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The Effects of Video on Cognitive Load and Social Presence in Multimedia-Learning

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Abstract

Two studies examined the use of video in multimedia learning environments. In Study 1, participants (N = 26) viewed one of two versions of a computer-based multimedia presentation: video, which included a video of a lecture with synchronized slides, or no video, which included the slides but only an audio narration of the lecture. Learning, cognitive load and social presence were assessed, but a significant difference was found only for cognitive load, with video experiencing greater cognitive load, t (24) = 2.45, p < .05. In Study 2, students (N = 25) were randomly assigned to either video or no video condition. Background knowledge and visual/verbal learning preference were assessed before viewing the presentation, and learning, cognitive load, and social presence were assessed after viewing. No significant differences were found for learning or social presence. However, a significant visual/verbal learning preference by condition interaction was found for cognitive load, F (1,21) = 4.51, p < .05: low visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the video condition, while high visual-preference students experienced greater cognitive load in the no video condition.

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... These trainings should improve the the students' self-efficacy in enterprise systems usage [105]. To be effective, e-learning environments should be designed to accommodate the nature of the human mind and take into account the inherent limitations of perceptual and cognitive systems [106]. ...
... Learning should support the cognitive requirements of the human brain [106]. Learning implies that the information obtained need to be stored in the long-term memory of students and be re-callable [38,40,[129][130][131]. ...
... Learning implies that the information obtained need to be stored in the long-term memory of students and be re-callable [38,40,[129][130][131]. Even though the long-term memory is considered to have a vast capacity [132][133][134][135], the working memory represents a bottle neck for learning [38,40,106,135,136]. Among other factors, the complexity of the learning content is considered to have an impact on the capacity utilization of working memory, and might cause to overstrain this [38,40]. ...
Article
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Enterprise systems are complex information systems that are inevitable for companies’ success. As enterprise systems are only successful when used continuously and efficiently by end-users, knowledge on how to use them has become an important skill for employees. Research and practice favor an early obtainment of these skills for employees. Thus, it is usual to train students in enterprise systems usage before they start their professional career. Even though in organizational settings e-learning based approaches gain momentum, adapting design instances of multi-purpose platforms like Udacity, Udemy or Coursera existing approaches directed at students are scarce. Nevertheless, a well-informed e-learning platform design can support the learning process. Therefore, we investigate the design of e-learning platforms featuring students’ enterprise system end-user training. To address the lack of guidance on designing such e-learning platforms, we proposed four meta-requirements and ten design principles to increase students’ learning success on e-learning platforms focusing on students’ end-user training. To achieve this goal and to ground our results on empiricism, we collected data about e-learning-platform design from three data sources: (1) We reviewed the existing literature, (2) carried out a multi-case analysis, and (3) derived insights from implementing an e-learning platform for students’ end-user training and thereby demonstrating the applicability of the design principles. Finally, we evaluated the implementation. Following the design principles, learning success should be increased by a flexible learning environment with easy access and use, propelled motivation, and fostered information exchange.
... Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) highlights the significance of optimizing cognitive resources to improve learning outcomes by minimizing extraneous load, managing appropriate levels of intrinsic load, and promoting germane load (Sweller et al., 2019). One way to achieve this is by presenting new information in a way that considers individual learner characteristics, such as prior knowledge (Sweller, 2024), and learning preferences (Homer et al., 2008). By aligning instruction with learners' existing knowledge and experiences, educators can facilitate more efficient processing and reduce unnecessary demands on working memory. ...
... On one hand, videos allow to simultaneously process both verbal and visual information and it complies with the multimedia principle, stating that people learn better from both words and pictures (Mayer, 2017), as it allows to partially overcome the limitations of human working memory. On the other hand, it is possible that some sound and video can increase extraneous cognitive load causing splitattention effect (Homer et al., 2008), as learners need to focus on both the presentation providing pictures and words, and on the lecturer's audio commentary of these presentation slides. ...
... It is often suggested that type of content (Hong et al., 2018), as well as learners' background and preferences should be taken into account when designing online learning (Homer et al., 2008). Under learner control a learner has an opportunity to choose to resort to video watching or give his preference to other activities such as studying the written materials. ...
Article
Prior research has suggested that participation in peer feedback activities, specifically the giving and receiving of comments, and the implementation of suggested ideas helps to improve writing quality. However, it is not always the case that received feedback is implemented. Currently, there is uncertainty regarding how the total number of comments received during a peer feedback activity interacts with the number of implemented comments and subsequent text quality. Therefore, the present study examined the online peer feedback sessions of 186 graduate students enrolled in a scientific writing course at a Korean university. It aimed to investigate the possible moderating effect of the total number of comments on the relationship between implementation of comments and student writing performance. The results showed that there is no relationship between the number of received comments and student writing performance. Furthermore, no significant correlation was observed between the number of implemented comments and student writing performance. However, importantly, a moderating effect of the total number of comments on the relationship between implementation of comments and student writing performance was found. In other words, the more total comments students receive, the less their implementation will be associated with significant improvement of writing quality. This result is significant because it suggests that in online collaborative learning contexts, there is an upper limit of peer comments, above which the original author can no longer effectively implement them to improve writing performance.
... In addition, videos could contain nonessential information which could be distracting to learners. These downsides of videos have been earlier reported (Homer et al., 2008). To circumvent these challenges, the adoption of multimedia learning principles such as removal of extraneous content and signaling of important learning content are effective measures (Mayer & Fiorella, 2014). ...
... 23° difference could be attributed to other factors such as participants' ethnicity (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006), visual preference (Homer et al., 2008) and media type (Castro-Alonso et al., 2019) which are moderating variables in multimedia learning. For instance, Homer et al. (2008) reported that low visual-preference learners experienced higher cognitive load than high visual-preference learners in learning with video. ...
... 23° difference could be attributed to other factors such as participants' ethnicity (Moreno & Flowerday, 2006), visual preference (Homer et al., 2008) and media type (Castro-Alonso et al., 2019) which are moderating variables in multimedia learning. For instance, Homer et al. (2008) reported that low visual-preference learners experienced higher cognitive load than high visual-preference learners in learning with video. Fig. 9: Participants' ratings of perceived mental demand, effort, and frustration after interaction with both video ...
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Within the overarching theme of “Managing the Digital Transformation of Construction Industry” the 23rd International Conference on Construction Applications of Virtual Reality (CONVR 2023) presented 123 high-quality contributions on the topics of: Virtual and Augmented Reality (VR/AR), Building Information Modeling (BIM), Simulation and Automation, Computer Vision, Data Science, Artificial Intelligence, Linked Data, Semantic Web, Blockchain, Digital Twins, Health & Safety and Construction site management, Green buildings, Occupant-centric design and operation, Internet of Everything. The editors trust that this publication can stimulate and inspire academics, scholars and industry experts in the field, driving innovation, growth and global collaboration among researchers and stakeholders.
... While some of these studies reported no effects of the instructor on various learning measures (Kizilcec et al., 2014;van Wermeskerken et al., 2018), some even revealed learning-enhancing effects (Pi & Hong, 2016;, at least for certain learning materials or measures (e.g., retention of spoken explanations, Colliot & Jamet, 2018; recall performance for easy videos, Wang & Antonenko, 2017; transfer performance for difficult videos, . Similarly, previous behavioural studies (i.e., without eye tracking) found mostly no effects (Homer, Plass, & Blake, 2008;Ng & Przybylek, 2021;Sondermann & Merkt, 2023b) or beneficial effects on learning (Wang, Antonenko, Keil, & Dawson, 2020). This pattern is also reflected by a recent meta-analysis (Alemdag, 2022) and two recent reviews (Henderson & Schroeder, 2021;Polat, 2022) suggesting mostly positive and absent instructor effects on learning outcomes. ...
... Besides the instructor effects on visual attention and learning measures, learners' subjective ratings are also a crucial factor for practice, especially in informal learning contexts, as learners may decide not to continue watching a video they do not like. Even though some studies did not observe effects of instructor presence on subjective ratings (Colliot & Jamet, 2018;Homer et al., 2008;Ng & Przybylek, 2021;Sondermann & Merkt, 2023b), there is ample evidence that a visible instructor positively affects satisfaction (Henderson & Schroeder, 2021;Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a;Wang & Antonenko, 2017; Wang, Antonenko, & Dawson, 2020), perceived learning (Kizilcec, Bailenson, & Gomez, 2015;Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a;Wilson et al., 2018), and perceived social presence (Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a). Correspondingly, both the recent meta-analysis and one recent review concluded that a visible instructor could increase motivation (Alemdag, 2022) and positive feelings (Polat, 2022). ...
... The findings in this regard are also mixed (Henderson & Schroeder, 2021). While some load-enhancing effects of instructor presence emerged (Homer et al., 2008;Hong, Pi, & Yang, 2018), other studies also revealed no (Colliot & Jamet, 2018;Ng & Przybylek, 2021) or even load-reducing effects of instructor presence (Kizilcec, Bailenson, & Gomez, 2015;Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a;Wang, Antonenko, Keil, & Dawson, 2020). For example, in a previous online study, we found that the talking head reduced ratings of perceived difficulty while increasing ratings of GCL (Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a). ...
