a drop in physical performance (10/5 RJT & CMJ; mid- to late-season, P ≤ 0.05) and VA (mid- to late-season, P ≤ 0.05) at the latter stages, indicating some chronic alterations as the season progressed. Caution was advised, as only VA measurements exceeded the MDC, with changes in other variables not large enough to confirm they surpassed the testing tool's inherent error.
In summary, academy soccer training resulted in substantial neuromuscular function impairment, with an accompanying impact on physical performance and perceptual wellness. These impairments acutely persisted for at least 72 hours post a strenuous training day, and this response was replicated at different stages of a season, indicating a conformity of training response. It is recommended that practitioners focus on developing their players as the season progresses with a comprehensive physical performance plan, to prepare players for the demanding academy programme. Furthermore, to formulate an effective weekly and season training plan that progresses and regresses the training load across different stages of the season and microcycle in response to player status, but as part of an overarching long-term development plan. It was also advised to implement appropriate recovery and regeneration modalities and procedures at optimal times during the training week and season phases, in conjunction with an efficient and insightful monitoring programme.
... The results of the reviews and meta-analytic studies suggest that across studies the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on cognitive processing achieve small positive effect sizes in healthy participants, e.g., [6][7][8][9][10]; for older adults, see, e.g., [11][12][13][14]. While this supports the hypothesis that acute aerobic exercise can enhance cognitive processing in healthy adults, several factors may influence these effects according to the meta-analytic research and reviews. ...
... This seems to hold for effects examined during or after the acute bout of aerobic exercises and for aerobic exercises including but not restricted to cycling or jogging. Some reviews supported positive effects on cognitive performance for acute bouts of aerobic exercise of low intensity, e.g., [7]. In previous reviews and meta-analytic studies, acute bouts of high-intensity aerobic exercise did not achieve similar effect sizes [15]. ...
... However, recent research [16] suggests positive effects of high-intensity interval aerobic training on certain types of cognitive processing tasks and cognitive functions. The previous reviews and meta-analyses indicated that similar to higher intensities, only a few studies included or utilized lower exercise intensities, for an overview, e.g., see [4][5][6][7][8]11]. ...
Background: Regular physical activity (PA) and regular exercise (RE) are essential for an active and healthy lifestyle. Additionally, the short-term effects have been investigated to understand how an acute bout of exercise impacts cognitive processing, an important aspect of mental health and well-being. Previous studies have confirmed positive effects. However, several exercise factors and human factors can influence this relationship. Aim/Methods/Results: This perspective paper has three main objectives: firstly, discussing the exercise and human factors that influence exercise-cognition effects significantly across studies according to previous reviews and meta-analytic studies and how this influence could be explained theoretically; secondly, highlighting important knowledge gaps and research questions for future research; and thirdly, discussing what conclusion can be drawn for cognitive health promotion. A particular focus is given to the effects of acute bouts of aerobic exercise and healthy adults as an important target group for primary health prevention. Conclusions: The summary of previous findings shows that the effects of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on cognitive performance in healthy adults depend on (a) exercise factors such as the duration and intensity of the acute bout of exercise, (b) cognitive factors such as the type of cognitive task and domain of cognitive functions, and (c) individual factors such as the physical activity of the individuals. Still, open questions concern the ideal duration, intensity and timing of the acute bout of exercise. In particular, more research is needed to determine whether and how aerobic exercises of short duration and an intensity above and especially below moderate intensity improve cognitive functions in healthy adults. Methodologically, these factors should be addressed by multimethod designs that consider intra- and interindividual comparisons and different response levels (self-report, behavioral, psychophysiological). In conclusion, answering these questions could pave the way for recommendations on how healthcare professionals should prescribe brief aerobic exercise as a cognitive health booster in healthy young adults. To this end, concepts of extended arousal and neurovisceral integration are useful framework models to include individual factors, like self-regulatory abilities of the individual and how these influence exercise-cognition interactions and exercise motivation during, pre-to-post and across testing sessions.
... The relationships between exercise and cognition in older adults have typically been investigated in the context of chronic exercise, with less attention being paid to the effects of acute exercise [41]. Three systematic review studies examined the acute effects of exercise on cognitive functions in older adults [42][43][44]. Although Chang et al. [42] reported a positive and small overall effect (g = 0.181; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.073, 0.290) and a more beneficial effect for cognitive testing following exercise (g = 0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147) ...
... Three systematic review studies examined the acute effects of exercise on cognitive functions in older adults [42][43][44]. Although Chang et al. [42] reported a positive and small overall effect (g = 0.181; 95% confidence interval [CI]; 0.073, 0.290) and a more beneficial effect for cognitive testing following exercise (g = 0.108; 95% CI; 0.069-0.147) than after a delay (g = 0.103; 95% CI; 0.035-0.170) in which cognitive assessments were administered after at least 15 min of exercise cessation, these results are independent of exercise intensity, exercise type, cognitive domain, and population (impaired samples included). ...
... However, the aforementioned authors [42][43][44] examined only behavioral findings of various intensities of exercise and different cognitive function domains. In particular, Ludyga et al. [43] included studies with participants aged 50 years or older, which may affect the results that volume decline per year in the brain structures has been reported [45,46]. ...
There is growing interest in examining acute effects of exercise on cognitive functions and neurocognitive outcomes. These behavioral and neurocognitive outcomes have been most frequently investigated in healthy young individuals, but relatively few studies have examined healthy older adults. This study aimed to systematically review the effects of acute moderate-intensity aerobic exercise (MIAE) on core executive functions, including inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility, in healthy older adults. A database search of PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science was conducted using a systematic search strategy. Acute MIAE interventions assessing core executive functions using randomized or stratified controlled trials investigating healthy older adults were reviewed. Eleven studies were identified, and the behavioral results from all included studies revealed that acute MIAE can improve core executive functions in healthy adults. However, incompatible results were observed in activated areas of the prefrontal cortex following MIAE in older adults. The limited number of studies investigating the effects of MIAE on core executive functions in older healthy adults with moderate overall quality restricts the conclusions. Therefore, more robust quality studies using neuroimaging techniques to investigate core executive functions, especially working memory and cognitive flexibility, are needed to explain the neural and behavioral mechanisms.
... When specifically scrutinizing the impact of acute exercise on working memory (k = 24), McMorris et al. (2011) differentiated various cognitive performance indices, observing a robustly favorable effect on the speed of response, juxtaposed with a comparatively lower to moderate, yet detrimental, effect on accuracy. Chang et al. (2012) used broader inclusion criteria and analyzed findings from 79 studies. They found that acute exercise consistently exerts a positive influence on cognitive function, irrespective of the specific timepoint assessed (e.g., during exercise, immediately following exercise, or after a delay of exercise). ...
... For example, previous meta-analyses consistently found cognitive benefits from acute exercise at moderate intensity. However, the magnitudes of the effect sizes were variable across meta-analyses (standardized mean difference [SMD] = 0.12, 1.03, and 0.14, respectively; Chang et al., 2012;Dkaidek et al., 2023;Loprinzi et al., 2019). Furthermore, some meta-analyses narrowly focused on specific age groups (de Greeff et al., 2018;Liang et al., 2021;Wilke et al., 2019) or limited cognitive domains (Loprinzi et al., 2019;Oberste et al., 2019Oberste et al., , 2021, thus negating the ability to consider these variables as moderators in the reviews. ...
... Our findings resulted from 383 unique studies and 18,347 participants, and CCA showed there was only a slight overlap across most reviews (Figure 2 and Supplemental Table S9). Interestingly, rather than the relatively inclusive approach taken in early metaanalyses (Chang et al., 2012;Etnier et al., 1997;Lambourne & Tomporowski, 2010;McMorris & Hale, 2012), recent meta-analytic reviews have typically examined a specific population (e.g., ADHD; Chueh et al., 2022;Sibbick et al., 2022), cognitive domain (e.g., executive function; Liu et al., 2020;Ludyga et al., 2016;Moreau & Chou, 2019), or exercise parameter (e.g., aerobic exercise; Ludyga et al., 2016;Oberste et al., 2019). This trend for meta-analysts to adopt a relatively narrow scope necessitated the undertaking of this meta-review, which provides important summary information across meta-analyses. ...
This meta-review provides the first meta-analytic evidence from published meta-analyses examining the effectiveness of acute exercise interventions on cognitive function. A multilevel meta-analysis with a random-effects model and tests of moderators were performed in R. Thirty systematic reviews with meta-analyses (383 unique studies with 18,347 participants) were identified. Acute exercise significantly improved cognitive function with a small-to-medium effect (N of standardized mean difference [SMD] = 44, mean SMD [M SMD] = 0.33, 95% CI [0.24, 0.42], p < .001). A generalized effect was observed across cognitive domains, showing benefits to tasks identified as attention (M SMD = 0.37), mixed/other (M SMD = 0.36), executive function (M SMD = 0.36), memory (M SMD = 0.23), and information processing (M SMD = 0.20). The timepoint of assessment was a significant moderator (p < .05) with the largest benefits observed when cognitive function was assessed following exercise (M SMD = 0.32). Sample descriptors (i.e., age, cognitive status) and exercise parameters (i.e., intensity, type, duration) did not moderate the positive acute exercise effect on cognitive function (ps > .05). Acute exercise facilitates cognitive function, with the size of the effect varying depending on the timing of assessment in relation to exercise. Notably, these benefits are evident across cognitive domains and occur regardless of participants’ characteristics and exercise settings, supporting the adoption of acute exercise for improved cognitive function across the lifespan.
... Numerous research findings indicate that an organization's success in terms of innovation can be impacted by its dynamic capacities (Al Nuaimi et al., 2024;Chang et al., 2012). A corporation with a high degree of adaptability, absorption, and inventiveness, according to Volume 1, Issue 1, July 2024, page 26-33 | p-ISSN: xxxx-xxxx | e-ISSN: xxxx-xxxx DIMAR Jurnal Pengabdian Masyarakat | 30 Fatmawati & Athanasius (2020), concentrates its innovation development on orientation to a high level of profit, the environment, and social equity. ...
... Companies that prioritize their customers, according to Chang et al. (2012) reorganize their organizational capacities by developing new goods and services that cater to consumer preferences and consumption patterns. The author of this paper will provide empirical evidence showing that businesses with dynamic capacities reinvent their goods and services to meet current consumer needs. ...
The dynamic capabilities component in shaping the environment is adjusting and includes essential entrepreneurial characteristics. Organizations with dynamic, solid capabilities adapt to the business ecosystem and proactively shape it through innovation and collaboration with various parties. Based on the literature review that the author has reviewed, this study highlights the relationship between dynamic capabilities and the agenda of entrepreneurship-based pesantren in facing change. The focus is on how entrepreneurship-based pesantren can respond to change through innovative performance driven by dynamic capabilities. The research methods used are literature study and explorative qualitative. The research findings show that Pesantren's two main goals in responding to change are improving their innovative performance. First is developing adaptive and creative capabilities as an agenda of change for creating dynamic pesantren entrepreneurship. Second, there is a strong relationship between dynamic capacity as the main agenda of entrepreneurship-based pesantren in East Java in improving innovative performance, which is supported by the involvement of Human Resources of santri and Kiai in the management of entrepreneurship-based pesantren. The results of this study are expected to provide theoretical contributions and directions for future research.
... Although active commuting has been associated with several health benefits, such as lower risk of obesity and type 2 diabetes [13], its potential in enhancing cognitive function among employed adults is -to the best of our knowledge -unexplored. As even very lightand light-intensity acute exercise can lead to short-term improvements in cognitive performance [5,14], walking or cycling before work might enhance processing speed, cognitive flexibility, working memory, and attentional control also at the workplace. ...
... Somewhat similarly, only lower volumes of daily active commuting were associated with a lower risk of suboptimal perceived learning ability in this study. Indeed, while there is no experimental evidence on active commuting and brain health per se, some evidence suggests that specifically shorter bouts of exercise can lead to acute improvements in executive functioning, while the acute benefits of longer bouts may be hindered by fatigue or dehydration [14]. In theory, short bouts of walking or cycling before work might benefit job performance during the workday, leading to better overall perceptions of cognitive function. ...
Background
Regular active commuting – that is, walking or cycling to work – can improve cardiometabolic health and physical fitness among employed adults. This study aimed to examine whether regular active commuting is also associated with perceived cognitive function (memory function, learning ability, and concentration) and work ability. To explore potential differences across physical activity domains, these relationships were additionally assessed for leisure-time physical activity.
Methods
This study was based on cross-sectional data from the nationally representative FinHealth 2017 Study. Employed participants were categorised based on their commuting and leisure-time physical activity behaviour as either active or passive commuters and as sedentary, recreationally active, or exercisers and athletes, respectively. Covariate-adjusted quasi-Poisson regression was used to estimate relative risks (RR) with 95% confidence intervals (CI). For active commuting, dose-response analyses were also performed.
