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Male hubris and female humility? A crosscultural study of ratings of self, parental, and sibling multiple intelligence in America, Britain, and Japan
Abstract
In this study, 213 American, 229 British, and 164 Japanese students estimated their own multiple IQ scores and that of their parents (mother and father) and siblings (first and second brother and sister). A Sex×Culture ANOVA on the three factors that underlie the seven intelligence types (verbal, numerical, cultural) showed consistent culture and many sex effects, but no interactions. Male participants rated their own overall IQ and that of their fathers, but not their mothers and sisters, higher than did female participants as predicted. Male participants also rated their numerical IQ, but not verbal or cultural IQ, higher than females. There were consistent and clear culture differences. The Americans rated their multiple IQ scores higher than the Japanese (around 6–10 points) with the British intermediate between the two. All participants rated their fathers' (and brothers') numerical IQ higher, and verbal IQ lower, than their mothers' and sisters', as found previously. Overall results showed consistency in the sex differences in ratings across cultures but differences in level of estimated IQ, possibly as a result of cultural demands for modesty.
... These researchers have also noted that the differences in self-views tend to be larger than-the oftentimes negligible (e.g., Hyde, 2019)-gender differences in measured abilities. From that the authors concluded that the gender differences in self-estimates reflect male overestimation and female underestimation-an effect that they called the male hubris, female humility problem-or short hubris-humility effect (e.g., Furnham et al., 2001;Syzmanowicz & Furnham, 2011). Notably, most research in this area only collected data on self-estimates without psychometric ability measures (e.g., intelligence tests; see also Gignac & Zajenkowski, 2019). ...
... Syzmanowicz & Furnham, 2011) spatial intelligence in men compared to women. Moreover, we expected that these gender differences in self-estimates would partly represent a hubris-humility effect (H1.3.; i.e., male overestimation and female underestimation; as described in Furnham et al., 2001). ...
... Do men overestimate and women underestimate their abilities? The often-postulated hubrishumility effect suggests they do (e.g., Furnham et al., 2001). We set out to investigate the effect for spatial intelligence. ...
Women tend to see themselves as less capable than men. Some have interpreted this as female underestimation and male overestimation—the so-called hubris-humility effect. While such an effect could have important practical implications (e.g., on career choices), only few studies directly compared men's and women's self-estimated and measured abilities. We aimed to investigate the hubris-humility effect in spatial intelligence, a domain in which women’s and men’s abilities are documented to differ considerably. To contextualize the hubris-humility effect, we tested how conceptually related personality traits (narcissism and honesty-humility) were associated with the misestimation of spatial intelligence. We further analyzed relations with STEM-related professional interests. 208 participants (103 women; aged 18-37) completed self-estimate and performance measures of spatial intelligence as well as personality and interest questionnaires in a laboratory. Women gave lower self-estimates despite performing similarly well to men in spatial tasks. This constituted female humility but not male hubris: Women underestimated themselves but men did not overestimate themselves. Gender predicted misestimation over and above personality traits. Women further reported lower STEM-related interests than men. These interests, in turn, showed stronger associations to self-estimated than measured spatial intelligence. However, gender predicted STEM-related interests over and above self-estimated and measured spatial intelligence. The lack of gender differences in measured spatial intelligence was surprising but can likely be explained by our tasks. Notably, women’s self-estimates regarding the same tasks were still lower than men’s. Our findings suggests that interventions improving women’s self-views in the spatial domain might contribute towards greater gender equality in STEM.
... Consider, for example, gender differences in creative self-perception. A well-replicated male-hubrisfemale-humility bias (Furnham, Fong, & Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2001) shows that males overestimate their abilities while females tend to underestimate them. This phenomenon seems to apply to creativity (He & Wong, 2021;Karwowski, 2011), yet establishing measurement invariance is necessary to make such a comparison meaningful. ...
... As summarized in Table 3, also in this case, constraints did not result in a decrease in model fit, therefore allowing for a direct comparison of latent means between men and women. Given that recent studies established gender differences in CSE means and variances (He & Wong, 2021) and a male-hubrisfemale-humility bias (Furnham et al., 1999(Furnham et al., , 2001 seems to be well-replicated, such a comparison on a large sample appeared to be particularly interesting. ...
... This effect stands in contrast with a recent study showing that men get higher and more dispersed scores in CSE than women (He & Wong, 2021). Also, our results show that a male-hubris-female-humility bias (Furnham et al., 1999(Furnham et al., , 2001 might not be universal when it comes to people's creative confidence and their creative personal identity. ...
Self-report scales have become the most widely used instruments to capture people’s self-perception of creativity. Previous studies, however, provided only a limited insight into the psychometric properties of such measures. This paper reports an extensive item response theory (IRT) analysis of the Short Scale of Creative Self (SSCS): one of the most frequently used scales of creative self-concept. Based on samples from 14 studies (overall N > 26,000), we report IRT parameters of creative self-efficacy and creative personal identity scales’ items. We examined whether the scores obtained in the SSCS depend on the length of the response scale (5-versus-7-point Likert scales) and whether latent scores are comparable across different data collection methods (online, paper-and-pencil, phone), age, and gender. The results confirmed the two-factor structure of the SSCS, good psychometric properties of its items, as well as invariance regarding response scales, age, gender, and method of data collection. At the same time, the items (and consequently—scales) were easy in the psychometrical sense, thus providing much more reliable scores among individuals who scored low or medium in creative self-concept. Longer (7-point) and shorter (5-point) Likert scales performed similarly, with some psychometric arguments favoring fewer points on the scale. Gender differences were negligible (Cohen’s d between 0.00 and 0.01). We discuss potential ways of further improvement and development of the SSCS.
... Additionally, studies have reported sex differences in self-estimated intelligence, with higher estimates among males (Cooper, Krieg, & Brownell, 2018;Giannouli, 2023). This phenomenon has been replicated worldwide, and Furnham, Hosoe, and Tang (2001) labeled it the "male hubris, female humility effect." Syzmanowicz and Furnham (2011) conducted four meta-analyses on sex differences in self-estimated intelligence and found results supporting the male hubris, female humility effect, in which males give themselves higher estimates than females. ...
... The study revealed a significant sex difference in self-estimated intelligence, with males reporting higher levels than females, consistent with prior research (Giannouli, 2023;Syzmanowicz & Furnham, 2011), supporting the male hubris, female humility effect observed in Turkiye (Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2001). Moreover, educational level explained 3 % of variance in self-estimations, comparable to sex differences. ...
This study aimed to investigate the relationship between self-estimated intelligence and cognitive ability scores in a sample of Turkish-speaking adults. A total of 278 participants (mean age = 28.6, SD = 5.76, female = 65 %) took part in the study. The International Cognitive Ability Resource 16-Item Sample Test (ICAR-16) was first translated into Turkish, and its validity and reliability were assessed using second-order confirmatory factor analysis. Additionally, we examined score differences between educational level and sex groups. Our findings indicate that the Turkish form of the ICAR-16 is a valid and reliable measure of cognitive ability in the Turkish-speaking population. Interestingly, almost 80 % of participants rated their intelligence as above average, with males reporting significantly higher self-estimated intelligence scores than females. However, we found no significant relationship between self-estimated intelligence and ICAR-16 scores. These results suggest that there may be a discrepancy between our perceived intelligence and our actual cognitive ability, or that we may have a fallacious understanding of our intelligence levels.
... J Educ Sci Environ Health America, England, Japan, Iran, East Timor, and Portugal). Students in these studies were asked to predict which domains of intelligence they, their parents', and siblings possessed by answering researchers' questions and the findings were evaluated taking into account the cultural aspects of the countries that the participants were from (Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2001;Furnham, Shahidi & Baluch, 2002;Neto, Furnham, & da Conceição Pinto, 2009). Furnham, Hosoe, and Tang (2001) asked American, English, and Japanese students to estimate their own, parents, and siblings' multiple IQ scores (grouped under verbal, numerical and cultural factors). ...
... Students in these studies were asked to predict which domains of intelligence they, their parents', and siblings possessed by answering researchers' questions and the findings were evaluated taking into account the cultural aspects of the countries that the participants were from (Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2001;Furnham, Shahidi & Baluch, 2002;Neto, Furnham, & da Conceição Pinto, 2009). Furnham, Hosoe, and Tang (2001) asked American, English, and Japanese students to estimate their own, parents, and siblings' multiple IQ scores (grouped under verbal, numerical and cultural factors). While American students made higher estimations compared to Japanese, all students reported higher numerical IQ values for their fathers and brothers, and higher verbal IQ values for their mothers and sisters. ...
The purpose of this study is to compare the attitudes of Turkmenistanian and Turkish university students towards environmental ethics approaches and their naturalistic intelligence (NI) field. In addition, it was investigated whether there is a gender difference in environmental ethics levels in both countries students’. Environmental Ethics Attitude Scale (EEAS) and Multiple Intelligence Areas Inventory were applied to the students. A total of 172 Turkish and 103 Turkmenistanian university students participated. A significant difference between the mean scores of Turkish and Turkmenistanian was observed in all four categories of environmental ethics [Anthropocentric, Ecocentric, Ecofeminism, Teocentric]. The analyses conducted to test gender differences showed that there was not a significant difference between male and female Turkmenistanian students’ EAA mean scores. Comparison of NI levels of students from both countries suggested that Turkish students’ NI levels were “developed” and Turkmenistanian students’ NI levels were “moderately developed”. The research findings were considered for both countries students’.
... Beloff, 1992;Bennett, 1996Bennett, , 1997Bennett, , 2000Furnham & Chamorro-Premuzic, 2005;Furnham, Kosari, & Swami, 2012;Furnham & Storek, 2017;Neto, Furnham, & da Conceição Pinto, 2009;Kang & Furnham, 2016;Rammstedt & Rammsayer, 2000;von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, & Furnham, 2009). This gender difference in intelligence self-estimation is considered consistent and culturally invariant and is known as hubris-humility effect (Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2001). ...
... Certain studies have confirmed that assumption. For example, in study males rated both of their parents as having higher intelligence for most intelligence types than did females, and Furnham et al. (2001) reported that male participants rated fathers as overall more intelligent than did female participants. In Furnham, Arteche, Chamorro-Premuzic, Keser, and Swami (2009) study, males also rated their fathers, but not their mothers as having higher scores for most intelligence types than did females. ...