Article
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Background: There are still unanswered questions concerning the optimal design of educational videos, for instance with regard to the visibility of a talking head next to the learning content. Although visible talking heads in educational videos may stimulate deeper processing, they can also distract from the visual learning content. Aims: The current eye tracking study investigated how a talking head presented next to stepwise appearing (i.e., animated) graphic-based content affected learners' eye movements, learning, and ratings (e.g., social presence). Sample: Ninety-six university students participated in the experiment. Methods: We used a within-subjects design to vary whether a talking head was present in short learning videos with narrated slides. Results: Our results revealed that the talking head both reduced fixation duration of the overall content and fixation duration and number of fixations of newly appearing content. Further, time to first fixation of newly appearing content was delayed by the talking head. However, the talking head did not affect learning outcomes (knowledge test and picture recognition task performance) and there was no mediation by the fixation duration of the content. Additionally, learners indicated higher social presence ratings for videos including a talking head, but we observed no differences in ratings of perceived learning, satisfaction, perceived difficulty, and invested mental effort due to the talking head. Conclusion: The talking head strongly influenced learners’ eye movements by reducing fixations of the learning content but did not cause any learning losses. We discuss implications and limitations of the findings also in view of future research.
... For students pursuing careers in the construction industry, videos provide opportunities to observe construction projects (Quinn et al. 2019), while stimulating their interest in the domain knowledge and skills (Shojaei et al. 2021). Despite these benefits, videos alone may be insufficient to reinforce learning outcomes (Homer et al. 2008;Teng 2022). Videos sometimes contain extraneous information, which may be irrelevant to learning content (Brame 2016;Mayer and Fiorella 2014). ...
... The results showed that significant portions of educational videos were ignored by students. Homer et al. (2008) demonstrated how a multimedia learning tool that combines videos and PowerPoint slides resulted in divided attention of students, increased cognitive load, and reduced learning. Research has also shown that sometimes videos could have minimal impact on how well students perform (MacHardy and Pardos 2015). ...
... In addition, Mutlu-Bayraktar et al. (2019) suggested that multimediabased instructional materials should be designed based on learners' cognitive loads. Homer et al. (2008) identified significant differences in the cognitive load of learners who interacted with a video-based learning environment. In respect to this study, little is known of the extent to which learners' individual differences and cognitive loads would influence how they notice signaled concepts in construction project videos. ...
... For students pursuing careers in the construction industry, videos provide opportunities to observe construction projects (Quinn et al. 2019), while stimulating their interest in the domain knowledge and skills (Shojaei et al. 2021). Despite these benefits, videos alone may be insufficient to reinforce learning outcomes (Homer et al. 2008;Teng 2022). Videos sometimes contain extraneous information, which may be irrelevant to learning content (Brame 2016;Mayer and Fiorella 2014). ...
... The results showed that significant portions of educational videos were ignored by students. Homer et al. (2008) demonstrated how a multimedia learning tool that combines videos and PowerPoint slides resulted in divided attention of students, increased cognitive load, and reduced learning. Research has also shown that sometimes videos could have minimal impact on how well students perform (MacHardy and Pardos 2015). ...
... In addition, Mutlu-Bayraktar et al. (2019) suggested that multimediabased instructional materials should be designed based on learners' cognitive loads. Homer et al. (2008) identified significant differences in the cognitive load of learners who interacted with a video-based learning environment. In respect to this study, little is known of the extent to which learners' individual differences and cognitive loads would influence how they notice signaled concepts in construction project videos. ...
Article
To enhance students’ learning of construction practice, instructors use videos as multimedia pedagogical tools to bring practical experience into the classroom. However, cognitive load levels, individual differences, and multimedia design principles are important considerations in the effective use of videos for instruction. Therefore, this study investigates the effectiveness of an artificial intelligence (AI)–annotated video in guiding students’ attention to important construction practice concepts. Students were exposed to both annotated and unannotated videos illustrating construction safety practices. Eye tracking metrics and self-reported cognitive load were collected as students interacted with both learning environments. The effectiveness of the videos in drawing students’ attention were compared. The AI-annotated video was considered effective and the variations across individual differences were reported. No significant difference was observed in the cognitive loads of both learning environments. This study provides an understanding of the extent to which learners of different demographic characteristics allocate attention to signaled practice concepts. This study also illustrates the impact of the signaled concepts on learners’ cognitive loads. This study contributes to existing theories by elucidating how practice knowledge could be adapted to meet construction engineering students’ learning needs.
... As a result, many researchers believe that instructor image is one kind of extra information that can lead to redundant information in the visual channel. When instructor image is presented in the online course videos, it increases extraneous load and hinders the learner's information processing integration (Mayer, 2005;Homer et al., 2008;Kizilcec et al., 2014). ...
... On the one hand, many studies found that instructor presence was able to increase learner's sense of social presence and interest, promote attention investment, stimulate positive emotions, and improve academic performance (Guo et al., 2014;Kizilcec et al., 2014). On the other hand, there were also studies that showed instructor presence did not have a significantly positive impact on online learner's social presence, cognitive load, and academic performance, and may even have a negative impact on learning achievement (Homer et al., 2008). This was partly due to external factors such as experimental design, measurement tools, and teaching style. ...
... Keller and Becker (2020) explored the role of teachers' emotions in students' responses and found that teachers' emotions were related to students' emotions. Although studies support that teachers' emotions are essential to students' learning, there are still some studies which have found that the presence of the teacher had no significant effects on students' learning (Homer et al., 2008;Kizilcec et al., 2014). That is, the effects of teachers' presence and emotions on students' learning are still to be further explored. ...
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The research studies in this Research Topic make significant contributions to the area of teachers’ emotions. Furthermore, these studies also have both theoretical and practical implications. It is suggested that teachers’ emotions cannot be regarded as isolated from social, cultural, and political environments, but they are intertwined, a process called emotional transmission in the teaching context (Frenzel et al., 2018). Therefore, teachers’ emotions are dynamic rather than static. However, most previous studies regarded teachers’ emotions as a static variable by measuring their emotions at one time and testing their relationships with other variables (e.g., students’ emotional responses; Wang et al.). A transmissive and dynamic perspective on the possible roles of teachers’ emotions is still lacking. Further work should understand the role of teachers’ emotions in educational contexts by dynamic measures (e.g., experience sampling).
... 8,9 ). Several studies have demonstrated that instructor presence during multimedia lessons can similarly facilitate learning 10,11 , but other studies instead found no benefit or a detrimental effect of including the instructor in lessons [12][13][14] . These mixed results suggest that additional factors shape individual differences in learning during multimedia lessons. ...
... Consistent with this, young adults typically report that they prefer lessons and expect to learn more when the instructor is present 11,[38][39][40][41][42] . However, other studies have found that college students showed either no benefit or poorer recall when the instructor was present during multimedia lessons 12,13,39,43 . Several authors have argued that including the instructor only increases extraneous visual features that distract from learning 44,45 . ...
... Indeed, unlike visual cues that direct attention to lesson-relevant content, students spend less time looking at primary lesson content when the instructor is present 10,11,13,39,42,46 . Thus, while the presence of the instructor may benefit learning by increasing student engagement, there may also be a cost to learning due to increased processing of extraneous visual features 11,12,33 . ...
Article
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Although some researchers recommend minimizing extraneous visual information in multimedia lessons, others have demonstrated that features such as visual cues and instructor videos can enhance learning. However, variability in selective attention skills may influence students’ ability to benefit from these additional features. This study investigated links between college students’ selective attention skills and their learning from video lessons that varied in the use of visual cues and the instructor video. Learning outcomes depended on both the visual features available and students’ effort and selective attention skills. Among students who reported increased effort during the lessons, those with more efficient selective attention benefited most when a single additional feature (i.e., either visual cues or the instructor video) was used. All students, regardless of attention skills, benefited when both visual cues and the instructor were combined. These findings suggest that learning during multimedia lessons may depend on the visual features of the lessons and the student’s effort and attention skills.
... In order to improve performance and eventually increase engagement, the cognitive load theory has been successfully employed in the construction of learning materials [59]. The cognitive load theory has been examined in this study in order to be er understand how course module design can lessen the mental work required to comprehend the material. ...
... In order to improve performance and eventually increase engagement, the cognitive load theory has been successfully employed in the construction of learning materials [59]. The cognitive load theory has been examined in this study in order to better understand how course module design can lessen the mental work required to comprehend the material. ...
Article
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Research has demonstrated that engagement in any learning environment improves learning and may even boost performance. Consequently, numerous scholars have examined various approaches to raising student engagement in learning. Gamification is one such approach because it is thought to increase motivation and reduce cognitive load to ultimately improve learning outcomes. However, some studies have called into question its benefits, prompting more research to be conducted to properly understand the phenomenon. Hence, the study examined gamification’s influence on motivation and cognitive load for enhancing learning engagement. The study was underpinned by the integration of the Attention, Relevance, Confidence, and Satisfaction (ARCS) model, self-determination theory (SDT), and cognitive load theory (CLT) in developing a conceptual framework. A sample of 407 university students who participated in five gamified courses were involved in the study. The data collected through a questionnaire were analyzed using SmartPLS structural equation modeling software. According to the study’s findings, both motivation and cognitive load influence engagement in learning, with cognitive load being the stronger influence. The study contributes to our knowledge by elucidating the relationship between gamification and students’ cognitive load and motivation to learn, as well as how these elements ultimately engage students in the learning process.
... This raises the question of how to design these instructional videos to be enjoyable and effective for learning. In formal educational settings, such as in schools and higher education, a commonly used design of instructional videos presents Power-Point slides accompanied by an instructor's video or audio explanation only (e.g., Homer et al., 2008;Pi et al., 2020). However, whether or not to show the instructor in video-based instruction has strong practical relevance and has led to increased research interest aimed at evidence-based design recommendations (e.g., Alemdag, 2022;Henderson & Schroeder, 2021). ...
... Most studies on instructor presence include videos up to 10 min (e.g., Kokoç et al., 2020;Wang et al., 2020aWang et al., , 2020bvan Wermesmerken et al., 2018;Zhang et al., 2021). Only a few studies include videos longer than 20 min (Homer et al., 2008;Pi & Hong, 2016). We are not aware of any studies that include videos longer than 30 min. ...