Results
Among Finnish employed adults (N = 3525; mean age 45 years; 51% female), active commuting was not associated with perceived memory function, concentration, or work ability. However, active commuters had a 17% lower risk of suboptimal perceived learning ability compared to passive commuters (RR 0.83, 95% CI 0.70–0.99). In dose-response analyses, the association was observed only for lower volumes of active commuting (< 15 min a day; RR 0.67, 95% CI 0.50–0.89). Regarding leisure-time physical activity, exercisers and athletes had a 52% lower risk of suboptimal memory function (RR 0.48, 95% CI 0.38–0.60), a 54% lower risk of suboptimal learning ability (RR 0.46, 95% CI 0.36–0.60), a 49% lower risk of suboptimal concentration (RR 0.51, 95% CI 0.39–0.67), and a 65% lower risk of suboptimal work ability (RR 0.35, 95% CI 0.26–0.47) compared to sedentary adults. Similar associations were observed for recreationally active adults.
Conclusions
Active commuting was associated with better perceived learning ability, suggesting that its benefits may extend to brain health. Leisure-time physical activity may have even greater potential for enhancing cognitive function and work ability among employed adults.
... Nearly a century's worth of research, dating back to at least the 1930's [1], has repeatedly shown that participating in PA positively impacts cognitive function [2]. For example, executive control, attention, and memory are all improved by long-term [3] and short-term PA interventions [4,5]. In terms of underlying neurophysiological mechanisms, PA has been linked to increased circulation of growth factors which promote neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, dendritic growth, and angiogenesis [6][7][8]. ...
... Likewise, nutrients are not consumed in isolation and, even within a relatively restricted diet, the consumption of different nutrients is diverse from meal to meal [70], impeding identification of single micro or macro nutrients as determining cognitive outcomes. Third, the temporal relationship between the lifestyle behaviours and cognitive effects is a key determinant of their effect [4,68,71], and these precise relationships are difficult to capture using self-report data. Finally, recall bias may result in an under-or over-representation of lifestyle behaviours [68,72,73]. ...
Efforts to understand the effects of physical activity on cognitive health have long relied on employing objective measures that assess the efficacy of the mechanics of cognition. However, this perspective overlooks complementary dimensions of cognitive functioning, namely one’s subjective appraisal of the efficacy of their cognitive mechanics. In a set of four investigations (N = 2965), we sought to discern whether physical activity (PA), and other health and demographic factors, contribute to subjective experiences of cognitive mechanics (SCF) and to map for future investigations domains of function that are sensitive to health factors. We employed linear multiple regression analyses to examine survey data collected online from four large samples of young adults who responded to measures of health behaviours and SCF. PA contributed to subjective experiences of attentional control and spatial navigation but not memory, executive function, or general cognitive functioning. Further, sleep, diet, and stress were each consistently associated with selective measures of subjective experiences of cognition. Taken together, these studies indicate the importance of PA, as well as additional health behaviours, as significant contributors to SCF.
... It has been shown that cognitive performance depends mainly on the intensity and duration of exercise in hypoxia [20, 66,75]. The meta-analysis of Chang showed that low-intensity exercise (40 and 79%vo2 max) could have beneficial effects on cognitive function [75,76] while highintensity and exhausting exercise (> 80% of maximum oxygen consumption) showed inconsistencies in cognitive performance [66]. ...
... It has been shown that cognitive performance depends mainly on the intensity and duration of exercise in hypoxia [20, 66,75]. The meta-analysis of Chang showed that low-intensity exercise (40 and 79%vo2 max) could have beneficial effects on cognitive function [75,76] while highintensity and exhausting exercise (> 80% of maximum oxygen consumption) showed inconsistencies in cognitive performance [66]. Mood changes 3000masl decrease in attention span and a slowing of reaction times, alteration of the capacity of perception, memory, attention, decision making, emotions as well as the process of social adaptation. ...
Purpose of Review
The effects that exercise at altitude has on the neurological system are diverse and still not well studied, and range from metabolic adaptations to modification of cerebral blood flow and neurotransmitters. In this review we summarise changes with exercise intensity, the implications of ascent, cognitive impairment, psychosis-like symptoms, the role of exercise in the development and prevention of AMS, and use of free radical scavengers to enhance sports performance and acclimatization.
Recent Findings
We discuss the impact of oxidative stress in hypobaric hypoxia and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production and its consequences, with special focus on exercise at altitude.
Summary
Finally we consider how moderate intensity exercise could help prevent AMS, and the necessity of research on high intensity exercise with elevated rate of ascent, the development of specific tools of cognitive assessment, and the role of free-radical scavengers in the prevention of AMS and neurological symptoms.
... Instead, results support work by our group ( Zhuang 2023) reporting that antisaccade -but not prosaccade -RTs elicit a postexercise benefit (for extensive review see, Zou et al. 2023). What is more, our findings accord an expansive literature indicating that a single bout of exercise benefits EF (for meta-analyses see, Chang et al. 2012;Lambourne and Tomporoski 2010;Ludyga et al. 2016). Indeed, a single bout of exercise EF benefit has been shown to be an increasingly salient finding given work demonstrating that adolescents and young adults exhibit improved classroom performance, EF and enhanced cortical hemodynamics when an instructional setting is interspersed with physical activity (see Yu et al. 2024). ...
... In turn, Geethanjali et al. assessed EF (via go/no-go task) concurrent with listening to Indian classic or Indo jazz music, but not during a post-music listening interval as was done here and previously (e.g., Fukuie et al. 2022). Thus, the null singular and additive benefits for the ML conditions reported here demonstrates that music listening does not elicit a general improvement to EF as is observed for a single bout of exercise (for review see Chang et al. 2012). Further, our results underscore that a myriad of factors related to individual differences in music genre preference, enjoyment, level of arousal, and when an EF task is administered may influence the degree to which music listening reliably influence EF. ...
A single bout of exercise transiently “boosts” executive function (EF) and is a benefit that may be linked to an increase in cerebral blood flow (CBF). In turn, some work has reported that music listening imparts a similar EF benefit and increases CBF. In the present work, we examined whether music listening provides an EF benefit comparable to aerobic exercise and whether combined music listening and aerobic exercise supports an additive benefit. To that end, healthy young adults (N = 22, 14 female, 19–28 years) completed 10-min single bouts of: (1) music listening (ML), (2) light intensity aerobic exercise (AE), (3) combined ML and AE (ML + AE), and (4) a non-AE and non-ML control condition. For all conditions, pre- and post-intervention EF was assessed via the antisaccade task (i.e., saccade mirror-symmetrical to a target) and transcranial Doppler ultrasound measured middle cerebral artery velocity (MCAv) to estimate CBF. Results showed that ML, AE and ML + AE conditions increased MCAv; however, only the latter two conditions produced a pre- to post-intervention reduction in antisaccade RTs and the benefit was not linked to a MCAv change. Moreover, frequentist and Bayesian statistics indicated that the reduction in antisaccade RTs was equivalent across AE and ML + AE conditions. Accordingly, a single bout of exercise – and not a single bout of music listening – supports a non-additive post-intervention EF benefit that is not related to an exercise-based increase in CBF. Such findings suggest that exercise serves as a simple and cost-effective tool that can “boost” EF in advance of occupational- or educational-demanding tasks.
... Regular aerobic exercise promotes neuroplasticity, mitigates the effects of normal and pathological ageing, improves cognitive abilities, and enhances mood [7]. Aerobic exercise has also been shown to significantly improve processing speed, crystallised intelligence, attention, executive function including problem solving and response inhibition, with benefits increasing with age [8][9][10]. ...
... Research has also explored the effects of acute exercise on memory, with studies showing that it predominantly enhances both short-term and long-term declarative memory [9,[11][12][13][14][15]. Declarative memory involves the recollection of experiences (episodic) and facts (semantic) and consists of phases conceptualised as encoding, consolidation, and retrieval. ...
This study examined the impact of using bike desks on cognitive function and memory among university students. Physical activity during adolescence offers enduring health benefits, yet sedentary behaviors prevail among young adults, posing significant health risks. Bike desks, integrating stationary cycling with ergonomic desk designs, aim to mitigate sedentary behavior while enhancing cognitive performance. Research indicates that acute aerobic exercise improves executive functions, memory, and attention, which is particularly beneficial in educational settings. The study employed the verbal paired associates learning task (VPAT) to assess memory performance when either bike desk usage at moderate intensity (intervention) or rest (control condition) occurred before encoding and during early consolidation in 26 young adult medicine and nursing students in a library setting. We hypothesised that bike desk usage will enhance memory encoding and consolidation compared to the control condition of rest. The results of our study showed no significant differences in VPAT scores or response latency between seated and bike desk conditions. Supplementary analysis, including a multiple linear regression model (R²: 0.773, Adjusted R²: 0.651, p < 0.001) revealed that higher BMI, more frequent bicycle or stationary bike usage, and higher physical activity category were associated with improved VPAT performance with the bike desk, while higher vigorous MET minutes per week negatively impacted performance. This analysis suggests there are potentially numerous uncharacterized modulators of the impact of exercise on memory, warranting further research to identify and understand these factors.
... Among healthy older adults, immediate cognitive enhancements can be expected when PA is performed at a moderate intensity or higher [19]. Lab studies conducted among different age groups have found that PA performed for a period of ≥ 11 min is more likely to result in changes in cognitive performance than PA performed for a period of < 11 min [25]. Furthermore, lab-based studies have shown that stronger cognitive enhancements can be expected when the interval between the bout of PA and the cognitive assessment is less than 20 min [25]. ...
... Lab studies conducted among different age groups have found that PA performed for a period of ≥ 11 min is more likely to result in changes in cognitive performance than PA performed for a period of < 11 min [25]. Furthermore, lab-based studies have shown that stronger cognitive enhancements can be expected when the interval between the bout of PA and the cognitive assessment is less than 20 min [25]. Hence, the levels of the exposure are defined as performing 0 versus ≥ 11 min of PA at a moderate to high intensity in the natural environment in the 25 min (11 + 14 min) interval before the assessment of EF. ...
Background
The experience sampling method (ESM), also known as ecological momentary assessment, is gaining popularity in physical activity research. This method involves assessing participants’ behaviors and experiences repeatedly over time. One key advantage of ESM is its ability to temporally separate the dependent and independent variable of interest, reducing the risk of reverse causality. However, temporal separation alone is insufficient for establishing causality. This methodology paper illustrates the importance of the identification phase in drawing causal conclusions from ESM data. In the identification phase the causal effect of interest (or estimand) is specified and the assumptions under which a statistical association can be considered as causal are visualized using causal directed acyclic graphs (DAGs).
Methods
We demonstrate how to define a causal estimand and construct a DAG for a specific ESM research question. The example focuses on the causal effect of physical activity performed in real-life on subsequent executive functioning among older adults. The DAG development process combines literature review and expert consultations to identify time-varying and time-invariant confounders.
Results
The developed DAG shows multiple open backdoor paths causing confounding bias, even with temporal separation of the exposure (physical activity) and outcome (executive functioning). Two approaches to address this confounding bias are illustrated: (1) physical control using the within-person encouragement design, where participants receive randomized prompts to perform physical activity in their natural environment, and (2) analytic control, involving assessing all confounding variables and adjusting for these variables in the analysis phase.
Conclusions
Implementing the identification phase enables ESM researchers to make more informed decisions, thereby enhancing the validity of causal inferences in studies aimed at answering causal questions.
... Similarly, rhythmic music engages the brain's reward system, boosting mood and motivation (Chanda & Levitin, 2013;Koelsch, 2020). Immersive sensory environments leveraging coherence and novelty further stimulate emotional well-being and cognitive outcomes , while recent studies demonstrate the role of multi-sensory environments in reducing mental fatigue and improving task engagement (Chang et al., 2012). This synergy likely enhanced participant immersion and mindfulness, amplifying the psychological effects of exercise. ...
... When paired with sensory inputs such as dynamic lighting and rhythmic music, these benefits are further magnified by stimulating sensory pathways that regulate mood and cognitive focus (Tarr et al., 2014). Moderate-intensity exercise is particularly effective, delivering rapid psychological benefits without inducing fatigue associated with higher intensities (Chang et al., 2012). In this study, the 14-min multi-sensory exercise intervention significantly improved positive affect and motivation, underscoring the efficacy of short, structured physical activity in enhancing emotional well-being. ...
Employee well-being and affective states are critical factors influencing overall organizational success. This study examined the immediate effects of a sensory-enhanced acute exercise program on employees’ affective characteristics, including emotions, anxiety, and work motivation; A total of 84 participants, split into an experimental and control group, participated in the actual study. The experimental group engaged in a 14-min tailored exercise program in a sensory-rich “smart room” while the control group watched a neutral animated documentary. A pretest–posttest design was used, and data were analyzed using repeated measures ANOVA with post hoc tests for significant interactions; The results revealed significant improvements in positive emotions (F(1, 82) = 20.99, p < 0.01) and work motivation (energy level: F(1, 82) = 48.36, p < 0.01; emotional arousal: F(1, 82) = 12.29, p < 0.01) in the experimental group, along with a significant reduction in anxiety (F(1, 82) = 11.37, p < 0.01) compared to the control group. Although reductions in negative emotions were observed across both groups, the differences were not statistically significant; This study underscores the effectiveness of integrating exercise with tailored sensory environments to enhance emotional states and workplace motivation. Such interventions offer a practical and scalable approach to improving employee well-being, highlighting their potential for adoption in diverse professional settings.