The goal of this study was to explore the raters' agreement and the effect of raters' and targets' gender on self- and parental intelligence assessments in the sample of Croatian twins. Twins were asked to assess their own and their parents' overall intelligence, as well as specific abilities from the Gardner's theory of multiple intelligences. Data was analysed to explore: i) twins' agreement in parental assessments and behavioural genetic analysis of the overall intelligence estimates; ii) gender differences in self- assessments; and iii) raters' and targets' gender effects on parental assessments. The twins' mean correlation in their assessments of overall parental intelligence was .60. The differences between monozygotic and dizygotic twin correlations were nonsignificant for all of the estimated abilities, and model fitting analysis indicates that hypothesis about genetic effect on parental assessment of intelligence should be rejected. The hypotheses about males' higher self-assessments for overall intelligence and for the masculine types of abilities - logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic and spatial abilities - were confirmed. For the feminine types of abilities - verbal/linguistic, inter- and intra- personal intelligences - there were no significant gender effects. Both target and rater effect were found for the parental estimates of intelligence. Fathers were estimated higher on overall intelligence, logical-mathematical, body-kinesthetic and spatial abilities, while mothers were estimated higher on interpersonal and intrapersonal intelligence. The effect of the raters' gender was found for overall intelligence as well as for inter- and intra- personal intelligences, where males gave higher estimates of parental intelligences than females.
... The results of several large studies (e.g., Colom et al., 2000;Colom and García-López, 2002; see also a review by Halpern and LaMay, 2000) have demonstrated that men and women are equivalent with reference to their general intelligence. However, men have been found to rate their own numerical IQ and their overall IQ higher than women do when it comes to self-estimated intelligence (Furnham et al., 2001;Ortner et al., 2011; see also a meta-analysis by Syzmanowicz and Furnham, 2011). Furnham et al. (2001) discussed the sex differences in self-estimations as influenced by lay conceptions about general intelligence and mathematical and spatial abilities, which are male normative. ...
... However, men have been found to rate their own numerical IQ and their overall IQ higher than women do when it comes to self-estimated intelligence (Furnham et al., 2001;Ortner et al., 2011; see also a meta-analysis by Syzmanowicz and Furnham, 2011). Furnham et al. (2001) discussed the sex differences in self-estimations as influenced by lay conceptions about general intelligence and mathematical and spatial abilities, which are male normative. Such widely known stereotypes are supposed to impair the targets of these stereotypes, in this case women, and can be a driver of sex disparities when it comes to a high-stakes test situation. ...
The results of some high-stakes aptitude tests in Austria have revealed sex differences. We suggest that such discrepancies are mediated not principally by differences in aptitudes, skills, and knowledge but sex differences in test takers' perceptions of the test situation. Furthermore, previous research has indicated that candidates' evaluations of the fairness of the testing tool are of great importance from an institutional point of view because such perceptions are known to influence an organization's attractiveness. In this study, we aimed to investigate how women and men perceive and evaluate certain aspects of a high-stakes test situation by using the results and evaluations of an actual medical school aptitude test (747 applicants; 59% women). Test takers voluntarily evaluated the test situation and rated specific aspects of it (e.g., the fairness of the selection tool) and provided information regarding their test anxiety immediately after they completed the 4-h test. Data analyses indicated small, albeit significant sex differences in participants' perceptions of the test. Men described the test situation as slightly giving more opportunity to socialize and possessing more opportunity to deceive than women did. Furthermore, the perception of the test situation did not directly predict the test results, but it served as a moderator for the indirect effect of test anxiety on test results. By contrast, there were significant direct effects but no indirect effects of situation perception on evaluations of the fairness of the selection tool: The more the test situation was perceived as a high-pressure situation, the lower the fairness ratings of the testing tool. Results were discussed with reference to gender roles and test fairness.
... Our tentative conclusions might be affected by cultural factors. Previous research has found both sex and cultural differences in the expression of humility (Furnham et al., 2001). Davis et al. (2017) hypothesized that the behavioral expression of humility may be perceived differently depending on the sex of the individual engaging in the behavior. ...
Although numerous self-report measures of humility have been developed, no behavioral measure has been scientifically vetted. We examined partner-rated relational humility and coded behaviors indicating state humility in couples (N = 69) transitioning to parenthood. Observed state humility behaviors were coded by examining video-recorded problem-focused discussions with the Interactional Dimensions Coding System using five coded behaviors consistent with a definition of humility. Participants rated their partner’s relational humility and self-reported their own relationship satisfaction. Latent class analysis determined three classes of partner-rated relational humility and of observed state humility—high, medium, and low of both constructs. High partner-rated relational humility and observed state humility predicted relationship satisfaction in both Wave 1 and Wave 2 of data prior to and after the birth of the couple’s first child. Future research might examine additional behaviors and criterion variables that are associated with partner-rated relational humility and observed state humility. It also might study how class membership changes throughout a relationship marked by life transitions and stressors.
... Their high citation count suggests the resonance of these issues in the academic community and the larger society (Ramadan, 2009). Conversely, the most cited articles on MI are dominated by Gardner's (1983) foundational work and several other studies, primarily those by Furnham (2001) and Furnham et al., (2001Furnham et al., ( , 2002, that discuss cultural and gendered perspectives on selfestimations of intelligence. These studies underline the global intrigue about MI, not just as a theoretical construct but as a lens through which cultural, societal, and gender dynamics are examined (Nisbett et al., 2012). ...
In this comprehensive study, we explore the intersection between Multiple Intelligences (MI) theory and Islamic educational systems, employing bibliometric tools like Descriptive analysis and Author Network Visualization to reveal the intricate contours of academic collaboration and research in this domain. An increasing trend in publications and cross-cultural collaborations, particularly involving the United States, Indonesia, and Turkey, underscores the global relevance of integrating modern psychological theories like MI with Islamic education. Through citation and keyword analysis, we highlight a significant divergence between research on Islamic schools and MI, as well as an emerging interest in applying MI in religious educational contexts. Furthermore, our research identified a seriously alarming gap in the academic literature at this intersection, emphasizing the need for future exploration. In synthesizing the findings, we conclude that the fusion of MI with Islamic pedagogy offers a robust approach to holistic learning in recognizing individual intelligence domains and fostering growth. The integration of these two fields promises to redefine education by melding traditional religious teachings with contemporary insights, creating a pathway for enhanced student understanding, progressive policy formulation, and innovative pedagogical strategies.
... Previous studies have implied the possibility that women are generally humbler than men and that these differences persist in different cultures (Furnham et al., 2001). The pattern seems to exist in managerial positions as well. ...
Prompted by the findings of gender differences in leadership outcomes, in this study we set out to explore gender differences in managers’ leadership style and behavior (transformational leadership and expressed intellectual humility) as rated by their subordinates, as well as in work attitudes (perceived organizational support and work engagement) of their subordinates. Our results indicated that female managers are perceived by their subordinates as being significantly more transformational and intellectually humble than male managers. However, there were no differences in work attitudes between subordinates of female and male managers. Still, the mediation analysis showed that both perceived transformational leadership and intellectual humility of managers mediated the relationship between gender and subordinates’ work attitudes. We argue that transformational leadership style and intellectual humility might be the basis of women’s, but not men’s, managerial efficacy and call for additional research of gender differences in leadership styles, behaviors and effectiveness.
... Anderseits könnten diese Ergebnisse auch Resultat des insbesondere aus Forschung zur allgemeinen kognitiven Begabung bekannten "Hubris-Humility-Effekt" sein (zu Deutsch: Überheblichkeit-Bescheidenheit-Effekt; z. B. Furnham et al., 2002). Dieser beschreibt die Beobachtung, dass Jungen in bestimmten Kompetenzbereichen, wie zum Beispiel numerischen kognitiven Fähigkeiten, tendenziell eine Überschätzung ihrer Fähigkeiten zeigen, während Mädchen sich eher unterschätzen. ...
Im Rahmen der PISA-Studie 2022 werden neben kognitiven Tests auch mathematikbezogene motivational-emotionale Faktoren, Einstellungen und Verhaltensweisen durch Selbsteinschätzung erfasst. Diese spielen eine wichtige Rolle bei der Entwicklung der mathematischen Kompetenz in der Schule. Fünfzehnjährige in Deutschland berichten weniger Ängstlichkeit, eine höhere Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung hinsichtlich klassischer Mathematikaufgaben und stimmen häufiger der Aussage zu, dass die mathematische Kompetenz sich nicht durch Lernen verändern lässt als Schüler*innen im OECD-Durchschnitt. Sie halten Mathematikkompetenz sogar für weniger veränderbar als Intelligenz. Gleichzeitig geben sie häufiger an, sich im Unterricht anzustrengen, nehmen aber seltener an außerschulischen Lerngelegenheiten teil. Im Vergleich zu den Jungen, welche im Schnitt eine höhere mathematische Kompetenz aufweisen (s. Kapitel 3), berichten Mädchen eine höhere mathematikbezogene Ängstlichkeit, häufiger negative Gefühle im Mathematikunterricht sowie eine niedrigere Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung in klassischen Mathematikaufgaben. Die Schüler*innen wurden auch gefragt, wie zuversichtlich sie sind, Herausforderungen, wie zum Beispiel dem Umgang mit Streuung in Datensätzen, bewältigen zu können. Allgemein schätzen sich die Fünfzehnjährigen in Deutschland in diesem Bereich weniger kompetent ein als ihre Peers im Durchschnitt der OECD-Staaten, wobei Mädchen niedrigere Selbstwirksamkeitserwartungen als Jungen zeigen. Dies sowie der negative Trend seit 2012 in der Selbstwirksamkeitserwartung in klassischen Aufgaben spricht für eine korrekte Selbsteinschätzung Jugendlicher in Deutschland. Die Freude, das Interesse und die instrumentelle Motivation in Mathematik zeigen zwischen 2003 und 2012 in Deutschland keine Veränderungen, nahmen jedoch in den letzten 10 Jahren signifikant ab, begleitet von einem Anstieg der Ängstlichkeit. Diese Entwicklungen spiegeln sich auch in der Einschätzung der Jugendlichen wider, dass mathematische Kompetenz sich weniger durch Lernen verändern lässt. Aufgrund dieser Erkenntnisse wird ersichtlich, dass weitere Forschung notwendig ist, wie in der Schule wachstumsorientierte Selbstbilder und Motivation vermittelt werden könnten.
... Gender bias has been shown to influence ratings of creativity provided by others (e.g., Lebuda & Karwowski, 2013;Proudfoot et al., 2015) and the male-hubris, female-humility effect, wherein males tend to rate themselves as greater in ability than females, has been shown to influence selfreport measures of cognitive ability across cultures (e.g., Furnham et al., 2001). Additionally, dependency amongst the effect sizes was accounted for by aggregating effects within a single study or choosing one effect size from each study. ...