Article
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In formal educational settings, such as online university lectures, instructional videos often consist of PowerPoint slides accompanied by a video or audio explanation from the instructor. It has been assumed that the social cues provided by the instructor’s video may facilitate affective processes and affect learning outcomes. Research on instructor presence in instructional videos has focused primarily on laboratory and online studies that are not embedded in the courses in which learners are enrolled. Therefore, we present three field studies examining instructor presence in instructional videos embedded in higher education courses to strengthen external validity (exam-relevant topic, > 30 min long, personally known instructor). The results of these studies show positive effects of a visible instructor compared to no visible instructor on some affective measures: social presence in Study 1 ( n = 18, d = .85) and well-being in Study 3 ( n = 38, d = 1.01), but not on others (well-being in Studies 1 & 2 ( n = 53); motivation in Studies 1–3, social presence in Studies 2 & 3). They also show no effects on extraneous processing or learning outcomes (Studies 1–3). Thus, no general effect of instructor presence can be shown for instructional videos embedded in university courses in higher education, but there are also no detrimental effects. This leads to implications for future research, teaching, and design practice.
... The inclusion of nonverbal social cues, such as the inclusion of a PiP talking head, may serve to facilitate student interest, motivation, and learning performance in a given lecture on account of making the online instruction more closely resemble face-to-face instruction (Colliot & Jamet, 2018). Research specifically on the inclusion of a PiP talking head remains inconclusive in terms of its overall effects on learning; however, some light has been shed on how the PiP's inclusion affects specific aspects of learning, such as cognitive load and feelings of social connectedness (Alemdag, 2022;Colliot & Jamet, 2018;Henderson & Schroeder, 2021;Hew & Lo, 2020;Homer et al., 2008;Kizilcec et al., 2014;Pi et al., 2017;Yu, 2022). Additionally, the size of the PiP may influence overall student learning, with a small PiP facilitating higher overall recall and garnering higher satisfaction with a lecture than a medium or large PiP overlay (Pi et al., 2017). ...
... In general, any presentation format that keeps external distractions low, thereby reducing cognitive load, is preferred for learning (e.g., Mayer, 2017); however, recent research has shown that the sense of isolation and disconnectedness associated with remote learning can also hinder learning (e.g., Brown et al., 2022;Englander & Russell, 2022;Hensley et al., 2022). Research regarding whether fostering feelings of social connections via the inclusion of a visual of the speaker has also been inconclusive as to whether it increases cognitive load or actually facilitates learning (e.g., Homer et al., 2008;Kizilcec et al., 2014). This document is copyrighted by the American Psychological Association or one of its allied publishers. ...
Article
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The present study investigated whether the inclusion of the talking head feature within a narrated slides presentation would lead to greater perceived social connectedness and influence cognitive load and learning outcomes for prerecorded lectures. Data collection took place between Fall 2020 and Spring 2022. Five hundred thirty-seven participants (80.1% female, 17.1% male, 2.8% preferred to self-describe their gender) watched a prerecorded lecture that included or excluded the instructor’s face and were asked to complete a recognition quiz following the lecture. Additionally, they completed a questionnaire measuring various cognitive and psychological measures (e.g., COVID-19 worry and grief, social presence, cognitive load, mind wandering) and a demographic survey (e.g., age, gender, ethnicity). Results suggest that presentation condition did not directly predict performance on the recognition quiz; however, cognitive load was a significant predictor of recognition quiz performance and social connectedness via cognitive load predicted performance on the recognition quiz. These findings highlight the importance of creating remote learning environments that keep cognitive distractions low while generating greater social connections to enhance learning outcomes.
... They connect this with how students make meaning through their experiences. Homer, Plass, & Blake (2008) found that learners' feelings of engagement differed, depending on whether video was included in the PowerPoint presentation they viewed. More relevant to this discussion was the finding that individual preferences affect the learning experiences of the students, perhaps even more than the design of the presentation itself. ...
... Given the rapid increase in the availability of online learning, it is critical to consider ways to increase social presence through participation and collaboration amongst participants (Palloff & Pratt, 2003), while also acknowledging the effect of student self-directed learning on active participation (Bomia et al., 1997). As Homer, Plass, and Blake (2008) also write, further consideration needs to be given to creating opportunities for the learner to choose the learning modality that best meets their individual needs. Perhaps the scaffolding of the questions that were intended to create opportunities for deeper reflection of the topics actually limited the metacognitive process for some learners. ...
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This study analyzed the relationships between teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence in online learning environments (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000), with an emphasis on examining ways in which the design of instructor presentation formats relates to student responses within discussion forums. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were used to determine the nature of student responses, primarily through the lens of the Practical Inquiry Model (Garrison, 2007) by coding all text within the initial student responses to content-based questions. Twenty students were randomly assigned to two sections in a graduate level, teacher education course. One group was provided metacognitive prompts throughout the asynchronous lecture presentation and told to pause the presentation and document their thinking relative to the prompts. The other group was not asked to pause and write during the presentation nor were there any metacognitive prompts embedded within the presentation. A Pearson’s Chi-Square analysis was used to analyze the coding of the text and a form of text analytics was used to seek out the nature of student learning and cognitive presence. There were no significant associations found between the design of the instructor presentation and levels within the Practical Inquiry Model. Furthermore, the themes, number of total themes and word count also remained consistent between the two groups.
... They connect this with how students make meaning through their experiences. Homer, Plass, & Blake (2008) found that learners' feelings of engagement differed, depending on whether video was included in the PowerPoint presentation they viewed. More relevant to this discussion was the finding that individual preferences affect the learning experiences of the students, perhaps even more than the design of the presentation itself. ...
... Given the rapid increase in the availability of online learning, it is critical to consider ways to increase social presence through participation and collaboration amongst participants (Palloff & Pratt, 2003), while also acknowledging the effect of student self-directed learning on active participation (Bomia et al., 1997). As Homer, Plass, and Blake (2008) also write, further consideration needs to be given to creating opportunities for the learner to choose the learning modality that best meets their individual needs. Perhaps the scaffolding of the questions that were intended to create opportunities for deeper reflection of the topics actually limited the metacognitive process for some learners. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study analyzed the relationships between teaching presence, social presence and cognitive presence in online learning environments (Garrison, Anderson, & Archer, 2000), with an emphasis on examining ways in which the design of instructor presentation formats relates to student responses within discussion forums. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were used to determine the nature of student responses, primarily through the lens of the Practical Inquiry Model (Garrison, 2007) by coding all text within the initial student responses to content-based questions. Twenty students were randomly assigned to two sections in a graduate level, teacher education course. One group was provided metacognitive prompts throughout the asynchronous lecture presentation and told to pause the presentation and document their thinking relative to the prompts. The other group was not asked to pause and write during the presentation nor were there any metacognitive prompts embedded within the presentation. A Pearson’s Chi-Square analysis was used to analyze the coding of the text and a form of text analytics was used to seek out the nature of student learning and cognitive presence. There were no significant associations found between the design of the instructor presentation and levels within the Practical Inquiry Model. Furthermore, the themes, number of total themes and word count also remained consistent between the two groups.
... Although recent studies argued that COVID-19 may negatively impact e-learning (Alemany-Arrebola et al. 2020), little research has investigated students' cognitive load and satisfaction with online learning. According to cognitive load theory, individuals have to process the multi-level information with limited time and memory capacity (Homer et al. 2008). Students have to shift their role from a student to a family member and strive to balance between the courses and family pressures. ...
... Thus, drawing upon expectation confirmation theory, this study provides a holistic understanding of the relationship between students' expectation confirmation and their satisfaction with online learning. Our findings also HR health risk, PR psychological risk, RO role overload, PT perceived trust, PI perceived interaction, SS social support; CL cognitive load in online collaborative learning, EC expectation confirmation, PU perceived usefulness, SP satisfaction with online collaborative learning spite of abundant research on students' cognitive load in online collaborative learning (Chang and Ley 2006;Homer et al. 2008), the psychological cues of students are largely overlooked. Students are at a high risk of psychological stressors, especially under high degree of cognitive overload. ...
Article
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The recent outbreak of COVID-19 posed discontinuous disruption to traditional learning modes worldwide. In order to keep social distance, online collaborative learning has become a necessity during the pandemic. However, our understanding of students’ well-being and satisfaction with online collaborative learning is limited, especially during the COVID-19 period. Leveraging expectation confirmation theory, this study focuses on the triggers and inhibitors of students’ cognitive load during online collaborative learning process and their subsequent satisfaction with the learning mode during the pandemic. We used a mixed-method approach in this study. We conducted a qualitative study with interview data and a quantitative study with surveys. The results indicate several psychological and cognitive antecedents of students’ cognitive load during online collaborative learning. Findings also indicate that a high level of cognitive load will decrease students’ perceived usefulness of the online learning platform and expectation confirmation, thus leading to a low level of satisfaction with online collaborative learning. This study can provide theoretical and practical implications for a better understanding of online student groups’ satisfaction with online collaborative learning during the COVID-19 period.
... Mayer (2002) conducted experiments wherein all of the students retained information better, particularly on problem-solving tests, when presented with a combination of media. Despite the higher engagement level achieved in a multimedia learning environment, the cognitive load remains a concern as researchers suggest the design of digital learning environments should cater to the limitations of human perceptual and 13 cognitive systems (Homer et al., 2008). Homer's research on the effects of multimedia learning shows that students with low visual preference could experience excessive cognitive loads when learning with video materials. ...