... Collectively, there is growing interest in comprehending the interplay between physical and cognitive performance and exploring avenues to optimize cognitive capabilities within demanding environments. Research has consistently demonstrated bidirectional relationships between physical and cognitive performance, with studies showing that physical fitness can enhance cognitive function (Chang et al., 2012;Mandolesi et al., 2018), while cognitive fatigue can impair physical performance (Van Cutsem et al., 2017). ...
This commentary examines the potential application of esports research to military and emergency responder roles. It highlights similarities between competitive gaming and operational environments, focusing on cognitive performance under pressure. The commentary explores how esports-derived knowledge could enhance recruitment, training, and performance in areas like rapid decision-making, strategic thinking, team coordination, and stress management. Potential applications include cognitive assessment, simulation training, and stress inoculation. While acknowledging challenges and limitations, the commentary suggests significant potential for leveraging esports insights in high-pressure occupational settings. However, further targeted research is needed to validate skill transfer and address ethical considerations in these real-world contexts.
... Furthermore, it has the potential to evolve into a system that allows participants to compete remotely via the internet in the future. The time required for each session is approximately 10 to 15 minutes, which has been shown in many studies to be sufficient for mood changes [68][69][70][71][72][73]. This suggests that the Boccia XR is a realistic and enjoyable exercise program for older adults, offering a practical alternative to longer and more monotonous exercise regimes. ...
Background and objectives
Maintaining activities of daily living (ADL) in older adults requires muscle strength and physical activity. However, exercise motivation often declines with age. Enjoyable activities can enhance motivation and effectiveness. Boccia is a recreational sport with rehabilitation potential but requires substantial space. This study evaluated the enjoyment and lower limb muscle activity of “Boccia XR,” a virtual adaptation designed for limited spaces, comparing it with traditional Boccia and treadmill walking.
Methods
Eighteen healthy older adults (mean age 73.3 ± 5.4 years) participated. Each performed Boccia XR, traditional Boccia, and treadmill walking in random order. Mood changes were assessed using the Profile of Mood States 2nd Edition (POMS2), and lower-limb muscle activity was measured via electromyography (EMG).
Results
Both Boccia XR and traditional Boccia significantly improved positive mood (Vigor-Activity) and reduced negative mood (Total Mood Disturbance) as compared to treadmill walking. Muscle activity analysis revealed that Boccia XR and traditional Boccia imposed muscle loads comparable to treadmill walking. Rectus femoris activity exceeded that of treadmill walking, and medial gastrocnemius activation was sufficient for strengthening in sedentary older adults during Boccia tasks.
Conclusion
Boccia XR is an enjoyable and effective physical activity for older adults, requiring less space, than traditional Boccia while providing physical benefits similar to treadmill walking. It may enhance exercise adherence and overall function in space-limited settings.
... The findings of the meta-analyses (29,30,158) suggest that a single bout of acute exercise can benefit cognitive performance. Specifically, older adults seem to benefit most from aerobic exercise compared to younger adults, and consistent moderate improvements in executive function have been confirmed on time-dependent measurements after a single (< 60 min) moderate-intensity (40%-60% VO2max) aerobic exercise session (29). ...
... Recent studies have examined the effect of mental toughness on sports performance in depth. Mental toughness not only increases emotional toughness, but also improves the ability to think strategically and perform optimally under stress (Chang et al., 2012). In the study by Sarkar and Fletcher (2014), the stress factors that athletes encounter and the protective factors that protect them from this stress were examined. ...
The purpose of this study is to examine the effect of athletes' mental endurance on their learning and success in individual and team sports. As a method, this compilation study was carried out by scanning the existing literature on mental endurance and examining experimental and observational studies conducted in different sports branches. The literature search was conducted using academic databases such as PubMed, Google Scholar, and PsycINFO. In the studies reviewed, the effects of techniques such as visualization, cognitive-behavioral therapy, mindfulness and physical exercise on athletes were discussed. The findings reveal that mental toughness plays a critical role in improving the performance of athletes and is especially important in ensuring focus, motivation and performance sustainability during stressful moments. Visualization has helped athletes cope with stress by visualizing success, while cognitive-behavioral therapy has been effective in combating negative thoughts. Mindfulness, on the other hand, has increased athletes' ability to live in the moment and maintain mental freshness. In team sports, mental toughness has been observed to strengthen team collaboration and collective performance, as well as improve team members' ability to cope with stress. As a result, improving mental toughness contributes to the long-term success of athletes by increasing not only their physical performance but also their psychological resilience
... Traditional exercise has been shown to improve (acute effect) multiple domains of cognition (Chang et al., 2012;Wilke et al., 2019). Executive function is one domain that is particularly well studied and has been shown to improve acutely following an exercise bout (Pontifex et al., 2019). ...
... 26 Another study held by Chang et al reported significant cognitive benefits immediately after very light, to moderate intensity exercise, but not after hard to maximal intensity exercise, and further found exercise at all intensities except very light, resulted in improved cognition following a post-exercise. 27 Johnson et al examined if an acute bout of exercise improves the cognitive performance of older adults. They concluded that in particular for older adults who may be physically deconditioned and have a limited exercise capacity, regular, acute bouts of resistance training or aerobic exercise may be an appropriate prescription not only for improved health and fitness, but also cognition. ...
Background: Type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM) can lead to executive dysfunction. Many studies proved that Strength training can imrove the executive function in healthy individuals. Aim of the study is to evaluate the effect of short term strength training on executive function in T2DM. Methods: The 53 participants were divided into 2 groups equally by randomization. 5 drop outs from the study. Group A performed strength training and conventional exercises where as group B performed only conventional exercises. There were total 12 sessions for bothe groups. Sessions were given thrice a week for total 4 weeks. Pre and post measures of digit symbol substitution test (DSST), trail making test (TMT) A and TMT B were taken as outcome measures of executive fucntion. Results: Statistical result of 48 participants from Independent t-test showed significant difference between both groups which explains improvement in executive function after short term trength training. Conclusions: Short term strength training can enhance the executive function among patient with T2DM.
... Physical activity enhances cognitive function, with different effects depending on the duration, frequency, intensity, and type of exercise [18]. The effect of exercise also depends on which specific cognitive skill is evaluated and what time of day it is tested [19][20][21]. Precisely, there is strong support for positive effects of moderate-intensity exercise on cognition [22]. These include improvements in reaction speed induced by acute physical exercise in male trained athletes [23] and young sport students [24] and improvements in attention in response to moderate-intensity exercise in young female physical education students [25]. ...
Time-of-day and individual circadian variability influence cognitive performance, with later chronotypes being most compromised earlier in the day. On the other hand, moderate-intensity exercise has been shown to enhance cognitive function. We sought to evaluate the interplay among circadian rhythms, exercise, and cognitive performance in 22 students from the Uruguayan National Dance School, a population previously characterized as late chronotypes, attending a demanding morning schedule. We assessed sleep habits and physical activity patterns using self-report questionnaires and actigraphy. Before and after morning training, participants completed a psychomotor vigilance task (PVT) and a visual Stroop task (congruent and incongruent). The reaction speeds were lower early in the morning than at noon for all these tasks. We also found (1) a positive correlation between weekend sleep duration and PVT performance before training but not after; (2) a negative correlation between individual circadian phase and Stroop performance for both congruent and incongruent conditions after training but not before; and (3) a better Stroop performance after training for both congruent and incongruent conditions in dancers who engaged longer moderate-intensity exercise during training. Our findings suggest that regular morning training might help mitigate cognitive impairments experienced by dancers with later chronotypes in challenging morning scenarios.
... Research has also reported that body composition also impacts the neurometabolic profile of the brain [40]. Furthermore, research has indicated that physical exercise offers particularly more benefits to individuals with lower or compromised cognition before exercise [41][42][43][44][45]. Our results extended these findings to the molecular level. ...
Background
Physical exercise effectiveness in treating obesity remains contentious.
Aims & Objectives
Owing to the roles of glutamate in appetite, food addiction and impulsivity, this study aimed to identify medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) glutamate as a predictor of variability in exercise response, specifically in terms of fat loss and muscle gain.
Method
Healthy non-exercising adult men (n=21) underwent an 8- week supervised exercise program. Baseline glutamate levels in the mPFC were measured through magnetic resonance spectroscopy. For exercise-dependent changes in fat, muscle, basal metabolic rate (BMR), and blood metabolic biomarkers were obtained, respectively.
Results
The exercise program resulted in significant improvements in most of the index (Table1). Interestingly, lower baseline glutamate levels were associated with greater loss in percentage body fat mass (r = 0.58, p = 0.01, Fig 1), body fat mass (r = 0.53, p = 0.02), and increase in muscle mass (r = −0.50, p = 0.03).
Discussion & Conclusion
The results highlight cortical glutamate as a potential predictor of exercise-induced fat loss and muscle gain.
... In the present investigation, the aerobic effect at the termination of exercise for the exercise groups (55 and 58% of HRR postexercise for LV-and HV-RCT groups, respectively) would be regarded as moderate 3 , and the resistance used in the circuit training routines (60% of 1-RM) would be regarded as moderate as well 5 . The observation that lowand higher-volume RCT regimens enhanced reaction and response times in the more complex MC and DT response-time tasks but not in the SC response-time task aligns with previous research 3,17 , suggesting that complex cognitive tasks are more likely to be affected by acute exercise than simpler tasks. ...
BACKGROUND: Exercise’s significance in promoting health and fitness cannot be overstated. In addition, various exercises have been shown to enhance cognition. The combination of aerobic and strength benefits in resistance circuit training (RCT) offers a unique opportunity to study how two different outcomes of exercise interact to enhance cognitive function. Such research could lead to new recommendations for improving cognitive and motor performance. AIM: The present study investigated the role of two volumes of resistance circuit training (Low Volume [LV-RCT] of approximately 11 min and Higher Volume [HV-RCT] of approximately 23 min) on information processing speed and executive function. METHOD: Thirty adult male and female volunteers (18, male; 12, female) between the ages of 18-25 (mean [± standard deviation]: 22.37 ±2.06) were randomly recruited and assigned to either a non-exercise-control (CON), an LV-RCT, or an HV-RCT group. Participants took part in an introductory session followed one day later by an exercise session. During the exercise session, participants participated in timed single-choice, multichoice, and dual-task response-time tasks to ascertain information processing and the Trail Making Test to ascertain executive functioning. Information processing was analyzed by fractionating total response time into reaction and movement times. In the exercise session, measurements were taken pre-exercise, 1 min (immediately), and 20 min (short-term) postexercise. The observed benefits in the intervention groups were compared to those in the control group using repeated measures ANOVA. RESULTS: The following outcomes were found: (1) on the single-choice task, there were no significant differences among groups; (2) on the multichoice task and dual-task, both RCT groups displayed decreased reaction (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.04, p < 0.01, η2 = 0.04, respectively) and response times (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.05, p < 0.001, η2 = 0.10, respectively) postexercise, with no differences between RCT groups; and (3) On the Trail Making Test, participants in the HV-RCT condition, and not the LV-RCT condition, improved their executive function scores (p < 0.05, η2 = 0.06). CONCLUSION: Despite small effect sizes for some data, results indicated that resistance circuit training can improve young adults’ cognitive processing speed on complex stimulus-response tasks and executive functioning. The combination of aerobic and strength benefits found in circuit training emerges as a unique opportunity to study how two different outcomes of exercise interact to enhance cognitive function.
... speed-accuracy trade-off) (Fitts, 1954). As such, our findings accord an expansive literature reporting that a single bout of exercise provides a selective EF benefit (Chang et al., 2012;Ludyga et al., 2016). Most notably, our results add importantly to the literature because they provide a first demonstration that persons with an SRC exhibit an EF benefit following a single bout of sub-symptom threshold aerobic exercise. ...
... Several studies of preschool children show that children who spend more time outdoors are more active and less sedentary than those who spend less time outdoors (Hinkley et al., 2008;Vanderloo et al., 2013). Outdoor exercise has been found to enhance executive functions dependent on the prefrontal cortex, such as attention, working memory, and inhibitory control (Basso & Suzuki, 2017;Chang et al., 2012). However, parents of young children often prefer indoor activities for their kids due to the support they provide for comfortable daily routines within the family schedule, considerations of safety, and the practicality of managing clothing (Solomon- Moore et al., 2018;Wiseman et al., 2019). ...