Society is largely shaped by creativity, making it critical to understand why, despite minimal mean gender differences in creative ability, substantial differences exist in the creative achievement of men and women. Although the greater male variability hypothesis (GMVH) in creativity has been proposed to explain women’s underrepresentation as eminent creators, studies examining the GMVH are sparse and limited. This systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted to examine whether the GMVH in creativity can adequately explain the gender gap in creative achievement. We examined the GMVH in creativity, along with mean gender differences, in a range of indicators of creativity and across different sample characteristics and measurement approaches. Effect sizes (k = 1,003) were calculated using information retrieved from 194 studies (N = 68,525). Data were analyzed using three-level meta-analysis and metaregression and publication bias was evaluated using Egger’s regression test and contour-enhanced funnel plots. Results revealed minimal gender differences overall, with a slight mean advantage for females (g = −0.10, 95% CI [−0.13, −0.06]) and a trivial variability advantage for males (lnVR = 0.02, 95% CI [0.004, 0.04]) in creative ability scores. However, the magnitude of the effect sizes was moderated by creative domain, task type, scoring type, and study region for mean differences and by country-level gender egalitarianism values for variability. Taken together, gender differences in the mean and variability of creative ability scores are minimal and inconsistent across different contexts, suggesting that the GMVH may not provide much explanatory power for the gender gap in creative achievement.
... Esse resultado fortalece a tesede Karwowski e Barbot (2016), a qual sugere que eventual superioridade masculina nos resultados de autoeficácia criativa pode estar ligada ao efeito da "arrogância masculina" e "humildade feminina" (p. 310), não qual é observada uma tendência de homens manifestarem expectativas superestimadas em relação a desempenhos futuros, enquanto o contrário ocorre com as mulheres(Furnham et al., 2001).Em um estudo longitudinal,Karwowski et al. (2015) testaram o papel das expectativas dos professores no senso de autoeficácia criativa de estudantes do ensino médio. Os pesquisadores hipotetizaram que esse efeito seria mais forte entre as alunas, principalmente devido ao maior valor que elas atribuem às relações com os docentes e ao maior envolvimento no ensino, quando comparadas aos estudantes do sexo masculino(Rudasill et al., 2013;Wolter et al., 2014). ...
As crenças que as pessoas mantêm sobre as próprias habilidades e características influenciam suas decisões e, muitas vezes, explicam sucessos e fracassos na solução de problemas, incluindo os que demandam criatividade. As crenças do self criativo atuam como preditores da realização criativa, sendo apontadas por estudiosos como importantes fatores subjacentes ao desenvolvimento e expressão da criatividade em distintos contextos, inclusive no escolar. Estudos teóricos brasileiros sugerem que a escola militar apresenta características que podem inibir a manifestação de habilidades associadas à criatividade. Questiona-se, portanto, em que medida as autocrenças criativas dos estudantes podem ser influenciadas pelo ambiente escolar. Nesse sentido, por meio de dois estudos, esta pesquisa buscou explorar as crenças do self criativo de estudantes de escolas civis e militares. O estudo 1 objetivou adaptar a Escala Breve do Self Criativo (EBSC; Short Scale for Creative-Self [SSCS]), que avalia Autoeficácia Criativa (AEC) e Identidade Pessoal Criativa (IPC), para estudantes brasileiros do ensino médio, reunindo evidências de validade fatorial, precisão e equivalência psicométrica. Participaram 253 estudantes do ensino médio do Distrito Federal, a maioria do sexo feminino (169; 66,8%) e oriundos de escolas militares (168; 66,4%), com idade média de 16,7 anos (DP = 0,92). Realizou-se previamente a adaptação da EBSC, mediante tradução e análise de evidências de validade de conteúdo. No estudo 1, a análise se deu em duas etapas. A primeira utilizou análise fatorial exploratória (AFE) para avaliar a estrutura fatorial, precisão, confiabilidade e replicabilidade da escala. A segunda etapa utilizou análise fatorial confirmatória multigrupo (AFCMG), a qual avaliou a equivalência psicométrica da EBSC para tipo de escola (civil e militar) e sexo (feminino e masculino). A AFE resultou em elevadas cargas fatoriais (de 0,70 a 0,93), baixas cargas fatoriais cruzadas (inferiores a 0,23), moderada correlação entre as variáveis (r = 0,46), índices de ajuste adequados (χ2 /gl = 1,97; RMSEA = 0,062; CFI = 0,992; TLI = 0,984), elevada confiabilidade (ICC = 0,92; α = 0,84) e boa replicabilidade (H-latent entre 0,80 e 0,94; H-observed entre 0,76 e 0,84). Os resultados da AFCMG demonstraram a invariância da EBSC entre os grupos definidos por tipo de escola e sexo, com ΔCFI < 0,010, ΔRMSEA < 0,015 e ΔSRMR < 0,03. Isso indicou uma manutenção significativa no ajuste entre os modelos de equivalência linear, métrico e escalar. Ao final do estudo 1, concluiu-se que a EBSC é um instrumento psicométrico apropriado para a avaliação da AEC e IPC de estudantes brasileiros do ensino médio. Além disso, essa escala é adequada para a comparação desses construtos entre estudantes brasileiros de ensino médio de escolas militares e civis de ambos os sexos. O objetivo do estudo 2 foi comparar estudantes de escolas militares e civis, do sexo masculino e feminino, quanto à AEF e IPC, além de verificar a interação entre essas variáveis e o tipo de escola e sexo. Participaram 230 estudantes do ensino médio de escolas públicas do Distrito Federal, a maioria do sexo feminino (151; 65,7%) e oriundos de escolas militares (163; 70,87%), com idade média de 16,15 anos (DP = 1,08). Os instrumentos foram a EBSC e um questionário sociodemográfico. Para a análise comparativa e de interação, utilizou-se a ANOVA, acompanhada por procedimentos de bootstrapping. Os resultados do estudo 2 não revelaram diferenças significativas de AEC relacionadas ao tipo de escola (F [1, 226] = 0,057, p = 0,811, ) ou sexo (F [1, 226] = 2,933, p = 0,088, = 0,013). Quando comparada a IPC dos estudantes, não se observaram diferenças significativas relacionadas ao tipo de escola (F [1, 226] = 0,085, p = 0,771, < 0,001). Entretanto, estudantes do sexo feminino apresentaram índices de IPC superiores (F [1, 226] = 4,082, p = 0,045, = 0,018) ao dos homens. Também não foi identificada interação significativa entre tipo de escola e sexo para a AEC e IPC. Portanto, para a amostra do estudo 2, as diferenças ambientais entre escolas civis e militares não resultaram necessariamente em variações da AEC e IPC. Nesse sentido, é possível que as restrições típicas do modelo militar de educação não impliquem necessariamente barreiras à criatividade. Com base nos resultados dos estudos, são propostos direcionamentos para promoção da criatividade no contexto escolar, bem como sugestões para estudos futuros.
... Through qualitative coding, we examined the similarities and differences across participant definitions of what it means to remember, to know, and to be intelligent. A clearer understanding of what participants mean when they consider these cognitive abilities is essential for researchers interested in how participants assess their own abilities (e.g., Chamorro-Premuzic and Furnham 2006;Furnham and Chamorro-Premuzic 2005;Furnham et al. 2001;Kruger and Dunning 1999;Rammstedt and Rammsayer 2000;Sternberg et al. 1981) to minimize concerns about measurement validity. For example, if lay participants consider knowledge to be a more central element of intelligence than experts, judgment of one's own or other's intelligence might reflect this, even if researchers are primarily interested in judgments of fluid intelligence. ...
The present study examined how lay participants define the following concepts used widely in psychology: being intelligent, knowing, and remembering. In the scientific community, knowledge overlaps with the contents of semantic memory, crystallized intelligence reflects the accumulation of knowledge, knowledge and event memory interact, and fluid intelligence and working memory correlate. Naturally, the lay public has implicit theories of these constructs. These theories mainly distinguish between intelligent and unintelligent behaviors and tend to include characteristics outside psychometric studies of intelligence, such as emotional intelligence. Here, we asked lay participants from the online platform Prolific to explain “what does being intelligent mean to you?” as well as “knowing” and “remembering” to understand their degree of alignment with theoretical conceptualizations in the research community. Qualitative coding of participant definitions showed that intelligence and knowledge are closely related, but asymmetrically—when defining what it means to be intelligent, participants reference knowledge, but intelligence is not considered in explaining knowing. Although participants note that intelligence is multi-faceted and related to problem-solving, there is an emphasis (in terms of frequency of mentions) on the crystallized side of intelligence (i.e., knowledge). A deeper understanding of lay participants’ mental models of these constructs (i.e., their metacognitions) is essential for bridging gaps between experts and the general public.
... On the other hand, despite better academic achievement, evidence shows that girls are more likely than boys to have negative self-beliefs (Diseth, Meland, and Breidablik, 2014), and to underrate their abilities (Furnham et al., 2001). This means that lower levels of self-efficacy and self-confidence could potentially hinder the translation of cultural capital into better perceptions of the social environment for girls. ...
A long tradition in stratification research argues students with higher cultural capital are likely to be treated by their teachers as possessing the “right culture,” which positively affects their academic performance. Nevertheless, the literature has paid little attention to the role of students' perception in this process. Using two waves of the China Educational Panel Survey, we investigate how students' cultural capital affects their own understanding of teacher-student interactions, including its gender difference. Fixed effects regressions show a substantially positive effect of cultural capital on the perceived frequency of teachers praising and calling on students to answer questions across subjects. Nonetheless, we also find the lack of cultural capital is not punished and that the cultural capital's effect varies across its specific components and gender. These findings pave the way for elucidating the entire causal chain of intergenerational social inequality via cultural capital, teacher bias, students’ perception, and their educational outcomes.
... On the other hand, despite better academic achievement, evidence shows that girls are more likely than boys to have negative self-beliefs (Diseth, Meland, and Breidablik 2014), and to underrate their abilities (Furnham, Hosoe, and Tang 2001). This means that lower levels of self-efficacy and selfconfidence could potentially hinder the translation of cultural capital into better perceptions of the social environment for girls. ...
A long tradition in stratification research argues students with higher cultural capital (CC) are likely to be treated by their teachers as possessing the "right culture," which positively affects their academic performance. Nevertheless, the literature has paid little attention to the role of students' perception in this process. Using two waves of the China Educational Panel Survey, we investigate how students' CC affects their own understanding of teacher-student interactions, including its gender difference. Fixed effects regressions show a substantially positive effect of CC on the perceived frequency of teachers praising and calling on students to answer questions across subjects. Nonetheless, we also find the lack of CC is not punished and that the CC's effect varies across its specific components and gender. These findings pave the way for elucidating the entire causal chain of intergenerational social inequality via CC, teacher bias, students' perception, and their educational outcomes.