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A course about business statistics is essential in the curriculum of business degree programs. Statistics is traditionally a challenging course that may be met with trepidation by many students. A pedagogical approach known as bite-sized learning has gained popularity to alleviate the difficulties associated with comprehending complex concepts. This approach delivers content in manageable increments, reducing cognitive burdens on students. In tandem, instructors can leverage social media platforms to deliver bite-sized content, making the learning process more engaging and accessible.
... Due to the popularity of video-model presentations, many studies have addressed optimizing the effectiveness of such presentations (H'mida et al., 2020). There is a consensus that social presence is crucial to enhancing video-based learning for declare and procedure knowledge (e.g., cooking and developmental psychology; Andel et al., 2020;Homer et al., 2008). Social presence is related to the subjective perception of feeling psychologically connected with others while engaging in social interactions through various media (Lyons et al., 2012). ...
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The current study examined the interaction effect of the number of models in videos and viewing type on the acquisition of a Tabata skill, a four-minute high-intensity interval training. We randomly recruited 316 Chinese undergraduate students (162 females and 154 males). They viewed either one model presentation or six models presentation under one viewing type (viewing alone vs. viewing in pairs). We found that for learners who viewed alone, those learning from the video with six models perceived higher levels of social presence, parasocial interaction, social partnership with models, motivation, learning satisfaction, and attention than those learning from the video with one model. The findings have some implications for the design of video presentations to teach motor skills: teachers are encouraged to design effective video presentations via presenting models and create co-viewing learning contexts to enhance learning experience and outcomes.
... There is some evidence that learners are more engaged in learning when the instructor is present, reflected by higher selfreported ratings of GCL (Sondermann & Merkt, 2023a). Other studies, however, either did not observe differences (e.g., Wang et al., 2020aWang et al., , 2020bWang et al., 2020aWang et al., , 2020b or assessed global measures of cognitive load that do not differentiate between ECL and GCL (e.g., Homer et al., 2008;Ng & Przybylek, 2021). ...
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The empirical evidence concerning the question whether an instructor should be presented on online lecture slides is equivocal and two lines of theoretical reasoning exist. On the one hand, the instructor may distract from the content, thereby hampering learning; on the other hand, the instructor may function as a social cue that triggers a more active processing of the content, thereby fostering learning. These potential drawbacks and advantages of instructor presence might cancel each other out. We investigated whether the drawbacks can be diminished while maintaining the potential advantages, thereby improving learning with online lecture slides, when the instructor is only temporarily presented at slides where hardly any content is provided. In two experiments (N = 126; N = 219), participants were randomly assigned to one of three conditions (“temporarily present” vs. “permanently present” vs. “never present”). Learning outcomes of retention and transfer, as well as subjective measures of cognitive load and social presence served as dependent variables. Overall, the results of these experiments showed no differences for the assessed dependent variables. Thus, other than expected, this study did not support the new idea that temporary instructor presence might be especially beneficial in online learning. Nevertheless, it may be premature to reject the idea of temporary instructor presence; rather, it should be further researched.
... Likewise, in the analysis of virtual realities, the study of videos and their cognitive importance in the learning processes is observed. Homer et al. [82] demonstrate a preference for visual/verbal elements, experiencing a higher degree of cognitive load through videos. ...
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Virtual education began to emerge with the advent of the internet and digital technologies in the late 20 th and early 21 st centuries. It has been instrumental in overcoming geographical limitations, expanding educational access and reducing the gap between learners worldwide who have and have nots. Over the last few decades, a significant number of investments and initiatives (at both government and institutional levels) have been observed aiming to establish a sustainable online education system. The objective of the study is to provide an overview of the research trend on virtual teaching for online learning from the perspective of higher education across the globe in the 21 st century. The required publication data has been collected from Scopus and Web of Science databases and various bibliometrics tools and techniques have been employed to visualize publication growth. It is found that the highest contribution has been made by China (16.92%), followed by the United States (15.38%), Spain (12.05%) and the UK (6.15%). The study identifies three dominant trends: 1) the evolution of technology-driven learning and training systems; 2) the rise and impact of immersive learning in digital environments; and 3) a systematic review of e-learning methodologies. This research outlines the overall progression of scientific literature in virtual education and highlights the need for comparative and nuanced research among online learning modalities, essential for guiding educational policymakers and university administrations in the optimal combination of traditional and virtual learning methods. This integration promises to enhance the accessibility and effectiveness of education in an increasingly digital world.
... Although the video tutorial was the most efficient format, scales showed no difference in the type of cognitive load utilized. In another study (Homer et al., 2008), 26 university students attended two different classrooms, one using slides with video tutorials, the other using slides without video tutorials. The cognitive load scales showed that students experienced higher cognitive load during instruction with video. ...
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Are video tutorials better teachers? This pilot study examined the effects of video tutorials on different types of cognitive load. Participating students (N = 45) attended two classrooms: a video tutorial-based classroom, and a traditional instruction-based classroom. The cognitive load scales indicated differences in cognitive load between the video classroom and the traditional classroom. Video tutorials decreased students’ intrinsic load (t = -4.507, p < .001, d = − 0.672) and increased germane load (t = 4.749, p < .001, d = 0.708) but did not affect extraneous load (t = -1.688, p = .098, d = − 0.252). The results also indicated additivity for different types of cognitive load in the two classrooms. In general, our results demonstrate that video tutorials are a promising form of instructional material, especially to facilitate more effective and deeper learning.
... Research conducted by Wells, Barry, and Spence (2012) indicates that when videos (and potentially other media) are well-designed, are assessment-focused and readily available when and where students need them, videos have the potential to improve student satisfaction and grades. Another positive value of videos is their potential to build and maintain a social presence and display quality instruction in a highly online environment (Homer, Plass, & Blake, 2008;Kim, Kwon, & Cho, 2011). Zhang, Zhou, Briggs, and Nunamaker (2006) reiterate the value of videos to student learning outcomes when interactivity is included. ...
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Every click made by a student is being captured by our learning platforms and integrated web-based tools. This store of data acts as, in its simplest form, part of an individual's digital behaviour with measurable points of interest. But how can this data give teachers an indication that our energy, time and potentially money spent making educational videos is worth the investment? Do-It-Yourself (DIY) videos are more commonly being made by teachers to replace written or face-to-face spoken content, provide an alternative instruction format or provide assessment feedback, to name just a few. This paper explores how we can help answer the most common question asked by teachers who undertake DIY video creation: are DIY educational videos being accessed by students? To answer this question, usage data generated by Moodle (student access point) and YouTube (video host) was collected. Simple analysis tools were employed to make sense of the typical log points generated by each system. Using a first year nursing subject as a case study, this project compared student access behaviour of pre-recorded one hour weekly video lectures. The results indicated an overall declining trend in viewing the video content online throughout the semester yet an increased video access when videos are presented in small segments assembled in YouTube playlists. An additional important outcome of this study was learning and sharing how to wrangle Moodle logs and YouTube Analytics data by non-statistical experts to quickly visualise video access. This information may ultimately support video creators to evaluate their videos, spend their time more efficiently when initially making videos, support decisions to change content or update curriculum, and to ultimately re-evaluate the role videos play in learning and teaching online environments.
... Studies that used 2D screens investigated, for instance, the impact of both videos on emotions (Di Crosta et al., 2020), and 2D training for people with disabilities (Tam et al., 2005). Moreover, other studies evaluated the effects of non-immersive environments through 2D screens at the neurophysiological level (Roe et al., 2013), on awe (Chirico et al., 2017), on cognitive load, on social presence (Homer et al., 2008), on specific phobias (Clemente et al., 2020), and restorativeness (White et al., 2010). Many studies have also attempted a comparison between 2D and VR, to understand which device would be most effective (Palanica et al., 2019). ...
Article
Virtual reality (VR) finds many fields of application due to its capability to reproduce “in virtuo” real environments. Previous studies highlighted that exposure to virtual environments leads to restorativeness, which in turn is related to several positive psychological outcomes. However, the mechanisms that lead to restorativeness are still unclear. The main aim of this study was to investigate the mediating role of the sense of presence in the relationship between exposure to virtual environments and restorativeness. We conducted a study with a 2 × 2 between-subjects design. Two conditions (archaeological vs. natural sites) were presented on two levels (2D vs. VR), on a sample of 199 participants (Mage = 22.49, SD = 7.22, range = 18–69). Results show a significant indirect effect of the sense of presence generated by VR on restorativeness, regardless of the condition presented. Our findings shed light on the underlying mechanisms of restorativeness enhanced by virtual environments. Limitations of the study, research developments, and practical implications are discussed.
... Students' perceptions (learning experience, learning satisfaction, and affect) are different between traditional lectures and video lectures. Students report greater motivation and engagement with video versus traditional lectures (Homer et al., 2008;Raisa Nazir et al., 2021;Sun-Yi & Yun-Hee, 2023). However, video lectures may not be appreciated by all students. ...
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Instructors’ attention to students is vital for teaching. However, instructors’ level of attention to students, which has the potential to influence students’ learning across different lecture types, has yet to be fully explored. The aim of this study was to examine the impacts of the instructor’s attention to students and lecture type on students’ learning performance and perceptions. This study used a 3 × 2 (instructor’s attention: high vs. medium vs. low; lecture type: video lecture vs. traditional lecture) between-subjects design. Traditional lectures were conducted in the classroom by the instructor, whereas video lectures involved playing pre-recorded videos of the instructor. Each type of lecture contained three levels of the instructor’s attention. A total sample of 285 primary school students was randomly assigned to one of six classrooms to view a lecture. A posttest was administered to measure learning performance, while post-lecture questionnaires were used to assess perceptions, including learning experience, learning satisfaction, and affects. ANOVAs were used to analyze the data. Results showed that the instructor’s attention had effects on students’ learning performance and perceptions regardless of lecture type. Specifically, the instructor’s high attention enhanced students’ learning performance. Furthermore, the instructor’s medium attention promoted students’ learning experience, learning satisfaction, and positive affect, while the instructor’s low attention restrained it. Our results highlight the fact that an instructor’s visual attention influences students’ learning performance and perceptions in video lectures and traditional lectures. The study recommends that instructors should strategically allocate their attention to optimize students’ learning.