This study aimed to investigate the effects of a 6-week outdoor exercise program on children's enjoyment, development and self-perception of motor competence versus indoor. A total of 99 school-age children (6-8 years) were randomly allocated into an outdoor (OG, n = 49) or an indoor (IG, n = 50) group; the OG performed moderate to vigorous aerobic exercises and team games outdoors and the IG the same intervention program but indoors. At baseline and after the intervention, motor competence (i.e., locomotor skills and object control skills) was assessed through 6 motor tests from the Motorfit battery, and enjoyment and self-perceived motor competence (i.e., locomotor skills and object control skills) were assessed through the Physical Activity Enjoyment Scale-Italian Version (PACES-it) and Pictorial Scale of Perceived Movement Skill Competence (PMSC-2), respectively. After 6 weeks, compared to the IG, the OG showed significant improvements (p < 0.001) in: Motorfit tests, i.e. locomotor skills (d = 0.69) and object control skills (d = 1.21); PACES-it (d = 0.56); and PMSC, i.e. locomotor skills (d = 0.49) and object control skills (d = 0.36). No significant changes were found for the IG (p > 0.05). Findings show the positive impact of outdoor exercise programs on school-aged children's enjoyment, development and self-perception of motor competence versus indoor, highlighting the importance of environmental factors and the potential benefits of structured outdoor interventions.
... Although the acute effects of exercise on cognitive performance, such as attention, inhibition, and working memory, are generally known [5,6] the findings of recent studies indicate that only moderate-intensity exercise lasting 10 min or more improves cognitive performance [6]. Previous findings particularly support the positive effects on the development of selective attention [7][8][9][10][11]. Positive effects on cognitive performance are observed in primary school children who perform exercise sessions lasting 30-60 min, 3-5 days a week [12,13]. ...
(1) Background: The ability to sustain attention in primary school children aged 8–9 years plays a critical role in maintaining focus for extended periods, enabling them to comprehend and integrate large amounts of information. Enhancing sustained attention during this formative stage significantly improves a child’s capacity to acquire and consolidate new skills and knowledge, laying a strong foundation for academic and cognitive development. (2) Objectives: This study aimed to assess the effect of an 8-week kata training program on attention and its components in 8–9-year-old school-age children, a critical developmental period for attention. (3) Methods: After excluding the participants who gave a low number of correct answers in the pre-test or created a ceiling effect, 43 participants, aged 9.12 ± 0.40 years, were included in this study. This study, conducted during the academic term, included three measurement phases and a familiarization session. Attention parameters were evaluated using the Bourdon–Vos Test, and participants were categorized into Low Performers (LP) and High Performers (HP) based on pre-test scores. The intervention group (INT) underwent kata training thrice weekly for 8 weeks, while the control group (CON) followed their regular activities. Post-training, attention parameters were reassessed using the Bourdon–Vos Test. (4) Results: In the post-intervention analysis, significant improvements in the number of correct responses were observed in both the LP (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.333) and HP (p = 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.644) groups within the INT group. In the CON group, significant improvement was observed only in the HP group (p = 0.031, Cohen’s d = −0.948). Regarding attention processing speed, significant pre-post improvements were found exclusively in the INT group (p < 0.001). Block-wise analysis revealed significant differences only in Block 1 of the CON group (p = 0.011, Cohen’s d = −0.522). However, in the INT group, significant improvements were observed in both Block 1 (p < 0.001, Cohen’s d = −1.200) and Block 2 (p = 0.004, Cohen’s d = −0.678). (5) Conclusions: The findings of this study highlight the effectiveness of an 8-week kata training program in enhancing sustained attention and cognitive processing speed among 8–9-year-old children, particularly in low-performing groups. This suggests that integrating structured kata-based motor and cognitive activities into school curricula can serve as a promising strategy for addressing attention deficits and promoting cognitive development during this critical developmental period. Future studies should examine the long-term effects of kata training on attention and related cognitive functions, such as working memory and executive control. Investigating neurophysiological mechanisms through neuroimaging and including diverse age groups with larger samples could further validate these findings.
... However, our study did not manage to observe positive benefits of acute AE and RE in improving inhibitory control and cognitive flexibility in MUD, which contradicted our initial hypothesis. Previous researches have extensively reported the benefits of acute moderateintensity AE in improving inhibitory control in individuals with MUD (Wang et al., 2015;Wang et al., 2016), and meta-analysis studies including healthy populations have shown that exercise significantly enhances inhibitory control (Chang et al., 2012;Zhang et al., 2023). These findings indicate that acute exercise may potentially enhance inhibitory control in individuals with MUD. ...
This study aimed to explore the acute effects of aerobic and resistance exercise on craving, as well as their emotional and cognitive impacts in individuals with methamphetamine use disorder (MUD). Thirty-five male participants with MUD completed a within-group crossover design, involving three randomised tasks: a moderate-intensity aerobic exercise task (AET), a moderate-intensity resistance exercise task (RET), and a control task (COT). Craving and immediate emotional states were assessed at multiple time points before and after each task. Cognitive functions, including attentional bias, working memory, inhibitory control, and cognitive flexibility, were also evaluated before and after the tasks. Both AET and RET significantly reduced craving compared to the COT during and after the tasks. Participants in both exercise conditions reported higher positive emotional states (happiness, excitement) compared to COT, with no significant changes in other emotional states. Cognitive assessments revealed that attentional bias and working memory were lower following exercise tasks compared to COT, while no significant changes were found in inhibitory control or cognitive flexibility. Notably, attentional bias was identified as a mediator in the relationship between exercise and craving reduction. The effects of AET and RET were similar across all outcome measures. These results suggest that both aerobic and resistance exercises are effective in reducing craving and enhancing emotional and cognitive factors in MUD, particularly through improvements in attentional bias and working memory. These findings have implications for developing exercise-based rehabilitation strategies and highlight the need for further research in this area.
... Consequently, it can be hypothesized that self-control is a salient factor in the context of college students' internet addiction. In addition, experimental studies have shown that exercise can enhance individuals' executive functions, thereby boosting their self-control capabilities (Chang et al., 2012). Physical activity serves as a form of exercise that can augment individuals' self-control abilities (Susa et al., 2012). ...
Objective
To investigate the relationship between college students' physical activities and Internet addiction, to investigate the role self-control control plays in this relationship, and to provide a theoretical foundation for the alleviation of college students' tendency to Internet addiction and intervention treatment.
Methods
A questionnaire survey was conducted on 471 college students using the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ), the Revised Chen Internet Addiction Scale (CIAS-R), and the Self-Control Scale (SCS).
Results
Internet addiction was significantly negatively correlated with physical activities (overall; min/WK, r = −0.115, P < 0.05), with high-intensity physical activities (min/WK, r = −0.179, P < 0.01), and with low-intensity physical activities (r = −0.103, P < 0.05); self-control was significantly positively correlated with physical activities (overall; min/WK, r = 0.150, P < 0.01), with moderate—intensity physical activities (min/WK, r = 0.139, P < 0.01) while it was significantly negatively correlated with Internet addiction (min/WK, r = −0.349, P < 0.01). The mediating effect follows the path: physical activity → self-control → internet addiction.
Conclusion
Physical activity can have a direct negative effect on college students' Internet addiction, and also influence Internet addiction through the mediating effect of self-control.
... Focusing on the related second aim of this review, data from included studies show that single bouts of exercise training could improve cognitive function in the short term in patients with T1DM. It is important to note that a previous meta-analysis in healthy individuals showed that the cognitive facilitation effect is most pronounced between 11 and 20 min after exercise, with a gradual decline in performance after 20 min [46]. This underscores the importance of carefully timing cognitive assessments, as administering multiple or prolonged tests after exercise could gradually affect the test outcomes. ...
... showed that exercises above and below 35 min both have a positive intervention effect on the executive functions of preschool children; while Song et al. (2022) showed that exercises lasting above 35 min have a higher effect size. Chang et al. (2012) showed that exercises lasting above 20 min have a more positive promoting effect on the cognitive task performance of adolescents; Yang (2021) found in his research on children with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder that exercises lasting 40-60 min overall have a higher effect size. In addition, also found that there is an inverted U-shaped relationship between each exercise time and executive function task performance, that is, exercises between 30-50 min have a better intervention effect on the executive functions of children and adolescents than those below 30 min and above 50 min. ...
Background
The research on the intervention of open-skill exercise on the executive functions of children and adolescents still requires quantitative synthesis, and there is inconsistency in the effects of intervention by strategic and interceptive skills, which are sub-divided from open-skill exercise. Therefore, this study systematically explores the aforementioned issues and examines the potential moderating factors in the effects of open-skill exercise intervention on executive functions.
Methods
Computer searches of the CNKI, WOS, PubMed, ScienceDirect and SPORTDiscus databases were conducted. Two researchers independently screened the articles and extracted data, and used the bias risk assessment tool recommended by the Cochrane Collaboration Network and the Methodological Index for Non- Randomized Studies (MINORS) scale to assess included randomized controlled trials (RCTs) and quasi-experimental designs (QEDs). Statistical analyses were performed using Stata 16.0 software.
Results
A total of 16 articles and 17 studies were included, comprising 11 RCTs and 6 QEDs. The participants were 1,298 children and adolescents aged 5 to 16. Open skill exercises have significant intervention effects (p < 0.01) on inhibitory control (SMD = −0.627, 95%CI = −0.890 to −0.363), working memory (SMD = −0.517, 95%CI = −0.768 to −0.266), and cognitive flexibility (SMD = −0.652, 95%CI = −1.085 to −0.219). The effects of strategic skill exercises are higher than those of interceptive skills, particularly in the dimension of inhibitory control (SMD = −0.707, 95%CI = −0.819 to −0.594, p < 0.05). In addition, moderate-intensity and higher-frequency exercises overall have a more positive effect on promoting executive functions (p < 0.05); interventions of 6 to 10 weeks are more effective for working memory (p < 0.05), while 30-min sessions are the most effective for working memory (p < 0.05), and sessions lasting 75 to 120 min are the most effective for cognitive flexibility (p < 0.05). Open-skill exercise has a more positive impact on inhibitory control in the 5–9 age group and on working memory in the 10–16 age group (p < 0.05); open-skill exercise, especially, has a more positive intervention effect on inhibitory control in the Eastern group (p < 0.05). Both Egger linear regression analyses and literature sensitivity analyses suggested that the Meta-analysis results were stable and reliable.
Conclusion
Open-skill exercise has a positive intervention effect on executive functioning in children and adolescents, and strategic skill exercise interventions are more effective. In addition, the quantitative elements of exercise (intensity, frequency, and duration per session) and demographic factors (age and ethnicity) play a potential moderating role in this context. Based on this, it is recommended that children and adolescents choose more strategic open-skill exercises according to their actual situation and select appropriate quantitative exercise factors to maximize the enhancement of their executive functions.
Systematic review registration
https://www.crd.york.ac.uk/prospero/#myprospero, CRD42025636714.
... This finding is in line with work by Fenesi et al. (2018) [40] who employed three, five-minute exercise breaks during a 50-minute video lecture and found exercise breaks promoted on-task behaviour throughout the lecture in comparison to non-exercise and no-break groups. Importantly, as we did not find support for acute exercise "buffering" stress responses, it is plausible that acute exercise boosted cognitive and executive functions, which promoted on-task behaviour, and this has been demonstrated extensively [61,62]. ...
Post-secondary students experience acute stressors daily. Acute stress has been associated with poor cognitive and learning outcomes. Prior work has demonstrated a single bout of exercise can attenuate acute stress responses. The present study examined the effects of a single 30-minute bout of high intensity aerobic exercise on multidimensional stress reactivity and learning-related outcomes. Forty participants were randomized to either engaging in an exercise bout or seated rest. Participants were then exposed to the Trier Social Stress Test followed by a 20-minute video lecture. The video lecture contained embedded mind wandering probes. Acute exercise did not attenuate stress responses, however promoted greater on-task behaviour (i.e., less mind wandering) and improved lecture comprehension scores. Notably, state anxiety was positively associated with mind wandering and mind wandering was negatively associated with lecture comprehension. Collectively, examining the role of acute interventions that reduce state anxiety may promote favourable learning outcomes in young adults.
... Different intensities can have varying impacts on cognitive processes and neural mechanisms. For example, moderate to vigorous aerobic exercise has been shown to improve attention and executive function more effectively than low-intensity exercise [63,64]. Including a range of exercise intensities could help delineate optimal conditions for cognitive enhancement in anxious individuals, allowing for more targeted exercise prescriptions. ...
Anxiety is known to significantly impair cognitive function, particularly attentional control. While exercise has been demonstrated to alleviate these cognitive deficits, the precise neural mechanisms underlying these effects remain poorly understood. This study examines the effects of exercise on attentional control in individuals with high trait anxiety, based on attentional control theory, which suggests that such individuals have reduced top-down attention. Thirty-eight participants were randomly assigned to either an exercise group or a reading group. The exercise group engaged in 30 min of moderate-intensity cycling, while the reading group spent 30 min reading quietly. In Experiment 1, goal-directed attention was assessed using a cue-object paradigm, and in Experiment 2, inhibitory control was evaluated through a visual search task. EEG data indicated that the exercise group exhibited significantly larger Pd components in both experiments, suggesting enhanced attentional focus and improved inhibition of distractors. These findings suggest that aerobic exercise enhances top-down attentional processes, particularly goal-directed attention and distractor inhibition, offering potential as an intervention for individuals with high trait anxiety.