... One explanation for our findings could be that the persisting sex differences observed on the SBSOD after accounting for NVG experience may be indicative of 'true' sex effects that are poorly characterized by the spatial battery we employed, in that they may not be sufficiently ecologically valid or representative of typical navigational and wayfinding behaviours as experienced in day-to-day life (whereas these nuances can be captured on a self-report measure). Alternatively, one could speculate that self-report measures also capture bias in selfevaluation that may arise from a variety of sources [ 27 , 44 ], with males typically overestimating their performance relative to females [26] , particularly on tasks in which males stereotypically outperform females [ 5 , 44 ]. If that is the case, it would be reasonable to expect that these biases are not ameliorated with NVG training, and may explain why self-evaluations differ from objective measures of performance [5] . ...
Sex differences in human navigation and orientation skills are among the most recognized and studied in human cognition. Numerous findings have shown sex biases on various spatial tasks, with males typically outperforming females on popular tasks such as those measuring mental rotation. Other robust sex differences can be found in video game experience and genre preference, where males tend to play more games and prefer to play games with a stronger navigational component compared to females. To date, little is known about how experience playing video games with a specific navigation component affects spatial ability. In this study we explored how sex effects are impacted when controlling for navigation-style video game experience. In a group of 1305 participants, we first analyzed sex effects on a variety of spatial tasks without controlling for video game experience. Following this, we used case-control matching to create groups for each task that did not differ significantly in their age or video game experience. We then used these matched groups to analyze the sex effects for each task while controlling for video game experience. We found that before controlling for video game experience, males significantly outperformed females on our measure of mental rotation ability. However, after accounting for video game experience, there was no significant difference in mental rotation accuracy between females and males. We also found that before controlling for video game experience, there was no significant difference between males and female accuracy on a measure of spatial perspective taking. After controlling for video game experience, we found that females significantly outperformed males in perspective taking accuracy. Our findings suggest that video game experience does change how sex effects in spatial skills are interpreted and should be considered as a relevant confounding variable.
... There is evidence that culture can be a significant variable in contributing to a range of health and psychosocial outcomes. These include personality development (Ochse & Plug, 1996), symptoms ofPTSD (Hautamaki & Coleman, 2001), the meaning of health in later life (Westerhof, Katzko, Dittman-Kohli & Hayslip, 2001), the manifestation of health problems and experiences (Helman, 1990), estimations of intelligence levels (Furnham, Hosoe, & Li-Ping Tang, 2001), job satisfaction and well-being at work (Sousa-Poza & Sousa-Poza, 2000), perceived stress and rewards in the parental care role (White, Townsend & Stephens, 2000) and longevity (Erikson, Hessler, Sundh & Steen, 1999). In addition, Blanchflower & Oswald (in press) examined well-being and happiness over time in both Britain and the United States. ...
p>There is an urgent need to understand the factors that can influence health and well-being in later years; one such factor is the level of unfavourability adults associate with their own ageing and future old age. Given the potential for age-associated attitudes to impact adversely on health, particularly when negative, it was surprising that so little research has been carried out in this field. This thesis contributes to current knowledge in three main ways: by exploring, measuring and explaining adults’ attitudes to potentially negative and threatening aspects of their own ageing and future old age. Empirical research is reported from four main studies involving more than 3000 participants, including samples recruited personally from major cities in both the UK and the US. In exploring age-associated attitudes, results suggest: a) that negative attitudes can be understood in relation to the level of threat adults associate with their own future old age, b) that those threats cross physical, social and psychological aspects of later life, and c) that such threats can be further understood in terms of the ability of the individual to minimise losses, manage constraints and create positive gains. Replicated across sample groups, results also indicate that the ten new measures developed through this thesis do make a valuable contribution to the current field because: 1) a number of researchers have noted the paucity and inadequacy of measures in this field (e.g. Wullschleger et al, 1996), 2) the newly developed measures are short, easy to score and simple to interpret, and 3) replicated across sample groups, these measures have good psychometric properties, including good internal reliability and validity. Finally, results indicate that attachment-related variables provided the best explanation for age-associated attitudes; specifically, a model is proposed consistent with the view that experiences in early relationships influence current representations of self and others and current coping strategies, which in turn influence negative age-associated attitudes. Rival variables such as neuroticism and expected financial status did not add to the fit of the model.</p
... This brings us to a quite curious phenomenon frequently observed in psychological studies over the last few decades: that, when asked to provide an estimate of their intelligence, males frequently provide higher estimates than females. Indeed, this pattern of gender differences in self-estimated intelligence (SEI) is so universally found across different samples, ages, ethnicities and cultures that it has been termed the male hubris, female humility (MHFH) problem by Furnham et al. (2001). It remains so interesting because there is overwhelming consensus in cognitive psychology that males and females do not differ in general intelligence; gender differences are only found for specific cognitive abilities like verbal/visual-spatial tasks rather than psychometric intelligence (for a thorough review see Halpern et al., 2011). ...
Despite evidence from cognitive psychology that men and women are equal in measured intelligence, gender differences in self-estimated intelligence (SEI) are widely reported with males providing systematically higher estimates than females. This has been termed the male hubris, female humility effect. The present study explored personality factors that might explain this. Participants (N = 228; 103 male, 125 female) provided self-estimates of their general IQ and for Gardner’s multiple intelligences, before completing the Cattell Culture Fair IQ test as an objective measure of intelligence. They also completed the Bem Sex Role Inventory (BSRI) as a measure of sex-role identification, and measures of general and academic self-esteem. Both gender and sex-role differences were observed for SEI, with males and participants of both genders who scored high in masculinity offering higher self-estimates. By comparing estimated and observed IQ, we were able to rule out gender differences in overall accuracy but observed a pattern of systematic underestimation in females. An hierarchical multiple regression showed significant independent effects of gender, masculinity, and self-esteem. Mixed evidence was observed for gender differences in the estimation of multiple intelligences, though moderately sized sex-role differences were observed. The results offer a far more nuanced explanation for the male hubris, female humility effect that includes the contribution of sex role identification to individual and group differences.
... Masculinity also bears no relationship with performance in our study. Culturally related perceptions of gender roles may bear some influence on self-estimates of cognitive ability, but we failed to find its importance on the actual performance of tests (Furnham et al., 2001). Evidently, not all aspects of cultural values are necessarily related to test performances. ...
Cultural perspectives of neuropsychology proposes that test instruments reflect cultural values held by different societies. However, there is a lack of studies that tests such assumptions, making this relationship unclear. This is a first study to examine whether different cultural values would uniquely predict the performances of neuropsychological tests. Cultural values were defined using Hofstede’s framework of cultural values, and we included neuropsychological measures commonly found in clinical practice. Two hundred and four healthy participants of diverse ethnic backgrounds were included in the study. Five neuropsychological measures were used covering working memory, attention, verbal fluency, verbal memory, and processing speeds. The Cultural Values Scale measured five dimensions of Hofstede’s cultural values. Hierarchical regressions revealed that higher long-term-orientation predicted the better performance on Digit Span Backwards and phonetic fluency. This suggests that values of perseverance or future planning may manifests on tests of working memory and executive functions. Whereas higher uncertainty avoidance predicted lower performance on Digit Span Backwards. Lower tolerance toward ambiguity during testing procedures could have resulted in anxiety, thus affect working memory processes. These results suggest that long-term-orientation and uncertainty avoidance could be associated with processes within executive functions, especially if these are subjected to verbal assessments. Future studies should confirm these findings with other neuropsychological measures and recruit a wider range of clinical and non-clinical populations. Limitations of the study are discussed.
... Girls have higher levels of verbal, kinesthetic, musical, naturalist and existential intelligence than boys, who in turn, have higher logical intelligence. An extensive body of literature have documented sexual dimorphism in the estimation of MI, which the present study confirms [36][37][38][39]. However, other studies indicate no apparent sex-differences either on subscale level or total MI score. ...
Studies investigating the association of vitamin D on intelligence is limited. The present study therefore aims to determine the association of vitamin D status with the different domains of intelligence among Saudi Arabian adolescents. This study used relational survey method among 1864 Saudi adolescent, including 549 boys and 1315 girls (mean age 14.7 ± 1.7 years) recruited using a multistage, stratified cluster randomization of 47 public and private schools in Riyadh in Saudi Arabia. A general questionnaire was used to collect demographic information. Intelligence was assessed using multiple intelligence inventory. Anthropometrics were measured and fasting blood samples collected for assessment of glucose and lipid profile. Vitamin D deficiency (25(OH)D <50 nmol/L) was observed in 84.2% of boys and 93.5% of girls. Girls had higher levels of verbal, kinesthetic, musical, naturalist and existential intelligence than boys, while boys have higher logical intelligence than girls (p-values < 0.05). Mixed regression analysis controlled for age, BMI and sex revealed that kinesthetic intelligence was significantly associated with 25(OH)D in boys (β 5.6 (2.8–8.5; p < 0.001)) and inversely associated with musical intelligence (β −1.2 (−2.3–0.1; p = 0.03)) and positively with naturalist (β 2.3 (0.5–4.2; p = 0.01)) in girls. Vitamin D status is associated with several domains of intelligence in adolescents and is sex-specific. Development a specific domain of intelligence may indirectly affect vitamin D status among adolescents, but needs to be proven prospectively.
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
... Uganda) czy azjatyckich (np. Japonia, Singapur), w których próby były etnicznie homogeniczne (Furnham, Baguma, 1999;Furnham, Fong, Martin, 1999;Furnham, Hosoe, Tang, 2001). Badacze sugerują, że te wyniki mogą być związane z poziomem indywidualizmu lub kolektywizmu w danym kraju (von Stumm, Chamorro-Premuzic, Furnham, 2009). ...
Jedna z najczęściej pojawiających się w literaturze definicji inteligencji opisuje ją jako zdolność, która ułatwia człowiekowi przystosowanie do środowiska. Badania psychologiczne prowadzone już od drugiej połowy XIX w. (m.in. przez Francisa Galtona) zdają się potwierdzać adaptacyjny charakter inteligencji. Od samego początku badacze łączyli sprawność intelektualną z funkcjonowaniem szkolnym. W kontekście badania uczniów szkoły średniej zrodziła się koncepcja czynnika inteligencji ogólnej zaproponowana przez Charlesa Spearmana. Nowo powstałe testy inteligencji u progu XX w., początkowo stworzone dla celów edukacyjnych przez Alfreda Bineta, szybko wzbudziły zainteresowanie pracodawców, ponieważ stanowiły efektywne narzędzie wyboru najlepszych kandydatów do pracy. Proces rozpowszechniania się testów inteligencji przyspieszyła I wojna światowa i potrzeba szybkiej selekcji kandydatów do służby wojskowej na różnych stanowiskach. Szkoła i praca, niewątpliwie ważne obszary aktywności człowieka, nie wyczerpują jednak dziedzin, w których inteligencja okazała się ważna. Późniejsze badania, prowadzone m.in. przez zespół szkockiego badacza Iana Deary’ego, pokazały znaczenie inteligencji dla zdrowia i długości życia. Inteligencja jest ogólną zdolnością, która przesądza o sprawności funkcjonowania poznawczego człowieka. Praktycznie każda aktywność ludzka angażuje w jakimś stopniu procesy poznawcze. Nie dziwi zatem fakt, że inteligencja ma znaczenie w niemal każdej sferze życia, od samoregulacji, osobowości, przekonań o świecie, kontroli niepożądanych zachowań i emocji, po aktywność fizyczną, preferencje dobowe i funkcjonowanie w związkach. W niniejszym zbiorze przyglądamy się niektórym z tych obszarów, wskazując na różnorodność wątków związanych z inteligencją. (...)