... In this era of globalization, proficiency in the English language is increasingly recognized as a fundamental requirement for individuals across diverse academic fields and professional settings. The English language has established itself as a global lingua franca, serving as a primary means of communication for information exchange [10,11]. Consequently, pursuing English language proficiency has become a paramount goal for many learners. ...
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Background Segmentation is a common pedagogical approach in multimedia learning, but its effects on cognitive processes and learning outcomes have yet to be comprehensively explored. Understanding the role of segmentation is crucial, as it has the potential to influence the way instructional materials are designed and delivered in digital learning environments. Objectives This research aims to fill this gap by examining the impact of segmentation on cognitive load, vocabulary acquisition, retention, and reading comprehension in a multimedia learning context. Methodology Participants were selected from two language schools in Zhengzhou through a multi-stage random sampling method. Ninety teenage students were randomly assigned to six experimental groups. The study utilized a 2 × 3 factorial design to examine segmentation and textual augmentation effects. Four assessment instruments were employed: a Reading Comprehension Test, a Vocabulary Assessment Test, a Cognitive Load Assessment Scale, and a Prior Knowledge Test. The experiment comprised four stages: pre-test, Instruction, post-test, and follow-up. Data analysis was performed using SPSS 22 software, involving descriptive statistics, one-way, and multi-way analysis of variance. Results Results indicated that high segmentation significantly impacts cognitive load, vocabulary learning, retention, and reading comprehension across various aspects of multimedia learning. In essence, segmentation reduces cognitive load, supports learning efficiency, and facilitates more profound understanding, vocabulary learning, and retention. Conclusions and implications High segmentation in multimedia learning significantly impacts cognitive load, vocabulary learning, comprehension, and retention. Educators should prioritize segmentation for more effective and engaging e-learning experiences.
... Furthermore, the expectations of all stakeholders (students, lecturers and support) must be managed related to the cognitive load, since the working memory load has its limitations [15]. During this case study an attempt was made to manage the expectations of why the use of reflection on personal development (intrinsic load) was required, how to use the e-portfolio and how much time (extraneous load) was required, and what content deliverables (germane load) were required [16]. Resulting into the questions that need further research and are relevant for discussion: how do we guide and support engineering students to develop these interpersonal skills, while considering the (large) number of students in the bachelor and master programs? ...
... Pi and Hong, Hong et al. and Homer et al. [42][43][44] did not specify the video style, nor was there any interaction with the material taught; they do not provide further details of the video style nor place supporting images. ...
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Previous research has explored different models of synchronous remote learning environments supported by videoconferencing and virtual reality platforms. However, few studies have evaluated the preference and acceptance of synchronous remote learning in a course streamed in an immersive or augmented reality platform. This case study uses ANOVA analysis to examine engineering students’ preferences for receiving instruction during the COVID-19 pandemic in three classroom types: face-to-face, conventional virtual (mediated by videoconferencing) and an immersive virtual classroom (IVC). Likewise, structural equation modeling was used to analyze the acceptance of the IVC perceived by students, this includes four latent factors: ease of receiving a class, perceived usefulness, attitude towards IVC and IVC use. The findings showed that the IVC used in synchronous remote learning has a similar level of preference to the face-to-face classroom and a higher level than the conventional virtual one. Despite the high preference for receiving remote instruction in IVC, aspects such as audio delays that affect interaction still need to be resolved. On the other hand, a key aspect for a good performance of these environments is the dynamics associated with the teaching–learning processes and the instructor’ qualities.
... Pi & Hong, Hong et al., and Homet et al.,[42]-[44] not specify the video style, nor is there any interaction with the material taught; they do not provide further details of the video style or place supporting images.2. Wang et al., Ng & Przybylek, and Kizilcec et al., [45]-[47] used half of the instructor's body is in the lower right corner, with no interaction with the material taught. ...
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Previous research has explored different models of synchronous remote learning environments supported by videoconferencing and virtual reality platforms. However, few studies have evaluated the preference and acceptance of synchronous remote learning in a course streamed in an immersive or augmented reality platform. This case study uses ANOVA analysis to examine the engineering students´ preferences for receiving instruction during the COVID19 pandemic in three classroom types: face-to-face, conventional virtual (mediated by videoconferencing) and an immersive virtual classroom (IVC). Likewise, structural equation modeling, was used to analyze the acceptance of the IVC perceived by students, this includes four latent factors: ease of receiving a class, perceived usefulness, attitude towards IVC and IVC use. The findings showed that the IVC used in synchronous remote learning has a similar level of preference to the face-to-face classroom, and higher than the conventional virtual one. Despite the high preference for receiving remote instruction in IVC, aspects such as audio delays that affect interaction still need to be resolved. On the other hand, a key aspect for a good performance of these environments is the dynamics associated with the teaching-learning processes and the instructor´ qualities.
... This student's view parallels the split-attention effect because seeing the instructor's face occupies students' limited working memory (Ng & Przybylek 2021). Homer et al. (2008) also state that seeing the instructor's face might distract students. The reason for a large number of neutral student views may be explained by these two theories. ...
Article
This study aimed to investigate the views of students enrolled on a desktop publishing course of the flipped classroom model adapted to a design course conducted in an online learning environment. The model was implemented over one semester, and at the end, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 65 volunteer students. Content analysis was used to analyse the students' views. It was determined that delivering course content through instructor-created videos had a positive effect on student views of the course. In addition, the students stated that doing assignments outside the classroom and evaluating them during the course contributed significantly to their learning design. Finally, student views on the feasibility of conducting the course through traditional design teaching methods in an online learning environment were examined. The students stated that delivering the course in live online classes may have both positive and negative aspects.
... According to cognitive load theory (CLT), the instructor's gaze has the potential to effectively direct learners' attention to the relevant elements presented on the learning support (e.g., Ouwehand et al., 2015;Stull et al., 2021), as learners tend to follow the model's gaze and look at what he or she is looking at (Birmingham & Kingstone, 2009;Clifford & Palmer, 2018). On the other hand, direct gaze causes learners' attention to focus on the model's face and, in particular, on the eyes (Vecera & Johnson, 1995), i.e., away from the instructional material, resulting in a split-attention effect and increasing extraneous cognitive load (Homer, Plass, & Blake, 2008). The eye-gaze effect has been considered not only from a cognitive perspective, but also from a social perspective. ...
Article
Even though coach behavior is known to affect learning, it is unclear which specific nonverbal behavior might optimize the teaching of a tactical content in basketball. Using eye-tracking technology, recall construction paradigm, and subjective ratings of mental effort, the present study investigated the question of whether the coach’s eye gaze would affect players’ visual attention and recall performance. Expert (N = 72) and novice (N = 72) players watched one of three types of video lecture in which the coach either (i) gazed at the camera while talking (ii) shifted his gaze between the camera and the whiteboard (guided gaze condition), or (iii) gazed at the whiteboard (fixed gaze condition). The results showed that the coach’s guided gaze not only made the novices focus their visual attention more on the corresponding elements of the game system, but also increased their recall performance and decreased their mental effort. However, the performance of the expert players remained the same regardless of the experimental condition, indicating an expertise reversal effect. The findings suggest that the effectiveness of the coach’s gaze guidance is strongly dependent on expertise levels.
... According to the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, the voice-over video lectures might split learners' attention (Chen & Wu, 2015) and learners may have cognitive load due to processing the image of the instructor (Homer et al., 2008). Wilson et al. (2018) argue that when an instructor presents a video lecture, students' attention and understanding may be negatively influenced due to the visual features of the instructor. ...
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This study investigated the effect of video lecture types on the performance of students in computational problem-solving practices. A total of 19 university students participated in the computational problem-solving practices that mostly required declarative knowledge, and 22 university students participated in the computational problem-solving practices that mostly required procedural knowledge. The practices were implemented in the Algorithm and Programming course and the Computer Programming II course. Three video lecture types (instructor-whiteboard, instructor voice-handbook, instructor-slides) were used in both courses. The one-way repeated measures ANOVA test was employed to determine if there was a significant difference between the problem-solving performances of the students based on the video lecture type. In the Algorithm and Programming course that required mostly declarative knowledge, the problem-solving scores of the students were significantly higher after the instructor voice-handbook video practice than those after the instructor-whiteboard video practice. On the other hand, in the Computer Programming II course that required mostly procedural knowledge, the problem-solving scores of the students were significantly higher after the instructor-whiteboard video practice than those after the instructor voice-handbook video practice. The students showed higher performance in the video lecture types they preferred in both courses. The students listed the factors that affect their video preferences as (a) the effect of the presence of an instructor in the video lecture on their attention, (b) the efficiency of the video lecture in examining many and various examples in a limited time, (c)the opportunity provided by the video lecture to revise the content and procedure, and (d) the efficient presentation of the knowledge. It is recommended that an instructor should be present in the video that includes mostly procedural knowledge, while there is no need for an instructor in the video that includes mostly declarative knowledge regarding computational problem-solving activities
... Effects of Learning Videos. Learning videos can increase the cognitive load for students, for example if audio and visual elements are used simultaneously, which should be considered when developing self-study-videos [28]. Nevertheless, learning with videos is predicted to have predominantly positive effects, especially on motivation and learning performance. ...