... Acute bouts of exercise have been recognized as a feasible approach for improving EFs. This is supported by numerous meta-analyses [9][10][11] and strong evidence presented in the Physical Activity Guidelines for Americans (PAGA) [12]. While positive effects are recognized, there is a need to identify the optimal parameters of acute exercise [12] that can benefit EFs. ...
Background
Concurrent exercise (CE), an emerging exercise modality characterized by sequential bouts of aerobic (AE) and resistance exercise (RE), has demonstrated acute benefits on executive functions (EFs) and neuroelectric P3 amplitude. However, the effect of acute CE on inhibitory control, a sub-component of EFs, and P3 amplitude remains inconclusive. Moreover, exploring the mechanisms underlying the effects of acute exercise on EFs contributes to scientific comprehension, with lactate recognized as a crucial candidate positively correlated with EFs. Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effects of acute CE on inhibitory control via behavioral and event-related potential approaches and to examine its potential mediational role on lactate.
Methods
Seventy-eight adults (mean age = 22.95, SD = 1.75 years) were randomly assigned to either a CE, AE, or control (CON) group. Participants in the CE group engaged in 12-min of AE (40–59% of heart rate reserve [HRR]) coupled with 13-min of RE (1 set, with 75% of 10-repetition maximum, and 12 repetitions of 8 movements). The AE group participated in 25 min of AE (40–59% HRR). Prior to and following exercise onset, participants in both the CE and AE groups completed a 5-min warm-up and cool-down. Participants in the CON group read books for 35 min. Lactate concentrations were measured at timepoints of 0-, 17-, and 30-min relative to the treatment onset. Response time (RT) and accuracy in the Stroop test, as well as P3 amplitude, were assessed before and after the treatment.
Results
The results revealed that both the CE and AE groups had significantly shorter RTs compared to the CON group, with no significant differences in accuracy among groups. A decrease in P3 amplitude was observed for the CE group compared to the AE and CON groups. The mediating effects of lactate between acute exercise and inhibitory control were insignificant.
Conclusions
The findings suggest that both CE and AE improve inhibitory control and CE potentially enhances the efficient allocation of attention resources. The lack of a significant mediating effect of lactate warrants further investigation.
Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov, NCT06370286. Registered 12 April 2024—Retrospectively registered, https://clinicaltrials.gov/study/NCT06370286.
... For example, we may have required participants to engage in vigorous exercise for too long and at too high of a level to incur improvements as measured by these executive function tasks. Previous research has indicated that the best dose of exercise to enhance cognitive function is 20-30 min [51]. In our protocol, participants exercised for 40 min (including warm-up and cool-down), and they maintained a higher intensity of exercise for 30 min compared to the participants in most of the studies cited by Verburgh et al. [8]. ...
Background/Objectives: We examined the effects of cardiovascular exercise on verbal fluency using a between-groups design. Methods: Within our experimental (i.e., exercise) group, participants performed phonemic and semantic verbal fluency tasks (VFTs) before, during, and after a vigorous 30 min bout of cycling. Participants within our control group also completed these VFTs before, during, and after a non-physical activity. We compared the VFT performance of the experimental (exercise) and control (no-exercise) groups of participants in terms of the characteristics of the words that they produced within the VFTs. In addition, we examined these aspects of VFT performance for each participant group across time within the experiment session. Conclusions: From these comparisons, we see that exercise influenced VFT performance. Most notably, participants engaged in exercise changed their VFT performance over time, while control group participants did not. Exercising participants produced more words over the course of their exercise session that contained fewer letters over time and were lower in frequency during and after exercise as compared to before exercise. Additionally, topic switches in the VFTs increased after exercise as compared to before exercise. Participants in the control group did not change their VFT performance over time according to any of these measures. These findings indicate that exercise impacted participants’ lexical access and that these VFT performance changes were not due to practice effects.
... Studies supporting this idea show that increased BDNF levels triggered by exercise are associated with improvements in cognitive performance and memory (Erickson et al., 2011;Lourenco et al., 2019). Furthermore, among the characteristics of the exercise prescription (e.g., type, duration, frequency, etc.), intensity was determined to have the most significant effect on the acute release of BDNF (Chang et al., 2012). As a result of greater BDNF synthesis in the brain, higher serum BDNF concentrations have been detected following high-intensity interval training (HIIT) (Jiménez et al., 2018). ...
... Given the brain modifications observed in previous studies, there is growing interest in investigating the cognitive changes induced by exercise training. Early studies reported that interventions based on physical exercise improved cognition, particularly in executive functions, attention, and memory (Chang et al., 2012;Roig et al., 2013;Xue et al., 2019;Ludyga et al., 2020). However, a recent umbrella review suggested that these conclusions may be premature, with mixed findings on the extent and consistency of cognitive benefits (Ciria et al., 2023). ...
Background
Weight control in children depends on executive function. Previous studies have shown that exercise interventions can effectively improve children’s executive function. However, the effects of these interventions on children with overweight and obesity remain unclear and require further investigation. This systematic review and meta-analysis was conducted to evaluate the effects of exercise interventions on executive function-related indicators in children with overweight and obesity.
Methods
Randomized controlled trials (RCTs) investigating the effects of exercise interventions on executive functions in children with overweight and obesity were included by searching PubMed, Web of Science, EMbase, Cochrane Library, ProQuest, Scopus, CNKI, China Wanfang, and VIP databases. The quality of the included studies was assessed using the Cochrane risk of bias assessment tool. RevMan 5.4 software was used for effect size pooling, forest plot creation, and subgroup analyses. Stata 16.0 software was employed for publication bias testing and sensitivity analysis. The evidence levels of the results were evaluated using the GRADEpro tool.
Results
This meta-analysis included a total of 13 studies. The results indicate that exercise interventions may help improve executive functions in children with overweight and obesity. Specifically, inhibitory control (standardized mean (SMD) = −0.59, 95% confidence interval (CI) [−0.89 to −0.29], Z = 3.85, P < 0.001) and cognitive flexibility (SMD = −0.54, 95% CI [−1.06 to −0.01], Z = 2.01, P < 0.05) showed moderate effect sizes. Working memory exhibited a smaller effect size (SMD = 0.40, 95% CI [−0.69 to −0.10], Z = 2.61, P < 0.01), while attention did not show significant improvement (SMD = 0.13, 95% CI [−0.39 to 0.65], Z = 0.50, P > 0.05).
Conclusion
The results of this meta-analysis indicate that exercise interventions have significant benefits for inhibitory control, working memory, and cognitive flexibility in children with overweight and obesity, but the impact on attention is not significant. Moreover, the effects of inhibitory control interventions are influenced by exercise duration, exercise intensity, exercise type, and age.
Acute exercise has been shown to enhance cognitive abilities, particularly those governed by the prefrontal cortex, such as executive function. However, the effects of prolonged exercise on cognition and brain activity, especially over extended recovery periods, remain underexplored. This pilot study investigated the effects of two hours of moderate-intensity running on oscillatory brain activity and working memory performance, monitored across a 24-hour recovery period—an interval not previously studied. Using electroencephalography (EEG) and a 2-back task, resting-state brain activity and task-specific frontal theta power were assessed. While task accuracy and reaction times showed no significant changes, frontal theta power increased one hour post-exercise, reflecting heightened cognitive effort. Resting-state EEG demonstrated a sustained increase in high-alpha power, which persisted until the 24-hour mark and indicated cortical recovery processes. While limited by the lack of a control group, these findings suggest that prolonged moderate-intensity exercise may elicit complex and delayed neurophysiological responses, supporting recovery and neural resilience in trained individuals. Therefore, our research offers new insights into the interplay between exercise, cognition, and recovery, with implications for optimizing performance in physically demanding contexts.
Background
The rising prevalence of cognitive decline and neurodegenerative diseases, projected to affect 150 million individuals by 2050, highlights the urgent need to enhance neurocognitive health. While both aerobic and resistance training are recognized as effective strategies, their combined effects on cognition remain underexplored.
Objective
This study aimed to determine if concurrent aerobic and resistance training (CT) is effective in enhancing cognitive function.
Methods
Seven English and three Chinese databases were searched from inception to August 2024. Randomised controlled trials (RCTs) examining the effects of CT on global cognition across diverse populations were included. A meta-analysis was performed using a random-effects model in R and Stata, supplemented by subgroup and meta-regression analyses to explore variability.
Results
The meta-analysis included 35 RCTs with 5,734 participants, revealing a positive effect of CT on global cognition (g = 0.32, 95% CI: 0.17–0.46, p < 0.001). Notably, older adults (≥65 years) exhibited greater cognitive benefits (g = 0.33; 95% CI: 0.14–0.51, p < 0.05) compared to younger populations. Significant effects were also observed in clinical populations (g = 0.28; 95% CI: 0.11–0.46, p < 0.001). Exercise frequency and duration positively influenced outcomes, with medium-length interventions (13–26 weeks) demonstrating significant effects (g = 0.21; 95% CI: 0.05–0.37, p = 0.011).
Conclusion
The findings indicate that CT significantly enhances cognitive health, particularly in older adults and clinical populations. Prioritizing strength training, implementing short- to medium-term interventions (4–26 weeks), and maintaining session durations of 30–60 minutes are crucial for optimizing cognitive benefits.
Study aim: Aerobic exercise has many benefits including improvements in mood and cognition. Group exercise has been suggested to better improve mood compared to exercise alone, but there is no consensus and few studies attempting to understand exercise and social influences on mood and cognition. This study’s purpose was to begin filling this gap by isolating socialization from exercise to determine how each affect mood and cognitive changes.
Materials and methods: Twenty-five adults (24.2 ± 1.69 years) performed four 30-minute sessions including either acute exercise or sedentary, and either social interaction or limited social interaction. Mood was assessed using a Profile of Mood States and a State-trait Anxiety Inventory Questionnaire. Cognitive assessments were performed using computerized Stroop and Eriksen Flanker tasks. Mood and cognition were assessed prior-to and following each session. Differences in mood and cognitive performance were analyzed for main effects of both exercise and social interactions in a two-by-two within subject design.
Results: Both exercise and social interactions influenced mood parameters, with fatigue being reduced by exercise and social interaction, total mood disturbance approaching significance for exercise, and hostility being reduced by socialization. Vigor approached significance for exercise and had a significant interaction with socialization. No cognitive improvements were observed, likely due to cognitive tasks lacking sufficient sensitivity for cognitively healthy young adults.
Conclusion: Both exercise and social interactions can improve mood parameters, and when performed together there may be an additive effect for some mood parameters. Additional studies are needed to elucidate these acute effects.
Numerous studies have demonstrated that executive functions benefit from high-intensity interval training (HIIT) and moderate-intensity continuous training (MICT). However, the immediate effects of HIIT and MICT on these functions in older adults have not been compared. This study aimed to examine the acute impact of HIIT and MICT on executive function components in this demographic. Twenty-five healthy community-dwelling older adults (15 females; average age 67.1 ± 4.5 years) participated. The study involved three sessions: an initial session with cognitive assessments (Stroop Task: Naming, Inhibition, and Switching) and a maximal continuous graded exercise test, followed by two sessions involving HIIT (15s at 100% peak power output, 15s rest, 2 × 20 min) or MICT (34 min at 60% peak power output) training protocols in random order. Cognitive tests were administered immediately after and 45 min post-training. The results showed a significant difference in Switching reaction times between MICT and HIIT, with HIIT showing a greater reduction in Switching times after 45 min (p = 0.019). In conclusion, our study indicates that HIIT’s beneficial effects on executive functions demonstrated a larger effect size than those of MICT. This suggests that brief, high-intensity exercise could be more effective in enhancing executive functions among older adults.
This research studied the impact of various factors (including social and physiological parameters) on telomere dynamics in pet dogs. Telomeres, essential for maintaining genomic integrity, undergo shortening with each cell division, leading to cellular senescence. Previous studies in humans have linked cognitive and social factors with telomere dynamics but in animals, such associations remain understudied. This study is based on a previous study, where behavioral and cognitive changes in aging pet dogs were investigated. Together with standard variables (sex, age, body weight, diet), behavioral predictors that were assessed in the “Modified Vienna Canine Cognitive Battery” were used. This study aimed to investigate the influence of these factors on telomere dynamics in aging pet dogs. The relative telomere length of 63 dogs was measured, using a qPCR method and a model selection approach was applied to assess which variables can explain the found telomere patterns. Results revealed a strong association of the behavioral factor called trainability and telomere change. Trainability was the best predictor for telomere change over time and was the only predictor having a relative variable importance (RVI) above 0.7. This finding suggests that higher trainability positively affects telomere dynamics in aging dogs and factors like age, sex, diet, and other cognitive parameters are less important. The study sheds light on the potential role of cognitive factors in canine aging and offers insights into improving the quality of life for aging dogs, but further research is needed to comprehensively understand the interplay between behavior, cognition, and telomere dynamics in dogs.