W pierwszej części książki znalazły się rozdziały odwołujące się bezpośrednio do adaptacyjnego charakteru inteligencji oraz związanymi z nią funkcjami poznawczymi. Pierwszy rozdział autorstwa Marcina Zajenkowskiego stanowi wprowadzenie do całego zbioru i przedstawia rys historyczny dociekań nad inteligencją, jej definicję oraz przegląd badań nad znaczeniem inteligencji dla osiągnięć szkolnych, funkcjonowania w pracy oraz zdrowia i długości życia. Następne trzy rozdziały opisują rolę zdolności poznawczych dla adaptacyjnego zachowania w zakresie samoregulacji (Jan Jędrzejczyk), agresywnego zachowania (Marta Bodecka) oraz uzależnień (Iwona Nowakowska, Karolina Lewandowska, Karol Lewczuk).
Druga część zbioru obejmuje teksty, w których przedyskutowano związki inteligencji i zdolności poznawczych z przekonaniami i emocjami. Marcin Zajenkowski i Oliwia Maciantowicz wskazują na wagę przekonań o własnej inteligencji dla różnych obszarów życia. Kinga Szymaniak przedstawia badania nad związkami gniew–poznanie, wskazując na najnowsze teorie z zakresu psychologii emocji. Paweł Łowicki omawia powiązania inteligencji i zdolności emocjonalno-społecznych z przekonaniami religijnymi. Maria Ledzińska prezentuje obszerny przegląd badań nad metapoznaniem, a więc wiedzą na temat własnych procesów poznawczych, jej związkami z inteligencją i codziennym funkcjonowaniem.
W trzeciej części zbioru przedstawiono rozdziały opisujące rolę inteligencji w specyficznych obszarach życia. Wojciech Waleriańczyk i Maciej Stolarski zebrali informacje na temat roli inteligencji w sporcie. Konrad Jankowski przedstawia badania nad związkami zdolności poznawczych z chronotypem, cechą opisującą preferencje pory dnia dla aktywności człowieka. W ostatnim rozdziale Maria Leniarska i Marcin Zajenkowski dokonują przeglądu badań nad inteligencją ogólną oraz inteligencją emocjonalną i funkcjonowaniem osób w bliskich związkach.
... Motivar a través de la transformación, es más probable que las mujeres lideren a través de la inspiración, transformando las actitudes y creencias de las personas y alineando a las mismas con el significado y el propósito de la organización. (Furnham, Hosoe & Li-Ping, 2001). Se sugiere que la humildad podría ser un rasgo importante para las relaciones interpersonales (Petters, Rowatt & Johnson, 2011). ...
Esta es una versión pre-print, más extensa y que no incluye las correcciones de los revisores del artículo del mismo título que se publica en Inclusao Social, 2020 Intervención psicosocial para fomentar la cohesión e inclusión social en las organizaciones: el rol del liderazgo, la creatividad e innovación. Silvia da Costa & Darío Páez El liderazgo juega un rol importante en la generación de la cohesión e inclusión social en las organizaciones. La exclusión social se concibe como el rechazo extremo de personas percibidas como desviantes, situándolas fuera del círculo de obligaciones morales del endogrupo. Se revisan las actividades de liderazgo vinculadas y conducentes a la exclusión social. También se revisa en base a los estudios empíricos los eventos y conductas creativas e innovadoras que son llevados a cabo por los distintos estilos de liderazgo (positivo, transformador, transaccional, auténtico y ético, creativo, compartido y eficaz) y que contribuyen a un clima emocional positivo, de confianza, respeto e inclusivo en las organizaciones. El liderazgo debería ser creativo e innovador para manejar la diversidad social y cultural en una organización, involucrar a las y los miembros para la generación de novedades y evitar la exclusión social. En este sentido, las habilidades de quienes ejercen liderazgo serían claves para generar emociones positivas, en particular de trascendencia del yo, como la inspiración moral, el asombro maravillado de tipo social, la cercanía/amor genérico a otros, la gratitud y compasión. Se concluye proponiendo estrategias para la promoción de un clima organizacional que favorezcan y refuerce la inclusión social en ámbito laboral.
... A widespread belief exists in many societies that some people are born with mathematics ability, which is regarded as an innate aptitude or the potential to perform well in mathematics. Historical and psychological research supports the existence of prevalent stereotypes and beliefs associating men more than women with mathematical ability (e.g., Bennett, 2011;Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2002;Lecklider, 2013;Tiedemann, 2000). 1 In fact, the lower representation of women in disciplines whose experts report that innate ability is the main requirement for success suggests that such beliefs may deter women from entering Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) fields, in which inherent ability is perceived to be the key to success (Leslie, Cimpian, Meyer, & Freeland, 2015). Prior work indeed provides evidence that widely held stereotypical beliefs and biases communicated to girls through their social environments partly harm their self-perceptions and academic performance (e.g., Ambady, Shih, Kim, & Pittinsky, 2001;Nosek et al., 2009;Rosenthal & Jacobson, 1968;Steele & Aronson, 1995; see also Bennett, 2011;Ceci, Williams, & Barnett, 2009;Steele, Spencer, & Aronson, 2002;Wang & Degol, 2017, for reviews). ...
Teachers' beliefs play a significant role in students' academic attainment and career choices. Despite comparable attainment levels between genders, persistent stereotypes and beliefs that certain disciplines require innate ability and that men and women have different ability levels impede students' academic career paths. In this study, we examined the prevalence of U.S. mathematics teachers' explicit general and gender-specific beliefs about mathematical ability and identified which teacher characteristics were associated with these beliefs. An analysis of data from 382 K-8 teachers in the USA indicated that overall, teachers disagreed with the idea that general and gender-specific mathematical ability is innate, and agreed with the idea that hard work and dedication are required for success in mathematics. However, our findings indicate that those who believed mathematics requires brilliance also tended to think girls lacked this ability. We also found that teachers who were teaching mathematics to 11-to 14-year old students seemed to believe that mathematics requires innate ability compared with teachers who were teaching mathematics to 5-to 10-year-old students. In addition, more experienced teachers and teachers who worked with special education students seemed to believe less in the role of hard work in success in mathematics, which could have serious consequences for shaping their students' beliefs about their academic self-concept and future career-related decisions.
... These results create an opposite situation with our study. Furnham et al. (2002) conducted a study with British, American and Japanese participants aimed at identifying intelligence types. As a result of this study, no significant difference was found between men and women in the field of verbal linguistic intelligence. ...
... I controlled for participant's sex because previous research has suggested that females tend to be more humble than males (Furnham et al., 2002;Owens et al., 2013). Furthermore, women receive less recognition for their achievements than men do and often deflect attention off of themselves (Fels, 2004). ...
Although experts are valuable assets to organizations, they suffer from the curse of knowledge and cognitive entrenchment, which prevents them from being able to adapt to changing situational demands. In this study, I propose that experts’ performance goal orientation resulting from pressures to perform contributes to their flexibility, but this mechanism can be moderated by learning goal orientation and humility. Data from a small sample of healthcare professionals suggested that performance goal orientation partially explained the mechanism of why experts may be inflexible. Humility, both as self-report and other-report measures, was found to be the most consistent moderator of this indirect effect. Experts with low levels of humility suffered from the negative effects of performance goal orientation, leading them to be less flexible compared to their counterparts with higher levels of humility. Experts who reported high levels of humility, on the other hand, were perceived to be more flexible as their expertise increased. Meanwhile, learning goal orientation partially moderated the indirect effect of expertise on flexibility through performance goal orientation. These findings lead to new conversations on how to get experts unstuck and highlight the importance of developing humility as both a personal virtue and a strategic advantage for organizations.
... We note there are limitations of using a single item survey with self-reported knowledge measures. The majority of respondents to our survey were male, and studies have shown that males tend to over-rate their knowledge, skills, grades, etc and females tend to under-rate their performance [29]. It does appear, however, among stakeholders, increased understanding of the animals increased understanding of the regulatory context of their recovery and repellents as a socially acceptable means of managing the conflict. ...
The recovery of California sea lion (Zalophus californianus) populations is an environmental success story, but it has created new challenges given their interactions with sport fisherman. Economic losses to the Commercial Passenger Fishing Vessel (CPFV) stems both from the loss of fish, as well as the costs of fuel and time spent traveling to new fishing areas to avoid pinnipeds. Management solutions require a firm understanding of the public's perceptions of an issue. To address this shortcoming, we surveyed recreational anglers' perceptions of California sea lions and conducted a content analysis of media coverage of California sea lions in Southern Californian newspapers. We found that as anglers' knowledge of California sea lions increased, their subjective knowledge of the Marine Mammal Protection Act increased as well and they were less likely to advocate the use of lethal removal to manage sea lion issues. Avid fishers were more likely to consider shooting all sea lions as acceptable, and less likely to view controls to restrict human activity from sea lion areas as favorable. Anglers that expressed negative sentiments after an interaction with sea lions while fishing were more likely to view punishing the sea lion favorably, but less likely to view exposing the sea lions to pain as favorable. Our content analysis showed that most articles were about tourism and entertainment and the majority of articles focused on negative effects to sea lions. The media's framing might obscure the successful recovery of California sea lions and flame growing management concerns with stakeholders like anglers, dock workers, and marina occupants. Our survey showed that among stakeholders, increased understanding of the animals increased understanding of the regulatory context of their recovery and repellents as a socially acceptable means of managing the conflict. Thus, we have shown that knowledge among the public and stakeholders will enhance management efforts. Conservation management professionals can influence public attitudes by interacting with the media as well as using communications strategies that highlight the ecological mechanisms behind the conflict as well as the management actions.
... Hubris. It is also possible that a high-performing firm would consider outcomes in a "gain framework" based on its positive past experiencedue to CEOs' hubris (Hayward et al., 2004;Piazza and Castellucci, 2014) or due to simple complacency that could have built over time by a history of prior successes (Bothner et al., 2008) or gender differences (Furnham et al., 2001). In this case, the observed preference of high-status CEOs for high-risk/high-visibility projects would imply that high-status CEOs would tend to fail more often than their low-status counterparts and incur substantial status losses due to their excessive risk seeking. ...