Chapter
Several publications claim positive effects of learning videos - in addition to indications of increased motivation among learners, studies suggest that learning performance can be increased [1–3]. With a focus on digital transformation, this paper will consider a self-study-video in the field of university education. The content of the investigated self-study-video is a central model of occupational safety: the design model of protective measures. The presented short intervention was designed as self-study-video based on an existing textbook chapter. Besides the evaluation of design elements, it was investigated which effects learning videos may have on the motivation and learning performance of students learning the design model. Students of the University of Wuppertal were the sample for the intervention. The study population were Safety Engineering students, who visit the lecture “basics of occupational safety”. Ninety students attended all steps of the experiment (treatment group n = 44; textbook-group n = 46). The self-study-video has a significant effect on the increase of knowledge and the video-group seems to be more successful than the textbook-group in the post-test. However, the self-study-video is not as motivating as expected, caused by the design of the self-study-video with a computer-generated voice.KeywordsOccupational safety modelsLearning performanceSelf-study-video
... On the other hand, video-based instructions may place a greater cognitive load on the interviewee and limit the resources available for memory retrieval. For example, research from educational psychology has found that, although it did not affect recall of the lecture material, the presence of an instructor's face on lecture slides increased cognitive load for students (Homer et al., 2008). For more sensitive target events, interviewees may also be more comfortable with written/textbased instructions, as it limits the interaction with a human stranger. ...
Article
Technology‐mediated interviews are a promising supplement to in‐person interviews for questioning eyewitnesses. We sought to develop and test a virtual self‐administered memory‐elicitation procedure—The virtual memory assistance tool (VMAT). The VMAT is a web‐based memory retrieval tool designed around the principles of the Cognitive Interview. In Experiments 1 and 2, participants ( N = 135, N = 127) watched a target video and then received either VMAT or Control instructions, reporting their memory either by Typing into a textbox or Speaking into their device's microphone. In Experiments 3 and 4, participants ( N = 89, N = 78) watched a target video and then received either VMAT or Control instructions presented in either Audio or Video format. Our findings suggest that a virtual tool for memory elicitation seems effective independent of Interview Procedures, Response Modalities, and Instruction Modalities and across differing target stimuli (mock‐crime vs. content of a sexual nature).
... We also recognize that fidgeting is not universally helpful. Similar to how Homer et al. [18] find that the effects of visual educational tools depend on individuals' pre-existing preferences for visual learning, the effects of fidgeting likely depend on individuals' pre-existing preferences for fidgeting. This is consistent with suggestions that those with ASD or ADHD are more likely to benefit from physical fidgets than others [3]. ...
Preprint
We present design guidelines for incorporating fidgeting into the virtual world as a tool for students in online lectures. Fidgeting is associated with increased attention and self-regulation, and has the potential to help students focus. Currently there are no fidgets, physical or virtual, designed for preserving attention specifically in online learning environments, and no heuristics for designing fidgets within this domain. We identify three virtual fidget proxies to serve as design probes for studying student experiences with virtual fidgeting. Through a study of eight students using our virtual fidget proxies in online lectures, we identify eight emergent themes that encompass student experience with virtual fidgeting in lectures. Based on these themes, we present four principles for designing domain-specific virtual fidgets for online lectures. We identify that virtual fidgets for lectures should be context-aware, visually appealing, easy to adopt, and physically interactive.
Article
In higher education, a primary concern with online learning versus in-person learning centers on offering and facilitating effective communication and collaboration opportunities for students. New technologies, specifically free and open source system (FOSS) applications, help bridge these gaps by giving instructors and students the means to effectively collaborate online. Instructors appear to be at the forefront of integrating these tools, as they are adopting free online applications for their courses on their own, but they do not have readily available support from their institution, particularly for incorporating these tools with a learning management system (LMS). A study including 165 higher education instructors determined the most prominent FOSS applications adopted by faculty, as well as what areas institutions can dedicate support through resources and personnel. Based on these results, the research provided an understanding of how institutions can implement support for instructors to combine FOSS applications with an institution’s LMS successfully. Institutions should concentrate on personnel support and provide their faculty with guided resources, best practices, training, and professional development opportunities to increase use and keep it consistent across their digital campus.
Chapter
With the rapid development of ICT, E-learning has experienced exponential growth and drastic transformation in past years (Yao et al, 2022). E-learning works on the model of virtual education. There are different formats, like fully online learning, hybrid learning model which uses the combination of in-person and online components, and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs) which enable course engagement across the globe. The domain explores innovative pedagogical approaches. This chapter discusses various formats such as fully online courses, blended learning models, and Massive Open Online Courses (MOOCs). It explores innovative pedagogical approaches, popular theories and adaptive technologies to cater to diverse learning styles, based on cognitive science principles. Chapter further highlights e-learning, its growth and transformation due to advancements in Information and Communication Technology (ICT) and important theoretical frameworks to understand the various components of e-learning. At the end of this chapter, challenges and future research directions are discussed.
Article
Purpose Drawing on integrated insights from signaling theory and the cognitive theory of multimedia learning, this study investigates the effect of video personalization on crowdfunding performance. “Video personalization” is defined as information presented in a video in a way that is designed to promote the feeling of being and interacting with others. This study also aimed to examine the moderating effects among various signals of video personalization. Design/methodology/approach This study constructs a theoretical model of how video personalization affects crowdfunding performance through an integrated theory lens. This study measures several signals of video personalization, namely, first-person wording (FPW), second-person wording (SPW), asking questions and talking to the camera. The direct and moderating effects of video personalization on crowdfunding performance are examined by using 2,858 crowdfunding projects on Kickstarter. Findings This study revealed that using SPW, asking questions and talking directly to the camera positively impact crowdfunding performance, while talking to the camera attenuates the positive effect of using SPW and asking questions with respect to funding amounts. Originality/value This study contributes to the literature on resource mobilization in crowdfunding by examining how video personalization impacts resource mobilization in a crowdfunding setting. The findings extend signaling theory by broadening its boundaries. This advance is accomplished by integrating insights from cognitive science into signaling theory. This study also contributes to cognitive theory in multimedia learning by identifying novel ways to personalize videos and by broadening that work to a novel empirical context, entrepreneurship.
Article
Time-compression is a technique that allows users to adjust the playback speed of audio recordings, but comprehension declines at higher speeds. Previous research has shown that under challenging auditory conditions people have a greater tendency to fixate regions closer to a speaker’s mouth. In the current study, we investigated whether there is a similar tendency to fixate the mouth region for time-compressed stimuli. Participants were presented with a brief audiovisual lecture at different speeds, while eye fixations were recorded, and comprehension was tested. Results showed that the 50% compressed lecture group looked more at the nose compared to eye fixations for the normal lecture, and those in the 75% compressed group looked more towards the mouth. Greater compression decreased comprehension, but audiovisual information did not reduce this deficit. These results indicate that people seek out audiovisual information to overcome time-compression, demonstrating the flexibility of the multimodal attentional system.
Article
Researchers disagree on the extent to which social cues in instructional videos influence learning and learning-relevant outcomes and processes. The instructor presence effect states that visible instructors in instructional videos lead to increased social presence and higher scores in subjective ratings like motivation, social presence, or affect, but do not improve learning outcomes. In contrast, the Cognitive-Affective-Social Theory of Learning in digital Environments outlines how social cues not only enhance social, emotional, and motivational processes, but they also potentially promote learning outcomes. We conducted a series of meta-analyses to explore the effects of instructor presence in instructional videos on retention, transfer, social presence, motivation, cognitive load, affect, and visual dwell time. The meta-analyses include 35 studies, which contained 46 pair-wise comparisons and 6339 participants. Results revealed a small, statistically significant positive effect of including a visual instructor on retention outcomes, but no significant effect on transfer performance. A visible instructor also significantly enhanced social presence, affective, and motivational ratings. Furthermore, we found that a visible instructor significantly reduced dwell time on relevant visual material but also reduced subjective perception of extraneous cognitive load. Significant moderator effects could be found regarding prior knowledge, the instructional domain as well as the size of the instructor.
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Purpose Social presence (SP), which refers to individuals’ perception of others being engaged as “real people” in the same situation, is a crucial component in technology-rich learning environments (TREs). This study aims to identify major learning design, antecedents and outcomes of SP within TREs, and identify common findings from the past two decades. Design/methodology/approach Following Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses review principles and a qualitative analysis of selected articles, a final review of 72 studies that met inclusion criteria was obtained. Key information, including education level, discipline, sample size, study type and measurements, was extracted and studies were further analyzed and synthesized based on design features and learning modes. Findings The study identifies five crucial factors for instructional design to foster SP in TREs: technology affordances, multimedia features, social factors, instructional principles, learner characteristics and learning management systems. The authors compare two learning modes across three dimensions and identify popular technologies used in studies related to SP over the past two decades. Practical recommendations are provided for educators and educational technology developers to enhance SP within technology-rich learning environments. Originality/value This research contributes to the discourse on online learning and computer-supported communication, particularly in the post-COVID-19 era. By examining factors influencing SP and providing implications for instruction and educational technology development, this study offers evidence-based support to educators for engaging learners and fostering authentic learning experiences through adaptive selection of educational technologies.