This paper provides an overview of the literature on effects of physical activity on cognition for children and adolescents. Aimed as a starting point into this active research field, it guides the interested reader from core concepts, a summary of research findings to characteristics of successful programs as well as barriers and motives for participation.
Cognitive control, defined as the allocation of mental resources required for goal-directed behaviour, is crucial for exercise participation as it is involved in regulating negative cognitive and affective responses caused by the demands of exercise. Research on both music and acute exercise separately show engagement of cognitive control processes and affective responses, with low-to-moderate exercise intensities reliably influencing cognitive and affective outcomes (e.g., core affect). However, the combined effects of music and acute exercise on cognitive control and affective outcomes remain underexplored. Accordingly, this review and meta-analysis explores how music influences cognitive control and affective outcomes during acute exercise. 10 studies met the inclusion criteria, with nine providing data for effect size calculations across 21 intervention arms. Meta-analyses revealed significant effects of music on attention allocation (g = 1.05, 95% CI [0.03, 2.07]; p = 0.04), inhibitory control (g = 1.87, 95% CI [0.37, 3.37]; p = 0.01), and core affect (g = 0.86, 95% CI [0.24, 1.48]; p < 0.01). Exercise intensity significantly moderated outcomes (p = 0.036), suggesting that higher intensities diminish the effectiveness of music in elevating cognitive control and affective outcomes during acute exercise. Findings were limited by high heterogeneity (I² > 97%) across study protocols and outcome measures. Due to the aforementioned heterogeneity, the findings of this review must be interpreted cautiously.
Reaction times (RTs) of vocalization were examined for 20 normal subjects under two conditions, standing and walking. The RT during walking was not related to the phases of walking cycle. The difference in RTs (ΔRT) was obtained by subtracting RT for standing from that of walking. The correlation coefficient between RT for standing and ΔRT was significant and negative. ΔRTs for subjects with fast RT for standing were positive, whereas those with slow RT were negative. Assuming that the arousal level when standing is different between the faster and slower reactors, the probe-RT during walking would reflect not only the extra-attentional demands of walking but also the shift in arousal.
A review of the literature indicates that acute bouts of physical activity exert short-term positive benefits on the behavior and cognitive functioning of youths without clinical disorders and on youths who have difficulty focusing attention, controlling impulsive actions, or who evidence high levels of motor activity. Prior research conducted has been largely atheoretical. Information-processing models are suggested to provide a framework for assessing the impact of physical activity and cognition and behavior.
This study investigated gender differences in orienting and focusing visual attention at rest and under submaximal physical load. In two discriminative reaction time (RT) experiments, spatial cues of different size and compound stimuli with local and global target features were employed, and the demands on endogenous attentional control were manipulated by varying the probability that cue meaning matched cue position. Results demonstrated females' worse RT performance as compared to males both at rest and under physical load. At rest, females were also less able than males to endogenously override the automatic orienting of attention elicited by peripheral misleading cues, whereas they succeeded in performing it under physical load.
Nideffer's theory of attention and interpersonal style is based upon Easterbrook's 1959 postulates that psychological stress has predictable and sequential effects on attention, i.e., loss of attentional flexibility, attentional narrowing, and interiorization. These effects have not yet been demonstrated within a context for physical activity using exercise as the stressor. In the present study, subjects were required to react to a verbal five-choice reaction-time task while pedalling to exhaustion upon a bicycle. It was hypothesized that choice RTs and the number of omitted responses would increase predictably with the addition of the progressive exercise. There were distortions in reactions to progressive exercise. Initially, there was facilitation of performance by exercise for the conditions of rest, and exercise-induced heart rates of 115 beats per minute (bpm) with no differential effects across the attentional field. Between 115 and 145 bpm, there were universal decrements in performance, with differential and progressive effects of exercise on performance beyond 145 bpm in the peripheral fields. At 165 and 180 bpm, peripheral reactions became progressively slower with concomitant increases in the accuracy of signal detection. Both the progressive differential decrease in choice RT to the peripheral stimuli as well as the increase in errors with progressive exercise tended to support the relationship between attention and performance that Easterbrook proposed, but within an exercise context.
The purpose of this study was to quantitatively combine and examine the results of studies pertaining to physical activity and cognition in children. Studies meeting the inclusion criteria were coded based on design and descriptive characteristics, subject characteristics, activity characteristics, and cognitive assessment method. Effect sizes (ESs) were calculated for each study and an overall ES and average ESs relative to moderator variables were then calculated. ESs (n = 125) from 44 studies were included in the analysis. The overall ES was 0.32 (SD = 0.27), which was significantly different from zero. Significant moderator variables included publication status, subject age, and type of cognitive assessment. As a result of this statistical review of the literature, it is concluded that there is a significant positive relationship between physical activity and cognitive functioning in children.
The effect of individual bouts of aerobic exercise on young adults’ performance of an executive processing task (The Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test, PASAT) and on ratings of emotion and workload (NASA‐Task Load Index, TLX) was assessed in two experiments. In Experiment 1, nine men completed two test sessions during which the PASAT and the TLX were administered prior to and following a 40‐minute bout of cycling. A cold medication (Phenergan VC) was administered prior to exercise in one session; a placebo was given in the other session. PASAT performance increased following exercise, both after the ingestion of the cold medication and following the placebo. TLX ratings changed with practice but were not influenced by exercise. In Experiment 2, 10 women performed the PASAT and provided TLX ratings prior to and following four 120‐minute sessions of cycling and a control session. Participants were given one of three carbohydrate electrolyte drinks or a placebo drink prior to, during, and following cycling. PASAT performance improved significantly following exercise regardless of the type of drink ingested. Exercise did not influence TLX ratings. The results of these experiments add to a growing literature that demonstrates the facilitative effects of acute aerobic exercise on working memory and attentional processes.
The purpose of this study was to measure the effect of exercise duration concomitantly on energy expenditure and cognitive performance. The physical task was pedalling on a cycloergometer at an intensity of 60% Pmax (power reached with maximal aerobic power). The cognitive task was a visual choice reaction task (RT2). Twenty-two students without expertise in decisional activities participated over four sessions procedure during 10 treatment days. In a first session, individual Pmax was measured. The second session (session 2) was composed by RT tasks performed at rest. During the sessions 3 and 4 randomly presented, each subject completed a 10 min. bicycle ergometer test without or with a simultaneous RT task. Mean RT values, error RT values, pedal rate were collected in sessions 2 and 4 at the beginning (3-5 min) and at the end (8-10 min) of the exercise test. Heart rate was continuously recorded. The results showed a significant interaction effect between cognitive task and exercise duration for mean RT values (p < .025), heart rate values (p < .025) whereas it was not significant for the R T eITor rate and peda1 rate. With exercise duration, mean RT presented higher decrease at the end of the exercise testing (p < .01). These results are discussed principally in terms of intermediaries factors as activation or investment of attentional resources induced by exercise duration.
The aim of this dual task paradigm study was to measure the effect of varying pedal rates matched for aerobic power output on energy expenditure and cognitive performance. The primary task was pedalling on a cycloergometer at an intensity of 50% Pmax; the secondary task was a probe simple reaction task (RT). Ten adults with a mean age of 28 years (SD =2 years) were observed over a three-phase procedure across 8 days. In phase 1, max and Pmax were measured; in phase 2, V02 was assessed at 50% Pmax for six imposed pedaling rates (30, 40, 50, 60, 70 and 80 rpm) and at a freely chosen rate. ln phase 3, RT and the number of anticipated responses were assessed both at rest and under exercise conditions identical to those of phase 2. The results showed that both V02 and heart rate differed across the pedal frequencies despite matching to provide equal power outputs (P<0.025). When V02 and heart rate were plotted against pedal rate. Each curve could best be described by a parabolic equation and an physiologically optimal point was found for 50rpm. The mean values of V02 observed for the freely chosen rate were not significantly different from those observed for the optimal pedal rate (33.1 vs 32.4 ml kg-1min-1, P >0.05). When compared to the resting condition. RT and the number of anticipated responses increased during exercise; this increase was less marked at the optimal pedaling rate. The RT were identical for the freely-chosen rate and the optimal rate (228 vs 220 msec P>0.05). Although the percentage of anticipated responses was higher for the freely chosen rate. The regression between energy expenditure and RT was very high (r = 0.79. P<0.01). The present study confirms the existence of a physiological optimal pedalling rate for a constant power output on cycloergometer. But the most significant finding in this investigation was the strong positive relationship between VO2 and RT performance. These results are discussed in terms of the general concept of optimization. Focusing particularly on the attentional demands of pedalling at different rates.
This experiment was performed in the aim of analyzing the influence of physical exertion on decisional processing in sports experts. 40 subjects were involved in the experiment. The first group (N=20) was composed of fencers and fencing masters, the second (N=20) of subjects who practised sport but who had no expertise in decisional sports. The two groups did not differ in physical condition. While pedalling on a cycloergometer at relative powers corresponding to 20, 40, 60 and 80% of their own maximal aerobic power, the subjects had to perform two choice reaction time tasks (2-RT and 4-RT). Performance scores were collected, and for all conditions, subjects were asked to assess the difficulty of the reaction time task. The results showed, for the experts, a monotonic increase in performance, as physical exertion increased. On the contrary, the performances of the non-expert group deteriorated as exertion increased. The error rate remained stable for each group over all conditions. Finally, the experts assessed tasks as more difficult than the non-experts, especially at high levels of exertion. These results showed that the improvement of the experts' performances in decision tasks under high physical exertion was related to an additional resource investment.
Eight healthy men, unacclimated to heat, were submitted to variations in body hydration. The subjects were kept euhydrated, dehydrated by controlled passive hyperthermia or exercise on a treadmill up to a weight loss of 2.8%, or hyperhydrated using a solution containing glycerol, with a total ingested volume equal to 21.4 ml/kg of body weight. On completion of a 90-min recovery period, the subjects were assigned a pedaling exercise on an arm-crank ergometer. Psychological tests were administered 30 min after the phase of hydration variation and 15 min after the arm crank exercise. Both dehydration conditions impaired cognitive abilities (i.e., perceptive discrimination, psycho-motor skills, and short-term memory) as well as subjective estimates of fatigue, without any relevant differences between them. Short-term memory was significantly greater following hyperhydration when compared to euhydration (P < .05). Following arm crank exercise, further effects of dehydration were found for tracking performance only (P < .05). Moreover, long-term memory was impaired in both control and dehydration situations, whereas there was no decrement in performance in the hyperhydration condition.
In a review of the literature on the effect of physical exercise on information processing and cognition, the studies were classified according to the intensity and duration of the exercise intervention. The studies were evaluated on the basis of current theories of information processing. Although several studies suggest that exercise produces short-term facilitative effects on mental tasks, the relation remains problematic. It is concluded that inconsistencies among studies are due to the failure of researchers to use a theory-based parametric approach to the issue. (61 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The immediate and short-term after effects of a bout of aerobic exercise on young adults’ information processing were investigated. Seventeen participants performed an auditory two-choice reaction time (RT) task before, during, and after 40 min of ergometer cycling. In a separate session, the same sequence of testing was completed while seated on an ergometer without pedalling. Results indicate that exercise (1) improves the speed of reactions by energizing motor outputs; (2) interacts with the arousing effect of a loud auditory signal suggesting a direct link between arousal and activation; (3) gradually reduces RT and peaks between 15 and 20 min; (4) effects on RT disappear very quickly after exercise cessation; and (5) effects on motor processes cannot be explained by increases in body temperature caused by exercise. Taken together, these results support a selective influence of acute aerobic exercise on motor adjustment stage.
The effects of acute exercise on cognitive performance were examined using meta-analytic techniques. The overall mean effect size was dependent on the timing of cognitive assessment. During exercise, cognitive task performance was impaired by a mean effect of -0.14. However, impairments were only observed during the first 20min of exercise. Otherwise, exercise-induced arousal enhanced performance on tasks that involved rapid decisions and automatized behaviors. Following exercise, cognitive task performance improved by a mean effect of 0.20. Arousal continued to facilitate speeded mental processes and also enhanced memory storage and retrieval. Positive effects were observed following exercise regardless of whether the study protocol was designed to measure the effects of steady-state exercise, fatiguing exercise, or the inverted-U hypothesis. Finally, cognitive performance was affected differentially by exercise mode. Cycling was associated with enhanced performance during and after exercise, whereas treadmill running led to impaired performance during exercise and a small improvement in performance following exercise. These results are indicative of the complex relation between exercise and cognition. Cognitive performance may be enhanced or impaired depending on when it is measured, the type of cognitive task selected, and the type of exercise performed.