A failure of a large corporate investment project launched by a CEO may affect not only CEO's bonus and equity holdings, but also personal status and future career prospects. Yet, Merton's (1968) “Matthew Effect” would suggest that the risks and benefits associated with risky investment projects may be different for CEOs of different status. High-status CEOs are better able to decouple their status from their firm's performance failure and are in a better position to claim credit for the firm's successes. On the other hand, given that third parties have greater reluctance to accept quality claims of low-status actors, lower status CEOs might not receive a commensurate credit for the success of a project, but might be exposed to a disproportionate amount of blame in case of project failure. Since actors are usually aware of the presence of the Matthew Effect in their field, we can expect that the differential outcomes produced by it will be factored into actors' expected utility calculations, affecting CEOs' attitudes to risk and visibility of their investment prospects. The findings from a 19-year sample of U.S.-based cellular telephone operators provide support for the theorized relationship between the Matthew Effect and CEOs' investment choices.
... On the basis of previous research (see, e.g., Ayman, Korabik, & Morris, 2009;Eagly & Karau, 2002;Furnham, Hosoe, & Tang, 2002;Lee & Ashton, 2004;McCormick, Tanguma, & Lopez-Forment, 2003;Prime, Jonsen, Carter, & Maznevski, 2008), one might have expected this study to find differences in perceptions of leader effectiveness, confidence, and/or humility according to the sex of the principal and/or teacher. Somewhat surprising, such differences were not found. ...
Humility in leadership has received growing scholarly attention in recent years. However, the literature is devoid of empirical studies of the relationship between humility, confidence (an attribute consistently linked to effective leadership) and leader effectiveness. This quantitative study examined the understudied relationships among these three concepts. In this study, 137 teachers from K-12 educational settings completed a survey measuring their perceptions of their principals' confidence, humility and leader effectiveness. Results showed that humility and confidence were strongly and positively related to each other and to leader effectiveness. The findings provide support for the importance of humility and confidence as attributes of effective leadership and have potentially important implications for educational leadership.
This study focuses on the concept of gender equality in education, examining the role of national and European Union legislation, as well as international frameworks like the United Nations' CEDAW, in promoting gender parity. The research analyzes the structural causes of gender inequalities and discrimination, highlighting how societal norms and individual stories about gender contribute to these disparities. Special attention is given to barriers in achieving educational equity, considering both access to education and the learning process itself. Additionally, the study explores the significance of parental education programs, addressing gender perspectives in their development and implementation. It examines the gender dynamics within parental education, including the gender of educators, participants, and the challenges of measuring the impact of such programs. Through a thorough review of relevant policies and strategies, the study suggests practical measures to enhance gender equality in education, advocating for the continuous promotion of gender-sensitive practices in both school curricula and extracurricular activities. The findings emphasize the need for greater attention to gender equality in educational policies and the importance of fostering an inclusive environment for both women and men in Romania and across the European Union.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
This volume provides the most comprehensive and up-to-date compendium of theory and research in the field of human intelligence. Each of the 42 chapters is written by world-renowned experts in their respective fields, and collectively, they cover the full range of topics of contemporary interest in the study of intelligence. The handbook is divided into nine parts: Part I covers intelligence and its measurement; Part II deals with the development of intelligence; Part III discusses intelligence and group differences; Part IV concerns the biology of intelligence; Part V is about intelligence and information processing; Part VI discusses different kinds of intelligence; Part VII covers intelligence and society; Part VIII concerns intelligence in relation to allied constructs; and Part IX is the concluding chapter, which reflects on where the field is currently and where it still needs to go.
The bivalent fear of evaluation model explains the association of fear of evaluation and heightened social anxiety via concerns of social reprisal (CSR) and disqualification of positive social outcomes (DPSO). The constructs of the model may differ in individualistic (e.g., Australia) and collectivistic countries (e.g., Japan); however, no study has examined the model, including CSR, in collectivistic countries. This study develops the Japanese translation of the Concerns of Social Reprisal Scale (CSRS) and examines constructs of the bivalent fear of evaluation model in Japan. Overall, 496 participants completed CSR and social‐anxiety‐related questionnaires. Exploratory factor analysis revealed a 1‐factor structure for the Japanese translation of the CSRS. Convergent validity and internal consistency were supported by significant relationships between social‐anxiety‐related variables and high McDonald's ω coefficient. Discriminant validity was partially supported by higher correlation between the CSRS and DPSO scale than correlation to the fear of negative evaluation scale. Path analysis revealed that the best fitting bivalent fear of evaluation model is similar to the individualistic country model, although DPSO contributes to social anxiety symptoms more than fear of positive evaluation.
Background:
Although there is research examining the demographic predictors of self-estimated intelligence (SEI) in young adults, so far SEI in old age is little investigated. This study aims to examine the influence of additional variables such as self-estimated emotional intelligence (SEEQ), physical attractiveness, health, general optimism, religiousness, and working memory (WM) on SEI both in young and older adults.
Methods:
A total of 159 young (90 women, Mage = 28.77, SD = 8.83) and 152 older adults (93 women, Mage = 71.92, SD = 6.84) completed a measure of SEI as well as questions regarding the abovementioned variables. Given that WM is considered a very strong predictor of intelligence, neuropsychological assessment included the measurement of WM and phonologically cued semantic retrieval-verbal storage and processing in WM, as assessed by the Digit Span Forward and Verbal Fluency Task. The visual storage in WM was assessed with a variation of the Visual Patterns Test, and the visual storage and processing in WM with the Corsi blocks task (backward). Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS-X) was also administered as a possible influence on cognitive performance and SEI.
Results:
Young males rated their intelligence quotient (IQ) and emotional quotient (EQ) higher than young females. This was not confirmed for older adults, for which surprisingly the reversed pattern was found. Older women reported higher IQ and EQ than older men. Correlations showed for all participants that the higher they rated their IQ, the higher their ratings of EQ, physical attractiveness, health, and religiousness. No significant correlations between objective tests regarding WM and SEI were found, supporting SEI overestimations. Age, sex, physical attractiveness, and SEEQ were significant predictors of SEI.
Discussion:
For the first time, a reverse sex difference across age groups in SEI is found. Implications for individuals and healthcare professionals involved in assessment are suggested.
PurposeWhile not always obvious to surgical educators, there is previous research suggesting female trainees view themselves as less skilled in the operating room compared to male counterparts. We aimed to further evaluate sex differences in residents’ perceived performance during simulated skills assessments.Methods
Residents at seven programs completed nine simulated skills assessments and a post-completion survey. Variables of interest were (1) resident sex, (2) self-rated performance, and (3) actual performance scores. A MANCOVA was used to assess differences in self-rated resident performance between sex while controlling for training level.ResultsData from 70 residents (47% female) were analyzed. No statistically significant difference in actual performance was found based on sex across all assessments. However, there was a statistically significant difference between sex on the combined perceived performance outcome variables [F(9, 59) = 2.3, p < 0.05; Wilks’ Λ = 0.739; partial η2 = 0.261]. Additionally, male residents perceived their performance to be significantly higher (p < 0.05) on four assessments out of nine assessments compared to females.Conclusions
Female residents in our study systematically rated their simulated assessment skills to be lower than males, although there was no difference in actual performance.
In five different online studies of community samples, participants (N > 2,200) estimated their IQ and EQ on a single scale and completed three different, short, untimed intelligence tests. In all studies, women estimated their IQ significantly lower than men (effect sizes from 0.22-0.47) and estimated their EQ higher (effect size 0.04-0.32). In only one study were there actual sex differences in IQ test scores. All correlations between the two estimates were significant and positive, and ranged from .37 < r < .47. The robustness of the IQ-EQ hubris-humility effect across measures and populations is discussed. Limitations are acknowledged, particularly in the use of tests.
This study investigated gender differences in creative self-efficacy among 398 (49.5% female) undergraduate students in Hong Kong by analyzing both means and variability. The Creative Self-Efficacy (CSE) subscale in the Short Scale of Creative Self (SSCS) was translated and adapted to Chinese to assess creative self-efficacy. Interesting gendered patterns were found. First, the results of mean comparisons suggest a pattern of male superiority, though the effect size was small (d = 0.24). Second, the results of variability analyses suggest a pattern of greater male variability: (1) men exhibited greater variance than women in the overall distribution of creative self-efficacy scores, with the male/female variance ratio (VR) = 1.64, and (2) men were overrepresented at both the high and low extremes of the score distribution, with the male/female ratio = 2.62–9.99. The important methodological implication is that both means and variability should be analyzed to gain a more thorough understanding of gender differences in creative self-efficacy. The practical implication of the findings is that gender differences should be considered in the cultivation of creative self-efficacy, which has been shown to positively influence creative outcomes and creative achievement.
Kajian ini bertujuan mengenal pasti sumbangan faktor-faktor kecerdasan pelbagai (KP) terhadap lapan kecerdasan pelbagai yang dipelopori oleh Gardner. Kajian ini juga bertujuan meninjau perbezaan faktor-faktor kecerdasan pelbagai berdasarkan jantina, bangsa, kategori sekolah, aliran dan SES (Social Economic Status). Kajian ini telah dijalankan secara tinjauan dan dianalisa secara kuantitatif ke atas 511 pelajar dengan menggunakan instrument MyMICA 2006 (Malaysian Multiple Intelligence Check list for Adult 2006). Analisis regresi linear menunjukkan kecerdasan Visual Ruang memberi sumbangan paling tinggi iaitu 97.8% terhadap kecerdasan Logik Matematik manakala kecerdasan Verbal Linguistik pula memberi sumbangan paling rendah iaitu 22.2% terhadap kecerdasan Muzik. Melalui analisis MANOVA, antara dapatan yang diperoleh ialah terdapat perbezaan yang signifi kan berdasarkan kategori sekolah dalam dua kecerdasan pelbagai iaitu Verbal Linguistik (F = 25.11, p < 0.01) dan Intrapersonal (F = 14.85, p < 0.01). Terdapat juga perbezaan yang signifi kan antara pelajar Melayu dan bukan Melayu pada dua kecerdasan pelbagai iaitu Muzik (F = 12.82, p < 0.01) dan Kinestatik (F = 9.58, p < 0.01). Implikasi kajian menunjukkan guru dan pentadbir sekolah perlu peka terhadap kecerdasan pelbagai yang berbeza bagi setiap individu pelajar. Guru seharusnya mengguna sepenuhnya kemudahan prasarana sekolah untuk mencungkil kecerdasan ini bagi memaksimumkan prestasi pelajar.