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Video-based learning plays an increasingly important role and thus the optimal design of video-based learning materials attracts the attention of scientists and practitioners alike. In this context, producers of educational videos often include a talking head in their videos, although theory (e.g., cognitive theory of multimedia learning) also suggests potential disadvantages for this format. Since talking heads attract a lot of visual attention, further empirical research is necessary to investigate whether a talking head can hinder learning, especially presented next to graphic-based learning content. To address this research gap, we conducted two online experiments to investigate the effects of a talking head in educational videos with narrated slides (short slideshow lectures) on learning outcomes (i.e., factual knowledge acquisition) and participants’ subjective ratings of the learning material (e.g., perceived learning). In Experiment 1 (N = 96), we varied whether the instructor’s talking head was present or absent in the videos as a between-factor, and whether the visual content on the slides was graphic-based (pictures, diagrams, maps) or text-based (bullet points) as a within-factor (slide type). In Experiment 2 (N = 184), we additionally varied as a between-factor whether the contents appeared sequentially or statically all at once (presentation type). Our results showed that the talking head did not affect learning outcomes, regardless of slide type and presentation type of the videos suggesting that the inclusion of a talking head offers neither clear advantages nor disadvantages. Potential explanations for the findings and directions for future research are discussed.
Chapter
Simulation has been widely used as a training tool in multiple industries. Due to the immersive and guided real-life experiences, learners can gain technical and non-technical skills in simulation-based training. However, despite the benefits of simulation-based training, research has shown that knowledge transfer may not be a guarantee. One possible explanation is how learning outcomes are assessed in current training programs using simulations. Therefore, in this report, we conducted a bibliometric analysis to understand the current research landscape related to simulation-based training programs and the learning assessments used in programs both in and outside the manufacturing industry. Based on our findings, more research is needed in simulation-based training in manufacturing and the learning assessment related to these training programs. Future research should focus on expanding the data collection to multiple databases and taking a more qualitative look into the current literature by conducting a systematized literature review.Keywordsbibliometric analysissimulation-based trainingmanufacturinglearning assessment
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Fatigue is a loss in cognitive or physical performance due to physiological factors such as insufficient sleep, long work hours, stress, and physical exertion. It adversely affects the human body and can slow reaction times, reduce attention, and limit short-term memory. Hence, there is a need to monitor a person’s state to avoid extreme fatigue conditions that can result in physiological complications. However, tools to understand and assess fatigue are minimal. This paper primarily focuses on building an experimental setup that induces cognitive fatigue (CF) and physical fatigue (PF) through multiple cognitive and physical tasks while simultaneously recording physiological data. First, we built a prototype sensor suit embedded with numerous physiological sensors for easy use during data collection. Second, participants’ self-reported visual analog scores (VAS) are reported after each task to confirm fatigue induction. Finally, an evaluation system is built that utilizes machine learning (ML) models to detect states of CF and PF from sensor data, thus providing an objective measure. Our methods beat state-of-the-art approaches, where Random Forest performs the best in detecting PF with an accuracy of 80.5% while correctly predicting the true PF condition 88% of the time. On the other hand, the long short-term memory (LSTM) recurrent neural network produces the best results in detecting CF in the subjects (with 84.1% accuracy, 0.9 recall).Keywordsfatiguecognitive fatiguephysical fatiguemulti-modal sensorsmachine learning
Chapter
The innovation of immersion tools and online platforms provides more possibilities for the development of online education. Information guidance is a key part of information translation for online education information providers and directly affects the information translation into the receiver, so a more profound discussion and design of guidance methods are needed to optimize the effectiveness of online education information transmission. This study expands the guidance methods by dividing them into traditional guidance and multidimensional guidance according to different interaction modes of online education. Forty subjects were screened by a basic information questionnaire and a two-factor intergroup experimental design with 2 guidance methods (traditional and multidimensional) × 2 digital media (smartphone and tablet) was conducted. Learners evaluated and provided feedback on the experimental material from cognitive and affective goals through questionnaires. The results of the questionnaire analysis showed that the effectiveness of online educational transfer Learners learn better when educators use multidimensional guidance; multidimensional guidance increases learner engagement, thus effectively improving the effectiveness of information transmission. Learners learn better when digital media with large screen sizes are used; educators always improve online learning satisfaction better when they use tablets as digital media when conducting instruction. This finding enriches the research on the influence of guidance methods and digital media on information delivery in synchronous online teaching, where the research on the innovation of guidance methods provides the basis for the innovation and application of interactive technologies in online education.KeywordsOnline EducationGuidance Method Learning EffectOnline Learning SatisfactionOnline Learning Commitment
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Aim: To design a modular, flipped-classroom curriculum using character animations to improve knowledge and attitudes regarding dementia care among pre-clinical nursing students. Background: Demographic trends suggest an urgent, unmet need for nurses with interest and adequate training in caring for people with dementia and other disorders of cognition. While flipped classrooms using video show promise, little is known about specific animation techniques to impact knowledge and attitudes in preclinical nursing education. Design: A curriculum was developed, implemented and assessed across three nursing schools in series, totaling 223 eligible students in the states of Connecticut and Hawaii, USA from 2019 to 2022. The evaluation included prospective pre-post assessment of knowledge, attitudes and module acceptability, as well as qualitative interpretations of needs assessment data. Methods: The six-step curriculum development process was based on that described by Kern et al., including: 1) general needs assessment in the form of literature review; 2) targeted needs assessment, in the form of faculty stakeholder meetings, a student focus group and baseline surveys; 3) optimization of learning objectives based on needs; 4) development of a pedagogical approach, namely animated, interactive modules informed by previously described best practices in animation development; 5) implementation across three different nursing schools; and 6) assessment of the learners and evaluation of the curriculum, primarily via surveys and engagement metadata. Results: Needs assessments confirmed the importance of prior experiences, sense of mission and other affective elements as key factors mitigating learners' baseline receptiveness to training and careers in cognition-related care. Students at all three institutions rated the modules' impact on their dementia-related attitudes highly, however these ratings were statistically significantly lower when both modules were delivered as a single assignment at one site. Knowledge quiz scores significantly increased from baseline at all three sites. Only 2.6% of respondents would have preferred a text-based reading assignment. Acceptability scores, including clarity, relevance, entertainment, attention and complexity, were generally rated highly, but attention and entertainment were rated significantly lower when both modules were administered as a single assignment. Conclusion: Cognition and Dementia with Raymond and Brain demonstrates the successful blending of animation industry workflows with best practices of curriculum development to create a novel, animated module series that is acceptable and effective in priming nursing students with the attitudes and knowledge to continue learning about cognition and its disorders.
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Social presence is a critical social factor to be examined in distance education. The existing instrument, developed for non-computer-mediated communication, is unable to measure social presence in an online learning environment. Several studies have investigated social presence but an instrument appropriate for computer-mediated communication must be developed before cogent studies can be conducted. An analysis of the studies on social presence is accomplished leading to the development and validation of an instrument to measure social presence in the computer-mediated communication environment. This instrument was theoretically grounded in the dimensions derived from an extensive review of the literature and thus reflects a consensus of the perceptions of online social presence. The results indicate that social presence contains three dimensions, social context, online communication, and interactivity and, privacy.
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Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a car's braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This article reports findings on the use of a partly auditory and partly visual mode of presentation for geometry worked examples. The logic was based on the split-attention effect and the effect of presentation modality on working memory. The split-attention effect occurs when students must split their attention between multiple sources of information, which results in a heavy cognitive load. Presentation-modality effects suggest that working memory has partially independent processors for handling visual and auditory material. Effective working memory may be increased by presenting material in a mixed rather than a unitary mode. If so, the negative consequences of split attention in geometry might be ameliorated by presenting geometry statements in auditory, rather than visual, form. The results of 6 experiments supported this hypothesis. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The authors tested the hypothesis that personalized messages in a multimedia science lesson can promote deep learning by actively engaging students in the elaboration of the materials and reducing processing load. Students received a multimedia explanation of lightning formation (Experiments 1 and 2) or played an agent-based computer game about environmental science (Experiments 3, 4, and 5). Instructional messages were presented in either a personalized style, where students received spoken or written explanations in the 1st- and 2nd-person points of view, or a neutral style, where students received spoken or written explanations in the 3rd-person point of view. Personalized rather than neutral messages produced better problem-solving transfer performance across all experiments and better retention performance on the computer game. The theoretical and educational implications of the findings are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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How can cognitive load in visual displays of computer simulations be optimized? Middle-school chemistry students (N = 257) learned with a simulation of the ideal gas law. Visual complexity was manipulated by separating the display of the simulations in 2 screens (low complexity) or presenting all information on 1 screen (high complexity). The mode of visual representation in the simulation was manipulated by presenting important information in symbolic form only (symbolic representations) or by adding iconic information to the display (iconic + symbolic representations), locating the sliders controlling the simulation separated from the simulation or integrating them, and graphing either only the most recent simulation result or showing all results taken. Separated screen displays and the use of optimized visual displays each promoted comprehension and transfer, especially for low prior-knowledge learners. An expertise reversal effect was found for learners' prior general science knowledge. Results indicate that intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load in visual displays can be manipulated and that learners' prior knowledge moderates the effectiveness of these load manipulations. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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English-speaking college students who were enrolled in a German course read a 762-word German language story presented by a computer program. For key words in the story, students could choose to see a translation on the screen in English (i.e., verbal annotation) or view a picture or video clip representing the word (i.e., visual annotation), or both. Students remembered word translations better when they had selected both visual and verbal annotations during learning than only 1 or no annotation; students comprehended the story better when they had the opportunity to receive their preferred mode of annotation. Results are consistent with a generative theory of multimedia learning that assumes that learners actively select relevant verbal and visual information, organize the information into coherent mental representations, and integrate these newly constructed visual and verbal representations with one another. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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When new information is presented to learners, it must be processed in a severely limited working memory. Learning reduces working memory limitations by enabling the use of schemas, stored in long-term memory, to process information more efficiently. Several instructional techniques have been designed to facilitate schema construction and automation by reducing working memory load. Recently, however, strong evidence has emerged that the effectiveness of these techniques depends very much on levels of learner expertise. Instructional techniques that are highly effective with inexperienced learners can lose their effectiveness and even have negative consequences when used with more experienced learners. We call this phenomenon the expertise reversal effect. In this article, we review the empirical literature on the interaction between instructional techniques and levels of learner experience that led to the identification of the expertise reversal effect.