It is believed that brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) plays an important role in neuronal growth, transmission, modulation and plasticity. Single bout of exercise can increase plasma BDNF concentration [BDNF](p) in humans. It was recently reported however, that elevated [BDNF](p) positively correlated with risk factors for metabolic syndrome and type 2 diabetes mellitus in middle age group of subjects. On the other hand it is well established that endurance training decreases the risk of diabetes and development of metabolic syndrome. In the present study we have examined the effect of 5 weeks of moderate intensity endurance training on the basal and the exercise induced changes in [BDNF](p) in humans. Thirteen young, healthy and physically active men (mean +/- S.E: age 22.7 +/- 0.5 yr, body height 180.2 +/- 1.7 cm, body weight 77.0 +/- 2.5 kg, V(O2max) 45.29 +/- 0.93 ml x kg-1 x min(-1)) performed a five week endurance cycling training program, composed mainly of moderate intensity bouts. Before training [BDNF]p at rest have amounted to 10.3 +/- 1.4 pg x ml(-1). No effect of a single maximal incremental cycling up to V(O2max) on its concentration was found (10.9 +/- 2.3 pg x ml(-1), P=0.74). The training resulted in a significant (P=0.01) increase in [BDNF]p at rest to 16.8 +/- 2.1 pg x ml(-1), as well as in significant (P=0.0002) exercise induced increase in the [BDNF](p) (10.9 +/- 2.3 pg x ml(-1) before training vs. 68.4 +/- 16.0 pg x ml(-1) after training). The training induced increase in resting [BDNF](p) was accompanied by a slight decrease in insulin resistance (P=0.25), calculated using the homeostatic model assessment version 2 (HOMA2-IR), amounting to 1.40 +/- 0.13 before and 1.15 +/- 0.13 after the training. Moreover, we have found that the basal [BDNF](p) in athletes (n=16) was significantly higher than in untrained subjects (n=13) (29.5 +/- 9.5 pg x ml(-1) vs. 10.3 +/- 1.4 pg x ml(-1), P=0.013). We have concluded that endurance training of moderate intensity increases both basal as well as the end-exercise [BDNF](p) in young healthy men. This adaptive response, contrariwise to the recent findings in patients with metabolic disorders, was accompanied by a slight decrease in insulin resistance.
The present study was designed to investigate the effects of exercise to exhaustion on different components of visual capacity: visual field, and coincidence/anticipation capacity. 16 male subjects were first familiarized with the three visual tests, one day before being submitted to a prefatigue visual test. Metabolic fatigue was induced by working to exhaustion on a bicycle ergometer. Once fatigued, all subjects undertook the visual tests. Pre- and post-fatigue visual measurements were not significantly different. The results demonstrated the independence between metabolic fatigue and visual capacity.
To replicate 1986 work of Salmela and Ndoye on whether physical arousal from riding a stationary bicycle led to narrowing of attentional focus 17 subjects responded to a verbal 5-choice RT task while pedalling to exhaustion. Increased heart rates with increased physical stress (bicycle resistance increased) was not associated with narrowing of attention. When heart rates were 160 and 180 bpm, RTs to stimuli peripherally located to the right were slower than central ones. Further evaluation is required.
The aim of this study was to assess the effect of physical exertion (treadmill) on mental performance (matching a comparison design). Nine pairs of monozygotic twins (boys aged 11 to 14 yr.) were randomly divided into two groups, one trained and one untrained, while eight boys of the same age served as a control group. The trained group underwent a specifically designed program lasting six months. The trained and untrained groups performed on the treadmill for 20 min. at a running speed intensity above their individual anaerobic thresholds. Mental performance was evaluated by analysing mean number of correct answers, time taken to reach correct answers (decision time), and wrong answers. A 3 x 2 (group x pre/posttest) analysis of variance with repeated measures on the last factor yielded no significant differences; however, significant pre- versus posttest differences on correct answers and decision times occurred among the exercised groups.
Two different measures were used to test field dependence-independence, Group Hidden Figures Test and Portable Rod and Frame Test. The purpose of the study was to compare the advantages of these two measures in differentiating among adolescents who are active in individual and team sports and those who are not. 94 adolescent boys and girls were divided into three groups, as follows: 33 in individual sports, 31 in team sports, and 30 nonathletes. No correlation was found between the two measures. The Portable Rod and Frame Test was the better instrument for distinguishing among the groups. This test requires use of visual vs proprioceptive information to perceive the body's spatial orientation. The Group Hidden Figures Test requires more analytical intelligence. Since there are relationships among awareness of the body, spatial orientation, and physical activity of athletes, the Portable Rod and Frame Test seems to be more applicable to the task of distinguishing between and among athletes and nonathletes.
The purpose of this research was to investigate the effects of active exercise of the arms on various physiological, perceptual, and cognitive parameters of children with spina bifida manifesta who were aged 9 to 12 yr. Following a 5-min. rest interval, subjects were either not exercised (control days) for a 6-min. period or were exercised (experimental days) for a 6-min. period. Cardiac measures, respiratory function, peripheral vision, and figural learning trials were recorded after exercise. Wilcoxon matched-pairs signed rank tests were computed on the means of the exercise and no-exercise conditions for each measure. Six minutes of active exercise resulted in significant increases in peripheral vision, respiratory and cardiac measures and significant decreases in figural learning trials for these children. A floor effect was noted for the figural learning test. It was concluded that exercise increased blood flow through the lungs allowing for greater oxygen diffusion in the brain and other facilitatory effects resulting in more effective cerebral activity. Curriculum revisions for such children seem to indicate the importance of activity in facilitating subsequent learning.
The Handbook of Cognition provides a definitive synthesis of the most up-to-date and advanced work in cognitive psychology in a single volume. The editors have gathered together a team of world-leading researchers in specialist areas of the field, both traditional and `hot’ new areas, to present a benchmark - in terms of theoretical insight and advances in methodology - of the discipline. This book contains a thorough overview of the most significant and current research in cognitive psychology that will serve this academic community like no other volume.
Recent reviews of the literature have demonstrated that exercise has a positive impact on cognitive performance. The purpose of this study was to assess the impact of an acute bout of aerobic exercise on executive functioning in college-age adults. For the experimental intervention, the effects of 20 min of self-paced moderate-intensity exercise on a treadmill were compared to the effects of a 20-min sedentary control period. Executive functioning was assessed using Stroop color-word interference and negative priming tests. Results indicated that the bout of exercise led to improved performance on the Stroop color-word interference task but no change in performance on the negative priming task. This finding suggests that exercise may facilitate cognitive performance by improving the maintenance of goal-oriented processing in the brain.
Nearly 200 studies have examined the impact that either acute or long-term exercise has upon cognition. Subsets of these studies have been reviewed using the traditional narrative method, and the common conclusion has been that the results are mixed. Therefore, a more comprehensive review is needed that includes all available studies and that provides a more objective and reproducible review process. Thus, a meta-analytic review was conducted that included all relevant studies with sufficient information for the calculation of effect size (W = 134). The overall effect size was 0.25, suggesting that exercise has a small positive effect on cognition. Examination of the moderator variables indicated that characteristics related to the exercise paradigm, the participants, the cognitive tests, and the quality of the study influence effect size. However, the most important finding was that as experimental rigor decreased, effect size increased. Therefore, more studies need to be conducted that emphasize experimental rigor.
Two experiments were carried out to examine the effect of moderate and maximal exercise on decision-making performance of college soccer players. In the first experiment decision-making performance on a simple test was compared with that on a complex task. Subjects (N = 10) were tested at rest and while cycling on a cycle ergometer at 70% and 100% of their maximum power output. Accuracy and speed of decision were the dependent variables. Speed of decision improved with exercise intensity. Exercise had no effect on accuracy of decision. In the second experiment, subjects (N = 20) were tested on the complex test only. Group 1 (N = 10) were instructed to answer as quickly and as accurately as possible. Group 2 (N = 10) were told that only accuracy was being measured. In fact both accuracy and speed of decision were used as dependent variables. A main effect for exercise showed that speed of decision at rest was significantly slower than during maximal exercise. There was no effect of exercise on accuracy of decision. It was concluded that exercise induced arousal affected speed of decision, regardless of task complexity or instructional set.
In this study state-dependent learning in younger and older adults was compared. State was manipulated by having participants rest or exercise for 5 min, followed by exposure to 3 learning trials of a 20-item word list. After a 20-min delay, participants engaged either in the congruent or in the incongruent activity followed by free-recall trial, cued-recall, and recognition tests. Heart rate, blood pressure, and self-report of distress measures verified that the experimental conditions influenced the participants' physiologic state, but the distracter tasks did not. There was no difference in learning that was due to initial exercise condition, but both age groups showed greater recall when state was congruent before learning and delayed recall. This replicates previous research in which consistent state-dependent learning effects in younger adults were found and supports research suggesting that older adults spontaneously use contextual information to facilitate recall. The demonstration of state-dependent learning in older adults is discussed as an example of implicit memory not affected by aging.
The influence of intermittent exercise on a choice-response time task was investigated. Two groups of 8 male soccer players (M age 20.9, SD=2.0) participated. They spent 4.4 (SD= 1.3) weekly hours on soccer training and had been playing soccer for 13 (SD=3.3) years. Multiple-choice reaction speed and response accuracy were measured four times. Between measurements, one group performed 8-min. blocks of intermittent exercise on a bicycle ergometer and one group rested. Analysis showed that reaction speed and response accuracy were not significantly different between the two groups. Furthermore, there were significant faster reaction times and a larger number of correct reactions through Block 2 in both the exercise and control group (p<.05), probably a result of learning processes and familiarization with the task procedures. Further research towards the specific influence of mode of exercise, intensity, work-rest ratio and duration of intermittent exercise, and the sensitivity of reaction time tasks will be necessary to clarify the relationship between intermittent exercise and cognitive performance.
遠隔記憶障害を検出する場合，想起された内容の真実性，再学習の有無，興味や関心の個人差，時間的傾斜の検出の可否が問題となる。社会的なことがらを利用した遠隔記憶検査では興味や関心の個人差が，自伝的なことがらを利用した遠隔記憶検査では想起された内容の真実性が特に問題となる。また，比較的やさしい課題で健常群の天井効果を認める場合，または，比較的難しい課題で健忘群の床効果を認める場合には，時間的傾斜の有無に関して確実なことがいえなくなる。流暢性ベースの遠隔記憶検査は，単位時間内に知人の名前や体験した出来事をできるだけたくさん想起する課題であり，検査の構造上，天井効果が起こりえないために時間的傾斜の問題を考える場合には好都合である。また，内容の異なる遠隔記憶でも流暢性ベースで質問することにより，記憶以外の条件を等しくできる利点もある。コルサコフ症候群において，自伝的記憶流暢性検査の成績は，従来までの自伝的記憶検査の成績と有意な相関を認めており，遠隔記憶検査として有用性が高いと思われた。
The effect of a physical exercise session on verbal, visuospatial and numerical performance was investigated in 186 men and 188 women, university students who were randomly divided into three experimental and three control groups. All subjects were tested on one of Eysenck's verbal, visuospatial, and numerical ability tests. The experimental groups were examined after a 40-min. intensive exercise session, while controls were tested without any prior fatiguing task. There was no significant difference among the groups, indicating that an intensive physical exercise session does not impair mental performance as measured here.
The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of physical activity on memory performance in preadolescents. Fifty-two students aged 11–12 years performed a test involving free-recall of items from a 20-item word list during three separate testing sessions at school. Two sessions directly followed physical education lessons (aerobic circuit training or team games) characterized by similar exercise intensities, but different cognitive and social interaction demands. A third, baseline session was not preceded by any lesson. For each session, the number of items recalled from the whole list and from its primacy and recency portions was recorded twice under conditions of immediate and delayed recall.Immediate recall scores in both primacy and recency portions were higher following the team games than in the baseline session, whereas delayed recall scores in the recency portion were higher after both team game and aerobic training. Results suggest that an acute bout of submaximal exercise, as performed by students during physical education class, may facilitate memory storage. The differential effects of qualitatively unique types of exercise on immediate and delayed recall suggest that memory storage processes may be facilitated not only by exercise-induced increases in physiological arousal, but also by the cognitive activation induced by cognitive exercise demands. Results are discussed highlighting the importance of relationships between acute exercise and memory storage for mental health promotion.
The effects of a constant, sub-maximal workload (60%VO2max) on visual attention were investigated in two experiments by means of a computerised attentional test which was performed both at rest and while cycling. Two main aspects of the attentional performance were considered: the orienting of attention in the peripheral visual space (space-based aspect) and the focusing of attention on global and local features of visual objects (object-based aspect). The space-based aspect was investigated by presenting peripheral cues which predicted the size and position of a following target stimulus. The object-based aspect was investigated by means of compound stimuli (e.g. a global "H" letter composed from local "E" letters) containing the target stimulus either at the global or at the local level. Results show the following effects of the sub-maximal workload: (1) a general facilitation of reaction speed; (2) a specific modulation of attention depending on task demands. With higher task demands (i.e. frequent misleading cues), subjects better succeeded in suppressing the automatic orienting triggered by the misleading cue and in directing attention on task relevant global features of visual objects located elsewhere. Thus, the sub-maximal workload might enhance the flexibility in shifting a broad attentional focus in the visual space.