Bu araştırmada, okul öncesi eğitim kurumlarına devam eden 3-4 yaş arası çocukların ebeveyn tutumları ile benlik kavramları arasındaki ilişkinin incelenmesi amaçlanmıştır. Araştırma, İstanbul’da yer alan iki okul öncesi eğitim kurumunda öğrenim gören 60 çocuk ve ebeveynleri ile yürütülmüştür. Araştırmada, sosyodemografik bilgilerKişisel Bilgi Formu ile, çocukların benlik kavramı Purdue Çocuklar İçin Benlik Kavramı Ölçeği ve ebeveyn tutumları Aile Hayatı ve Çocuk Yetiştirme Tutum Ölçeği (PARI) ile değerlendirilmiştir. Araştırma sonucunda erkek çocuklarda benlik kavramının kız çocuklara göre daha yüksek olduğu bulunmuştur. PARI Ölçeğinin Demokratik ve Eşitlik alt ölçeği puanları ile benlik kavramı arasında pozitif bir ilişki bulunmuştur. Buna karşılık Ev Kadınlığı Rolünü Reddetme, Aşırı Annelik, Geçimsizlik, Sıkı Disiplin alt ölçeği ile benlik kavramı arasında negatif yönde bir ilişki bulunmuştur. Benlik kavramının, bireyin gelişiminde kritik bir evre olduğu bilinen erken çocukluk döneminde cinsiyetler arasında farklılık gösterdiği ve ebeveyn tutumlarının benlik kavramını etkilediği düşünülmüştür.
In this article, we provide an evidence-based analysis of the main ideas put forth in Sheryl Sandberg’s immensely popular book Lean In. In doing so, we bring the management and psychology literatures to bear on her key pieces of advice and determine which assertions are supported, which are refuted, and which need additional management research. We use research on stereotype threat, psychological withdrawal, mentoring, leadership identity development, self-efficacy, and leadership styles to examine Sandberg’s key claims. Overall, our findings suggest that some of her arguments are supported by scientific evidence while others lack empirically based support. We discuss both gaps in the existing literature and practical implications that emerge as evidence-based strategies for both women and the organizations in which they work to combat gender-based stereotypes and discrimination.
Correlations between single-item self-reports of intelligence and IQ scores are rather low (.20-.25) in college samples. The literature suggested that self-reports could be improved by three strategies: (1) aggregation, (2) item weighting, and (3) use of indirect, rather than direct, questions. To evaluate these strategies, we compared the validity of aggregated and unaggregated versions of direct measures with four indirect measures (Gough's Intellectual efficiency scale, Hogan's Intellect composite scale, Sternberg's Behavior Check List, and Trapnell's Smart scale). All measures were administered to two large samples of undergraduates (Ns = 310, 326), who also took an IQ test. Although results showed some success for both direct and indirect measures, the failure of their validities to exceed .30 impugns their utility as IQ proxies in competitive college samples. The content of the most valid items referred to global mental abilities or reading involvement. Aggregation benefited indirect more than direct measures, but prototype-weighting contributed little.
This research assessed gender differences in the accuracy of self-perceptions. Do males and females with equal ability have similar self-perceptions of their ability? Three measures of accuracy were used: accuracy of self-evaluations, calibration for individual questions, and response bias. As hypothesized, for a masculine task, significant gender differences were found for all three measures: Females' self-evaluations of performance were inaccurately low, their confidence statements for individual questions were less wel calibrated than males; and their response bias was more conservative than males'. None of these gender differences were found for feminine and neutral tasks. As hypothesized, strong self-consistency tendencies were found. Expectancies emerged as an important predictor of self-evaluations of performance for both genders and could account for females' inaccurately low self-evaluations on the masculine task. How females' inaccurate self-perceptions might negatively affect achievement behavior and curtail their participation in masculine domains is discussed.
This study investigated gender differences inthe accuracy of self-perceptions and whetherself-perception biases are related to negative recallbiases. Participants were 275 female and 213 malecollege students. Approximately 10% of the participantswere minorities (mostly African American and Asian). Ona masculine task, gender differences in self-perceptionswere found for three measures of accuracy: The accuracy of self-evaluations, calibration,and response bias. Females underestimated theirperformance, were less well calibrated, and showed amore conservative response bias than did males. Ashypothesized, no gender differences in the accuracy ofself-evaluations were found for feminine and neutraltasks. Participants' expectancies mediated the genderdifferences in post task self-evaluations ofperformance. In addition, evidence for a negative recallbias was found. Females were more likely than males torecall their mistakes even with performance and accuracyof self-evaluations controlled. The implications of females' greater self-perception biases onmasculine tasks are discussed and suggestions for futureresearch are made.
Correlations between single-item self-reports of intelligence and IQ scores are rather low (.20–.25) in college samples. The literature suggested that self-reports could be improved by three strategies: (1) aggregation, (2)item weighting, and (3) use of indirect, rather than direct, questions. To evaluate these strategies, we compared the validity of aggregated and unaggregated versions of direct measures with four indirect measures (Gough’s Intellectual efficiency scale, Hogan’s Intellect composite scale, Sternberg’s Behavior Check List, and Trapnell’s Smart scale). All measures were administered to two large samples of undergraduates (Ns = 310, 326), who also took an IQ test. Although results showed some success for both direct and indirect measures, the failure of their validities to exceed .30 impugns their utility as IQ proxies in competitive college samples. The content of the most valid items referred to global mental abilities or reading involvement. Aggregation benefited indirect more than direct measures, but prototype-weighting contributed little.
Participants were 131 (69 women, 62 men)students in Introductory Psychology, Social Psychology,and Computer Science courses. Eighty-six percent of thesample was Caucasian. The goals of this study were to assess (a) how accurate students'preexamination expectancies and postexamination gradeevaluations are and whether gender differences in theaccuracy of expectancies and grade evaluations onexaminations exist, (b) whether expected grades predictpostexamination grade evaluations even with actualgrades controlled (self-consistency effect), and (c)whether students' grade expectations and evaluationsbecome more accurate with experience. Throughout thecourse of a semester, students estimated their gradesfor each of their examinations. Students overestimatedtheir grades at all points in the semester, although women in Introductory Psychology overestimatedtheir grades less than men did. Students' expectedgrades were a better predictor of their postexaminationgrade evaluations than were their actual grades. For Introductory Psychology students,expectancies and grade evaluations became more accurateas the semester progressed. The importance of accurateself-perceptions regarding academic performance isdiscussed.
Three experiments investigated experts' and laypersons' conceptions of intelligence. In Exp I, 61 persons studying in a college library, 63 entering a supermarket, and 62 waiting for trains in a railroad station were asked to list behaviors characteristic of either "intelligence," "academic intelligence," "everyday intelligence," or "unintelligence," and to rate themselves on each. In Exp II, 140 experts and 122 laypersons (excluding students) were asked to rate various properties of the behaviors listed in Exp I; the laypersons also rated themselves on the 3 kinds of intelligence and took the Henmon-Nelson Tests of Mental Abilities. In Exp III, 65 laypersons received written descriptions of behaviors characterizing fictitious people and were asked to rate these people's intelligence. Results show that well-formed prototypes corresponding to the various kinds of intelligence, that these prototypes were quite similar for experts and laypersons, were closely related to certain psychological theories of intelligence, and were used in the evaluation of one's own and other's intelligence. Moreover, proximity of one's behavioral self-characterizations to an ideal prototype was strongly related to intelligence. (34 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
[Correction Notice: An erratum for this article was reported in Vol 101(3) of
Psychological Bulletin (see record
2008-10701-001). In this article, it was wrongly stated that that U. Schallberger put forward a hypothesis or hypotheses concerning the magnitude of Swiss IQ gains; in fact, he did not. The erratum includes the author's clarification.] Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data proved the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain difficult trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research has shown that gender differences in self-perceptions exist. However, interpretational ambiguities make it impossible to determine whether these gender differences are due to the operation of biases. The present research investigated whether gender differences in biased self-perceptions exist by assessing the accuracy of posttask self-evaluations of performance. In accordance with self-consistency theory, it was hypothesized that Ss' expectancies affect their posttask self-evaluations. For example, men who generally have high expectancies on masculine-gender-typed tasks were hypothesized to evidence overly positive self-evaluations. Women, who generally hold low expectancies on masculine tasks, were hypothesized to hold overly negative self-evaluations. Results confirmed that self-consistency tendencies can partially explain self-perception biases. The implications of these findings for women's achievement behavior and self-confidence are discussed. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Several studies have shown above-chance agreement of self-reports on extraversion and conscientiousness with ratings by strangers, indicating that ratings by strangers might be quite accurate. Because self-reports are a less-than-ideal criterion to evaluate the accuracy of stranger ratings, however, the present study compared them also with ratings by acquaintances and with targets' performance on an intelligence test. Ratings of extraversion, conscientiousness, and intelligence by strangers having been exposed to a videotape of targets were significantly related to self-reports of these traits as well as to ratings by acquaintances. Moreover, ratings of intelligence by strangers were related to targets' measured intelligence, provided that judges had been exposed to a sound film of the targets. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A total of 421 parents from four Southern African countries (Nambia, South Africa, Zambia, and Zimbabwe) estimated their own
and their children’s multiple intelligences. There were consistent country and sex differences in self-estimates. Nambians
tended to give lowest self-estimates and Zambians highest self-estimates. Contrary to previous findings from other continents
females gave higher self-estimates than males on all seven multiple intelligences. These results were mirrored in the estimation
of children: females gave higher scores than males and Zambians gave highest estimates and Nambians lowest. Reasons for these
findings are discussed.
Sex differences in intelligence is among the most politically volatile topics in contemporary psychology. Although no single finding has unanimous support, conclusions from multiple studies suggest that females, on average, score higher on tasks that require rapid access to and use of phonological and semantic information in long-term memory, production and comprehension of complex prose, fine motor skills, and perceptual speed. Males, on average, score higher on tasks that require transformations in visual-spatial working memory, motor skills involved in aiming, spatiotemporal responding, and fluid reasoning, especially in abstract mathematical and scientific domains. Males, however, are also over-represented in the low-ability end of several distributions, including mental retardation, attention disorders, dyslexia, stuttering, and delayed speech. A psychobiosocial model that is based on the inextricable links between the biological bases of intelligence and environmental events is proposed as an alternative to nature-nurture dichotomies. Societal implications and applications to teaching and learning are suggested.