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The results of two of our recent empirical studies were considered to assess the usefulness of subjective ratings and cardiovascular measures of mental effort in instructional research. Based on its reliability and sensitivity, the subjective rating-scale technique met the requirements to be useful in instructional research whereas the cardiovascular technique did not. It was concluded that the usefulness of both measurement techniques in instructional research needs to be investigated further.
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A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Chapter
This chapter is divided into two parts. The first describes the effect of Pat Rabbitt's influence in encouraging the first author to use the increasingly sophisticated methods of ageing research to answer questions about the fundamental characteristics of working memory, together with reflections on why so little of this work reached publication. The second part presents a brief review of the literature on working memory and ageing, followed by an account of more recent work attempting to apply the traditional method of experimental dissociation to research on normal ageing and Alzheimer's disease. The discussion suggests that even such simple methods can throw light on both the processes of ageing and the understanding of working memory.
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The Study of Human Development PART 1: IN THE BEGINNING Biocultural Foundations Prenatal Development and Birth PART 2: INFANCY The First Three Months Physical and Cognitive Development in Infancy Social and Emotional Development in Infancy PART 3: EARLY CHILDHOOD Language Acquisition Physical and Cognitive Development in Early Childhood Social and Emotional Development in Early Childhood Contexts of Development PART 4: MIDDLE CHILDHOOD Physical and Cognitive Development in Middle Childhood School as a Context for Development Social and Emotional Development in Middle Childhood PART 5: ADOLESCENCE Physical and Cognitive Development in Adolescence Social and Emotional Development in Adolescence Appendix Glossary References Indexes
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This paper examines research on social presence theory and the implications for analyzing interaction, communication, collaborative learning, and the social context of computer-mediated communication (CMC). Two studies that examined whether social presence is largely an attribute of the communication medium or users' perception of the medium are discussed. It can be concluded from the results that even though CMC is considered to be a medium that is low in social context cues, it can be perceived as interactive, active, interesting, and stimulating by conference participants. However, it is the kind of interactions that take place between the participants, and the sense of community that is created during the conference, that will impact participants' perceptions of CMC as a "social" medium. Therefore, the impetus falls upon the moderators of computer conferences to create a sense of online community in order to promote interaction and collaborative learning.
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Students viewed a computer-generated animation depicting the process of lightning formation (Experiment 1) or the operation of a car's braking system (Experiment 2). In each experiment, students received either concurrent narration describing the major steps (Group AN) or concurrent on-screen text involving the same words and presentation timing (Group AT). Across both experiments, students in Group AN outperformed students in Group AT in recalling the steps in the process on a retention test, in finding named elements in an illustration on a matching test, and in generating correct solutions to problems on a transfer test. Multimedia learners can integrate words and pictures more easily when the words are presented auditorily rather than visually. This split-attention effect is consistent with a dual-processing model of working memory consisting of separate visual and auditory channels.
Chapter
Working memory is currently a 'hot' topic in cognitive psychology and neuroscience. Because of their radically different scopes and emphases, however, comparing different models and theories and understanding how they relate to one another has been a difficult task. This volume offers a much-needed forum for systematically comparing and contrasting existing models of working memory. It does so by asking each contributor to address the same comprehensive set of important theoretical questions on working memory. The answers to these questions provided in the volume elucidate the emerging general consensus on the nature of working memory among different theorists and crystallize incompatible theoretical claims that must be resolved in future research. As such, this volume serves not only as a milestone that documents the state-of-the-art in the field but also as a theoretical guidebook that will likely promote new lines of research and more precise and comprehensive models of working memory.
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Describes a research instrument (the Verbalizer–Visualizer Questionnaire) which measures individual differences on a verbalizer–visualizer dimension of cognitive style. This 15-item true–false questionnaire was found, in 4 studies with right-handed high school and college students, to be unaffected by social desirability response bias and to have an acceptable level of test–retest stability. This questionnaire also showed statistically significant theoretically important associations with other experiential, behavioral, and physiological events. Its relation to eye movement responses has a systematic component, but the conditions which control this component require investigation in their own right. (25 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Article
How can animation be used to promote learner understanding of scientific and mathematical explanations? In this review, we examine the role of animation in multimedia learning (including multimedia instructional messages and microworld games), present a cognitive theory of multimedia learning, and summarize our program of research, which has yielded seven principles for the use of animation in multimedia instruction. These include the multimedia principle (present animation and narration rather than narration alone), spatial contiguity principle (present on-screen text near rather than far from corresponding animation), temporal contiguity principle (present corresponding animation and narration simultaneously rather than successively), coherence principle (exclude extraneous words, sounds, and video), modality principle (present animation and narration rather than animation and on-screen text), redundancy principle (present animation and narration rather than animation, narration, and on-screen text), and personalization principle (present words in conversational rather than formal style). Animation can promote learner understanding when used in ways that are consistent with the cognitive theory of multimedia learning.
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This paper is concerned with some of the factors that determine the difficulty of material that needs to be learned. It is suggested that when considering intellectual activities, schema acquisition and automation are the primary mechanisms of learning. The consequences of cognitive load theory for the structuring of information in order to reduce difficulty by focusing cognitive activity on schema acquisition is briefly summarized. It is pointed out that cognitive load theory deals with learning and problem solving difficulty that is artificial in that it can be manipulated by instructional design. Intrinsic cognitive load in contrast, is constant for a given area because it is a basic component of the material. Intrinsic cognitive load is characterized in terms of element interactivity. The elements of most schemas must be learned simultaneously because they interact and it is the interaction that is critical. If, as in some areas, interactions between many elements must be learned, then intrinsic cognitive load will be high. In contrast, in different areas, if elements can be learned successively rather than simultaneously because they do not interact, intrinsic cognitive load will be low. It is suggested that extraneous cognitive load that interferes with learning only is a problem under conditions of high cognitive load caused by high element interactivity. Under conditions of low element interactivity, re-designing instruction to reduce extraneous cognitive load may have no appreciable consequences. In addition, the concept of element interactivity can be used to explain not only why some material is difficult to learn but also, why it can be difficult to understand. Understanding becomes relevant when high element interactivity material with a naturally high cognitive load must be learned.
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This research was the first attempt to empirically evaluate visitors’ experience while browsing a Web site. A flow model was proposed and tested with the structural equation modeling method. It was found that in the context of human–computer interactions while browsing a Web site, flow experience was characterized by time distortion, enjoyment, and telepresence. There was adequate evidence to conclude that the interrelationships among elements of a Web site were closely related to people's flow experience. This research also found that flow experience while browsing a Web site influenced a number of important outcomes that are typically expected by Web site developers. First, when people are in a state of flow they tend to learn more about the content presented in the Web site. Second, the increased learning leads to changes of attitude and behavior, including taking positive actions.
Article
To be truly useful for media theory, the concept of presence should be applicable to all forms of virtual environments including those of traditional media like television and traditional content such as advertising. This study reports the results of an experiment on the effects of the visual angle of the display (sensory saturation) and room illumination (sensory suppression) on the sensation of telepresence during normal television viewing. A self-report measure of presence yielded two factors. Using [Gerrig's (1993)] terminology for the sense of being transported to a mediated environments, we labeled the two factors “arrival,” for the feeling of being there in the virtual environment, and “departure,” for the feeling of not being there in the in physical environment. It appears that being in the virtual environment is not equivalent to not being in the physical environment. A path analysis found that these two factors have very different relationships to viewer memory for the experience and for attitude change (i.e., buying intention and confidence in product decision). We theorize that the departure factor may be measuring the feeling that the medium has disappeared and may constitute a deeper absorption into the virtual environment. The study did not find evidence that visual angle and room illumination affected the sensation of telepresence
Book
This work presents a systematic analysis of the psychological phenomena associated with the concept of mental representations - also referred to as cognitive or internal representations. A major restatement of a theory the author of this book first developed in his 1971 book (Imagery and Verbal Processes), this book covers phenomena from the earlier period that remain relevant today but emphasizes cognitive problems and paradigms that have since emerged more fully. It proposes that performance in memory and other cognitive tasks is mediated not only by linguistic processes but also by a distinct nonverbal imagery model of thought as well. It discusses the philosophy of science associated with the dual coding approach, emphasizing the advantages of empiricism in the study of cognitive phenomena and shows that the fundamentals of the theory have stood up well to empirical challenges over the years.
Article
Virtual reality (VR) is typically defined in terms of technological hardware. This paper attempts to cast a new, variable-based definition of virtual reality that can be used to classify virtual reality in relation to other media. The defintion of virtual reality is based on concepts of "presence" and "telepresence," which refer to the sense of being in an environment, generated by natural or mediated means, respectively. Two technological dimensions that contribute to telepresence, vividness and interactivity, are discussed. A variety of media are classified according to these dimensions. Suggestions are made for the application of the new definition of virtual reality within the field of communication research. s t ) - r technologies social responses to communication c SRCT Paper #104 Page 3 Jonathan Steuer Defining VR: Dimensions Determining Telepresence Defining Virtual Reality: Dimensions Determining Telepresence Virtual reality (VR) has typically been portrayed as a medium, l...
The social psychology of telecommunications Visitors' flow experience while browsing a web site: its measurement, contributing factors and consequences
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