This study investigated the focusing of visual attention, with and without, a constant submaximal workload (60% VO2max), on a cycloergometer in two experiments. Two main dimensions of attentional focusing were considered: the space/object‐based dimension and the exogenous/endogenous dimension. These dimensions were investigated by means of the following attention task: A cue of varying size was presented centrally and followed, after a variable interval, by a compound letter with global and local features. Participants were required to react to a predefined target letter, which could be either the global form or one of the local elements of the compound letter. Results confirm the effect of reaction time (RT) reduction under submaximal workloads. Furthermore, it was demonstrated that the physical load reduces the RT cost, which has to be paid when a misleading cue causes a disadvantageous focusing of attention. This effect of physical load is presumably mediated by increased allocation of attentional resources and enhanced speed of attentional refocusing. This interpretation is discussed both in terms of the type of attentional operations involved (zooming in vs. zooming out) and the type of control exerted on the attentional focusing (exogenous vs. endogenous).
Replicated the pilot work of J. C. Gondola and B. W. Tuckman (see record
1986-09144-001) to determine whether an increase in physical fitness is accompanied by an increase in tested creativity. Ss were 42 coeds from 3 different health and physical education courses at an urban college. Ss in 2 courses that included both lecture and activity were assigned to 2 experimental groups; Ss in the 3rd course, which was conducted on a lecture-only basis, served as controls. The Match Problems II, Alternate Uses, and Consequences tests of the Kit of Reference Tests for Cognitive Factors were administered to assess creativity. Fitness was measured by a 1.5-mile run before the creativity tests were administered. Data were analyzed by analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Findings show that both short- and long-term bouts of running increased creativity. (8 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
ObjectivesTo examine the effect of an acute bout of resistance exercise on cognitive performance in healthy middle-aged adults.DesignA randomized controlled trial design.MethodsForty-one adults (Mage = 49.10 years, SD = 8.73) were randomly assigned to either resistance exercise or a control condition. The resistance exercise condition consisted of 2 sets of 10 repetitions for 6 exercises, and the control condition involved reading about resistance exercise for a time period approximating the duration of the exercise condition. The Stroop Test and the Trail Making Test (TMT) were completed at baseline and immediately following performance of the treatment.ResultsResults indicated that resistance exercise significantly benefits speed of processing (Stroop Word and Stroop Color), and that there is a trend towards resistance exercise benefiting performance on an executive function task (Stroop Color–Word) that requires shifting of the habitual response. However, the results for the TMT were not significant which demonstrates that acute resistance exercise has a limited effect on inhibition.ConclusionThe present findings extend the literature by indicating that an acute bout of resistance exercise has a positive impact on automatic cognitive processes and on particular types of executive function in middle-aged adults.
ObjectivesThis study investigated visual attention of adolescent orienteers and physically active adolescents non-practising orienteering both at rest and under acute sub-maximal exercise. It was verified whether the practice of orienteering facilitates the development of visual attentional abilities and whether orienteers, who are used to simultaneously handle physiological and cognitive-attentional loads, may better profit than non-orienteers from the beneficial effects of sub-maximal physical load on processing speed.MethodsBoth the focusing of attention at foveal and parafoveal locations and the orienting of attention at peripheral locations were investigated. In two discriminative reaction time (RT) experiments, a cue of varying size was presented centrally or peripherally and followed by a compound stimulus with local and global target features. The stimulus-onset asynchrony (SOA) varied between a short and a long interval.ResultsIn both experiments, adolescent orienteers and non-practisers showed different patterns of attentional effects. Adolescent orienteers were more similar to young adults in the attentional performance, being better able than non-practisers to perform complex attentional operations involving the intentional zooming of attention in the central visual field and the orienting of the attentional focus in the peripheral visual field. Also, both orienteers and non-orienteers speeded up their performance during exercise, but this facilitation effect was more pronounced for orienteers, who are probably skilled in directing the available resources to task demands.ConclusionsOur results suggest that cognitive expertise represents a key factor in sports that accelerates the development of visual attention and enhances the facilitating effects of physical exercise on attentional performance.
Research examining the effect of incremental exercise on cognitive performance has claimed that increases in exercise intensity result in increases in arousal. An inverted-U effect of incremental exercise on cognitive Junction has been hypothesized. The majority of researchers have drawn upon unidimensional theories of arousal as the underlying rationale for the hypotheses. Since more recent papers, however, indicate that multidimensional, allocable resource theories are better able to explain the effect of incremental exercise on cognitive performance. This paper examines the extent to which empirical research supports these theoretical underpinnings. It is concluded that incremental exercise has generally shown no significant effect on accuracy of cognitive performance. Cognitive effort can allocate resources to task relevant information, even during maximal exercise. Increases in speed of cognition, from rest, are thought to occur when individuals reach their plasma adrenaline threshold. Results, comparing speed of cognition at rest with those during heavy exercise, suggest that speed of performance on complex tasks is facilitated by increases in allocable resources, while simple tasks are unaffected. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2007 APA, all rights reserved)
Background:
Physical activity is beneficial for healthy ageing. It may also help maintain good cognitive function in older age. Aerobic activity improves cardiovascular fitness, but it is not known whether this sort of fitness is necessary for improved cognitive function. Studies in which activity, fitness and cognition are reported in the same individuals could help to resolve this question.
Objectives:
To assess the effectiveness of physical activity, aimed at improving cardiorespiratory fitness, on cognitive function in older people without known cognitive impairment.
Search strategy:
We searched MEDLINE, EMBASE, PEDro, SPORTDiscus, PsycINFO, CINAHL, Cochrane Controlled Trials Register (CENTRAL), Dissertation abstracts international and ongoing trials registers on 15 December 2005 with no language restrictions.
Selection criteria:
All published randomised controlled trials comparing aerobic physical activity programmes with any other intervention or no intervention with participants older than 55 years of age were eligible for inclusion.
Data collection and analysis:
Eleven RCTs fulfilling the inclusion criteria are included in this review. Two reviewers independently extracted the data from these included studies.
Main results:
Eight out of 11 studies reported that aerobic exercise interventions resulted in increased cardiorespiratory fitness of the intervention group (an improvement on the maximum oxygen uptake test which is considered to be the single best indicator of the cardiorespiratory system) of approximately 14% and this improvement coincided with improvements in cognitive capacity. The largest effects on cognitive function were found on motor function and auditory attention (effect sizes of 1.17 and 0.50 respectively). Moderate effects were observed for cognitive speed (speed at which information is processed; effect size 0.26) and visual attention (effect size 0.26).
Authors' conclusions:
There is evidence that aerobic physical activities which improve cardiorespiratory fitness are beneficial for cognitive function in healthy older adults, with effects observed for motor function, cognitive speed, auditory and visual attention. However, the majority of comparisons yielded no significant results. The data are insufficient to show that the improvements in cognitive function which can be attributed to physical exercise are due to improvements in cardiovascular fitness, although the temporal association suggests that this might be the case. Larger studies are still required to confirm whether the aerobic training component is necessary, or whether the same can be achieved with any type of physical exercise. At the same time, it would be informative to understand why some cognitive functions seem to improve with (aerobic) physical exercise while other functions seem to be insensitive to physical exercise. Clinicians and scientists in the field of neuropsychology should seek mutual agreement on a smaller battery of cognitive tests to use, in order to render research on cognition clinically relevant and transparent and heighten the reproducibility of results for future research.
Exercise is known to induce a cascade of molecular and cellular processes that support brain plasticity. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) is an essential neurotrophin that is also intimately connected with central and peripheral molecular processes of energy metabolism and homeostasis, and could play a crucial role in these induced mechanisms.
This review provides an overview of the current knowledge on the effects of acute exercise and/or training on BDNF in healthy subjects and in persons with a chronic disease or disability. A systematic and critical literature search was conducted. Articles were considered for inclusion in the review if they were human studies, assessed peripheral (serum and/or plasma) BDNF and evaluated an acute exercise or training intervention. Nine RCTs, one randomized trial, five non-randomized controlled trials, five non-randomized non-controlled trials and four retrospective observational studies were analysed. Sixty-nine percent of the studies in healthy subjects and 86%of the studies in persons with a chronic disease or disability, showed a ‘mostly transient’ increase in serum or plasma BDNF concentration following an acute aerobic exercise. The two studies regarding a single acute strength exercise session could not show a significant influence on basal BDNF concentration. In studies regarding the effects of strength or aerobic training on BDNF, a difference should be made between effects on basal BDNF concentration and training-induced effects on the BDNF response following an acute exercise. Only three out of ten studies on aerobic or strength training (i.e. 30%) found a training-induced increase in basal BDNF concentration. Two out of six studies (i.e. 33%) reported a significantly higher BDNF response to acute exercise following an aerobic or strength training programme (i.e. compared with the BDNF response to an acute exercise at baseline). A few studies of low quality (i.e. retrospective observational studies) show that untrained or moderately trained healthy subjects have higher basal BDNF concentrations than highly trained subjects. Yet, strong evidence still has to come from good methodological studies.
Available results suggest that acute aerobic, but not strength exercise increases basal peripheral BDNF concentrations, although the effect is transient. From a few studies we learn that circulating BDNF originates both from central and peripheral sources. We can only speculate which central regions and peripheral sources in particular circulating BDNF originates from, where it is transported to and to what purpose it is used and/or stored at its final destination. No study could show a long-lasting BDNF response to acute exercise or training (i.e. permanently increased basal peripheral BDNF concentration) in healthy subjects or persons with a chronic disease or disability. It seems that exercise and/or training temporarily elevate basal BDNF and possibly upregulate cellular processing of BDNF (i.e. synthesis, release, absorption and degradation). From that point of view, exercise and/or training would result in a higher BDNF synthesis following an acute exercise bout (i.e. compared with untrained subjects). Subsequently, more BDNF could be released into the blood circulation which may, in turn, be absorbed more efficiently by central and/or peripheral tissues where it could induce a cascade of neurotrophic and neuroprotective effects.
The purpose of this study was to explore the dose-response relationship between resistance exercise intensity and cognitive performance. Sixty-eight participants were randomly assigned into control, 40%, 70%, or 100% of 10-repetition maximal resistance exercise groups. Participants were tested on Day 1 (baseline) and on Day 2 (measures were taken relative to performance of the treatment). Heart rate, ratings of perceived exertion, self-reported arousal, and affect were assessed on both days. Cognitive performance was assessed on Day 1 and before and following treatment on Day 2. Results from regression analyses indicated that there is a significant linear effect of exercise intensity on information processing speed, and a significant quadratic trend for exercise intensity on executive function. Thus, there is a dose-response relationship between the intensity of resistance exercise and cognitive performance such that high-intensity exercise benefits speed of processing, but moderate intensity exercise is most beneficial for executive function.
Typescript. Thesis (Ph. D.)--Georgia State University, 1998. Bibliography: leaves 104-112.
Includes abstract in English and French. Thesis (M.A.)--McGill University, 1988. Includes bibliographical references.
Typescript. Thesis (M.A.)--Central Michigan University, 1986. Includes bibliographical references (leaves 54-56). Also published on microfiche: Ann Arbor, Mich. : University Microfilms.
University Microfilms order no. UMI00360651. Thesis (M. Sc.)--Memorial University of Newfoundland, 1991. Includes bibliographical references.
Mental arithmetic performance before, during, and following low (40% maximal heart-rate reserve; approximately 90 watts exercise for 15 min.) and moderate (60% maximal heart-rate reserve; approximately 150 watts exercise for 10 min.) intensity cycling by 20 male students (M age = 28.1 yr.) was studied. Subjects were grouped, by using a median-split on their total mathematical performance scores, into a group of 10 low in arithmetic skill and a group of 10 high in arithmetic skill. The numbers and percentages of right answers to 1-min. mathematical problem-sets of either group were not different in the various conditions, suggesting that 25 min. of progressive cycling exercise did not influence mathematical problem-solving efficacy.
18 adult female volunteers, ages 27 to 49 years, were divided into two groups based on their cardiorespiratory fitness to investigate speed and accuracy of addition and subtraction immediately, 5 min., and 15 min. postexercise. A 2 (fitness level) x 3 (exercise duration) x 3 (postexercise performance trials) repeated-measures analysis of variance indicated that, for the fit group, speed of problem solving was significantly faster after both 20-min. and 40-min. exercise sessions across all performance trials; for the less-fit group, speed of addition/subtraction was significantly faster only after the 20-min. exercise session across performance trials. No significant postexercise difference in accuracy was found for either fit or less-fit groups.
The relationship between physical fitness and cognitive performance in old age is examined in the light of contemporary capacity theories of attention. It is suggested that a model of cognition based upon the notion of a declining attentional capacity with advancing age provides a valuable conceptual framework for examining the influence of physical fitness on cognitive performance in old age. A direct prediction of the model is that cognitive tasks which require effortful processing should be more sensitive to the effects of fitness than tasks which can be performed without or with minimal attention. It is suggested that future research in the area of exercise and cognition systematically manipulate the attentional requirements of the tasks selected for the evaluation of cognitive performance. The implications of such a task-dependent association between physical fitness and cognitive performance for future research are discussed.