This paper reports on two studies, each concerned with sex differences in the estimates of Gardner's 'seven basic types of intelligence'. In the first study, 180 British adults were asked to estimate their own intelligence on the seven intelligence factors. Only one (mathematical/logical) showed a significant sex difference, with males believing they had higher scores than females. Factor analysis of these seven scales yielded three interpretable higher-order factors. There was a similar sex difference on only one factor (mathematical/spatial intelligence), which showed males rating themselves higher than females. In the second study, 80 student participants completed the same seven estimates of intelligence,plus a standard sex-role inventory, in order to separate sex and sex role in the self-estimation of intelligence. A series of sex x sex-role ANOVAs showed some effects, particularly for mathematical, musical, and spatial intelligence, bur nearly always for sex and not sex role. Results suggest that previous studies which found consistent sex differences in self-estimates of overall intelligence ('g') may have over-exaggerated the issue as the difference is clearly confined to a limited number of factors of intelligence. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Data from 14 nations reveal IQ gains ranging from 5 to 25 points in a single generation. Some of the largest gains occur on culturally reduced tests and tests of fluid intelligence. The Norwegian data show that a nation can make significant gains on a culturally reduced test while suffering losses on other tests. The Dutch data prove the existence of unknown environmental factors so potent that they account for 15 of the 20 points gained. The hypothesis that best fits the results is that IQ tests do not measure intelligence but rather a correlate with a weak causal link to intelligence. This hypothesis can also explain differential trends on various mental tests, such as the combination of IQ gains and Scholastic Aptitude Test losses in the United States.
This book is about differences in intellectual capacity among people and groups and what those differences mean for America's future.(preface) The major purpose of this book] is to reveal the dramatic transformation that is currently in process in American society---a process that has created a new kind of class structure led by a "cognitive elite," itself a result of concentration and self-selection in those social pools well endowed with cognitive abilities. Herrnstein and Murray explore] the ways that low intelligence, independent of social, economic, or ethnic background, lies at the root of many of our social problems. The authors also demonstrate the truth of another taboo fact: that intelligence levels differ among ethnic groups. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)(jacket)
A series of previous studies with studentparticipants has shown that females' self-IQ estimatesare significantly lower than those of males. In thisstudy, 184 mostly white British adults estimated their own IQ and that of their children. The resultswere in line with previous studies, in that males ratedtheir IQ higher than females (108 vs. 104). Both sexesrated their male children higher than their female children (109 vs. 102). Males tendedmore than females to believe there is a greaterdifference between the intelligence of female and malechildren, but this was not significant. Results wereconsidered in terms of the current sociobiological andsociocultural explanations for sex differences inability.
Seven task-oriented teams worked together forbetween 4 and 6 months on a project. At the end of thetask, members were each subject to four task-performanceratings: from self, superior, team-peers, and a consultant who was part of the team. Therewere fewer than chance differences between the differentteams on the congruence measures so the data wascombined. While the congruence between self and manager, self and peer, and self and consultant ratingswere very low, the manager peer, manager consultant, andpeer consultant congruence was overall high. Observablebehaviors like forward planning and communication showed overall highest congruence while lessobservable cognitive variables showed much lowercongruence. These results are similar to previousstudies in the area. Implications of the use of theseratings in management development areconsidered.
Following J. Reilly and G. Mulhern (1995), the authors examined the relationship between self-estimated and psychometrically measured IQs in men and women. In this study, 53 male and 140 female British undergraduates estimated their overall IQs. About 4 months later, they completed a spatial-intelligence (mental-rotation) test. The men estimated their scores significantly higher (120) than the women did (116) and also obtained significantly higher test scores (6.94) than the women did (4.43). There was a very modest but significant correlation between self-estimated IQ and actual IQ score (r = .16). The correlation was significant for the men (r = .27, n = 53) but not for the women (r = .09, n = 140). Removal of a small number of outliers had no significant effect on the results.
Sex differences in the Scottish standardisation sample of the WISC-R are analysed and compared with those in the American standardisation sample. The two data sets showed virtually identical sex differences. Boys obtained higher means on the Full Scale IQ and the Verbal and Visuospatial factors, while girls obtained a higher mean on the Memory factor. The sex differences were not greater in older children as compared with younger. Boys tended to show greater variabilities.
This paper reports on two studies, each concerned with sex differences in the estimates of Gardner's ‘seven basic types of intelligence’. In the first study, 180 British adults were asked to estimate their own intelligence on the seven intelligence factors. Only one (mathematical/logical) showed a significant sex difference, with males believing they had higher scores than females. Factor analysis of these seven scales yielded three interpretable higher-order factors. There was a similar sex difference on only one factor (mathematical/spatial intelligence), which showed males rating themselves higher than females. In the second study, 80 student participants completed the same seven estimates of intelligence, plus a standard sex-role inventory, in order to separate sex and sex role in the self-estimation of intelligence. A series of sex×sex-role ANOVAs showed some effects, particularly for mathematical, musical, and spatial intelligence, but nearly always for sex and not sex role. Results suggest that previous studies which found consistent sex differences in self-estimates of overall intelligence (‘g’) may have over-exaggerated the issue as the difference is clearly confined to a limited number of factors of intelligence. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Evidence from 27 samples indicates that the mean IQ in Japan is higher than in the United States by around one-third to two-thirds of a standard deviation. Analysis of results from the standardization in Japan in 1975 of the new revised version of the American Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children shows that the Japanese–American disparity in mean IQ has increased during the twentieth century. Among the younger generation the mean Japanese IQ is approximately 111.
Examined sex differences in the attribution of IQ scores. 161 female and 84 male (21–34 yrs old) psychology students completed a questionnaire and were asked to estimate their own, their parents', their grandparents', and 15 occupational groups' average IQs. Results show that males rated their IQs higher than females and both sexes rated their fathers' IQs as higher than their mothers'. Grandfathers received higher IQ estimates than grandmothers. There was a wide distribution of IQ scores among occupational groups from cleaner, bricklayer and hairdresser, to lawyer, doctor and professor. Thus, despite the fact that psychology attaches no significant gender differences to general intelligence, psychology students appeared to believe in the superiority of males. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The authors of this . . . textbook remedy the neglect of cultural influences within social psychology by introducing the student to the field from a cross-cultural perspective. Starting with the well-known classic studies, they show how the validity of empirical findings can be usefully extended, and they draw from a wide range of theories and research reported by social psychologists in many countries from around the world. These studies clearly demonstrate that processes such as self-perception, communication, conformity, leadership and decision making all occur differently in cultural groups which are more collective and less individualistic.
[The authors] expose student and teacher alike to the implications of these differences, which are crucial to a clear understanding of intergroup behaviour, cross-cultural negotiation, multinational enterprise building, immigration and acculturation.
[This book] is especially aimed at the beginning or intermediate student of social and organizational psychology, and psychology in general. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Previous studies have shown that when parents estimate their own and their children's overall IQ (general intelligence), fathers estimate their own scores significantly higher than mothers estimate their own scores, and both parents estimate their sons’ IQ higher than their daughters’ (Furnham & Gasson, 1998). This study looks at differences in parental estimation of children's multiple intelligences based on Gardner's (1983) seven-dimensional model. In all, 112 parents estimated their own and their sons’ and daughters’ ability on each of seven specific dimensions (verbal, mathematical, spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal). As before, males (fathers) rated themselves as more intelligent on mathematical and spatial intelligence than females (mothers) rated themselves on these intelligences. Results indicated that differences in perception of children's intelligence lay only in the areas of mathematical and spatial intelligence, which may be conflated with lay concepts of overall intelligence. Overall, mothers rated their children higher on mathematical and spatial intelligence than did fathers, and both parents indicated that they thought their sons more numerate than their daughters. This result was stronger for the first child than for the second, suggesting the cultural significance attached to first-born sons (primogeniture).
Previous research has demonstrated that men's IQ self-estimates are significantly higher than women's (Beloff, 1992; Bennett, 1996; Furnham & Rawles, 1995). Study I examines the hypothesis that men's self enhancement relative to women is unlikely to be general, but specific to abilities viewed as masculine. Participants were required to estimate their ability over each of Gardner's (1993) “intelligences” and to indicate the extent to which they viewed each type of intelligence as either masculine or feminine. The data confirmed the hypothesis. Study 2 replicated these findings. Moreover, it established that participants' population estimates for men's and women's abilities showed consensus between men and women: the population mean for men was judged to be significantly higher in the cases of logical-mathematical and visuo-spatial ability, but in women, higher for personal, musical, and linguistic ability. Taken together, these findings are interpreted in the light of gender schema theory (Bern, 1981) as suggesting that abilities are viewed as differentially relevant to men's and women's gender schemas.
Advisor: Martin Sharp. Paper (M. Ed.)--Pennsylvania State University, Great Valley, 1995.
Males have larger brains than females, even when corrected for body size, and brain size is positively correlated with intelligence. This leads to the expectation that males should have higher average levels of intelligence than females. Yet the consensus view is that there is no sex difference in general intelligence. An examination of the literature shows that the consensus view is wrong. Among adults, males have slightly higher verbal and reasoning abilities than females and a more pronounced superiority on spatial abilities. If the three abilities are combined to form general intelligence, the mean for males is 4 IQ points higher than the mean for females. Among children up to the age of around 14 yr the sex differences are smaller because girls mature earlier than boys. The evolutionary selection pressures responsible for greater intelligence in males are discussed.
This study sought to examine differences between estimated intelligence and measured IQ among males and females. Forty-six male and 80 female participants were asked to estimate their own IQ and to complete the Digit Symbol and Vocabulary tests from the WAIS. Analysis of group data revealed a significant gender difference in self-estimated IQ, with male self-estimates higher on average than those of females. Moreover, male self-estimates were found to be significantly higher overall than their measured IQs and female self-estimates were lower than measured IQ, although not significantly. Consideration of these results at individual level, however, indicated that, for the majority of subjects, the overall pattern of results for males and females was strikingly similar and that statistically significant group differences were due to a few ‘outliers’ who displayed large discrepancies between estimated and measured IQ. It was concluded that speculation about the causality of inaccurate self-estimates of IQ should not be based on the assumption that gender differences at group level represent a generalized tendency on the part of either sex to either over-confidence or lack of confidence with regard to their own intelligence.
Over four hundred young people from Britain, Hawaii and Singapore estimated their own, their parents and their siblings IQ score on each of Gardner (1983)fundamental human intelligences: verbal (linguistic), logical (mathematical), spatial, musical, body-kinesthetic, interpersonal and intrapersonal. They also answered six simple questions concerning intelligence tests. There were both cultural and sex differences in the estimation of overall own intelligence score. Males gave higher scores than females (109 vs 107) while the British gave the highest score (109) compared with the Singaporeans (106) and Hawaiians (104). Factor analysis of the seven dimensions yielded either a two or three factor solution, the latter being verbal (verbal, inter-intrapersonal), mathematical (mathematical and spatial), and musical (musical, body-kinesthetic). There were consistent sex differences in the estimations of the three factors for self, but not of parents, and only marginally of sisters. Males more than females, and the British more than the other groups, were more likely to believe in sex and race difference in intelligence.
Children's intelligence increased in the United States by approximately 3 IQ points per decade over the period 1932-78. New evidence shows that these increases have been sustained during the last 20 years. Two recent studies indicate that the rates of increase for 1972-89 and 1978-89 were 3.3 and 3.5 IQ points per decade, respectively.
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Investigations of the uses of self-reports of ability
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