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Overlooked but not untouched: How rudeness reduces onlookers’ performance on routine and creative tasks
Abstract
In three experimental studies, we found that witnessing rudeness enacted by an authority figure (Studies 1 and 3) and a peer (Study 2) reduced observers’ performance on routine tasks as well as creative tasks. In all three studies we also found that witnessing rudeness decreased citizenship behaviors and increased dysfunctional ideation. Negative affect mediated the relationships between witnessing rudeness and performance. The results of Study 3 show that competition with the victim over scarce resources moderated the relationship between observing rudeness and performance. Witnesses that were in a competition with the victim felt less negative affect in observing his mistreatment and their performance decreased to a lesser extent than observers of rudeness enacted against a non-competitive victim. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
... Nonetheless, the limited studies in this area provide evidence of the detrimental effects of TPO on an individual's well-being and interpersonal outcomes (Dhanani and LaPalme, 2019). Here, scholars have explored the effects of TPO of several 'observed' mistreatments, such as witnessing workplace incivility -less intense deviant behaviours with ambiguous intention to harm others at work (Schilpzand et al., 2016), unpleasant interpersonal interactions (Totterdell et al., 2012), rudeness (Porath and Erez, 2009) or injustice (Skarlicki and Kulik, 2004). Each study aims to understand the impact of observed behavioural mistreatment on the onlooker's perceptions, emotions, task performance and creativity (Porath and Erez, 2009;Totterdell et al., 2012). ...
... Here, scholars have explored the effects of TPO of several 'observed' mistreatments, such as witnessing workplace incivility -less intense deviant behaviours with ambiguous intention to harm others at work (Schilpzand et al., 2016), unpleasant interpersonal interactions (Totterdell et al., 2012), rudeness (Porath and Erez, 2009) or injustice (Skarlicki and Kulik, 2004). Each study aims to understand the impact of observed behavioural mistreatment on the onlooker's perceptions, emotions, task performance and creativity (Porath and Erez, 2009;Totterdell et al., 2012). Yet, limited scholarly attention has been given to TPO-WD. ...
... Although previous studies provide evidence of the effects of TPO on employees' task performance and work effort (Gunia and Kim, 2016;Porath and Erez, 2009), the intermediary psychological process between TPO and outcomes have not been explored. We fill this gap by hypothesizing the mechanism that explains the effects of TPO-WD on workplace thriving through emotional exhaustion. ...
Building on previous studies on third-party observations (TPOs) of mistreatments, in this study,
we investigate the effects of TPO of workplace deviance (TPO-WD). Drawing on conservation
of resource theory, we explore the intermediary process through which TPO-WD, influences
employees’ workplace thriving. Using multi-wave data from 346 employees, our results suggest
that those who observe, or hear about, incidents of workplace deviance experience a heightened
level of emotional exhaustion, which has a detrimental impact on workplace thriving. Furthermore,
we also test how these relationships are impacted by the extent of employees’ organizational
identification and a cooperative psychological climate. These findings not only provide a resource�based view on how TPO-WD affects workplace thriving but also highlight the critical importance
of cooperative psychological climate as a resource passageway to prevent damaging employees’
workplace thriving.
... Incivility refers to insensitive behavior that exhibits a lack of respect for others; in other words, disrespectful and rude behaviors (Andersson & Pearson, 1999;Porath & Erez, 2009;Porath & Pearson, 2012). Incivility is a significant issue in organizations since it negatively influences the organization or team, such as reducing performance and creativity (Porath & Erez, 2009) and employee retention (Porath & Pearson, 2012). ...
... Incivility refers to insensitive behavior that exhibits a lack of respect for others; in other words, disrespectful and rude behaviors (Andersson & Pearson, 1999;Porath & Erez, 2009;Porath & Pearson, 2012). Incivility is a significant issue in organizations since it negatively influences the organization or team, such as reducing performance and creativity (Porath & Erez, 2009) and employee retention (Porath & Pearson, 2012). Similarly, review research showed that incivility is consistently associated with negative outcomes (e.g., reduced employee performance, burnout, work withdrawal, and perception of job insecurity) in the workplace (cf., Schilpzand et al., 2016). ...
... In other words, coach incivility T1 was only associated with coach incivility T2, and teammate incivility T1 was only associated with teammate incivility T2. Since previous research found that incivility is contagious (Foulk et al., 2016;Porath & Erez, 2009), we expected that coach incivility would predict future teammate incivility and vice versa. However, the hypotheses (H2a & H2b) were not supported in the study, although they were significantly correlated with each other. ...
Youth can often be the subject of rude and discourteous behaviors in their sport setting, given their susceptibility to the social environments. Incivility refers to insensitive behavior that exhibits a lack of respect for others, namely, disrespectful and rude behaviors. Incivility is a significant issue in youth sport since it negatively influences teams and individuals. The present study aims to investigate 1) how incivility and psychological safety are associated with each other over time and 2) the influence of the initial value of psychological safety and the change in psychological safety on youth athletes’ well-being and social outcomes. Three-wave time-lagged data collection was employed, and the present study included 283 youth athletes who completed the survey three times. The hypotheses were tested in SEM with cross-lagged panel and growth latent curve modeling. The results showed that coach and teammate incivility were significantly associated with the change in psychological safety. In contrast, the initial value of psychological safety was a significant antecedent of the subsequent coach and teammate incivility, well-being, and social outcomes. Lastly, the change in psychological safety was significantly associated with youth athletes’ well-being and social outcomes. The findings suggest that incivility and psychological safety were reciprocally associated, and psychological safety rather than incivility was a significant predictor of youths’ well-being and social outcomes. The present study found a mechanism underlying the relationship between incivility, psychological safety, and essential outcomes (i.e., well-being and social outcomes) in youth sport.
... The prevalence, antecedents, and consequences of incivility have been examined, with the bulk of effort directed at understanding the ill effects of incivility on the target. It has been suggested that experiencing incivility is positively associated with job stress (Beattie & Griffin, 2014), jobwithdrawal and psychological distress (Lim et al., 2008), turnover intentions (Wilson & Holmvall, 2013), and negatively associated with job-satisfaction (Cortina et al., 2001), creativity (Porath & Erez, 2009), work effort (Sakurai & Jex, 2012), work performance (Porath & Erez, 2007), productivity (Meier & Spector, 2013), and mental and physical health (Miner-Rubino & Reed, 2010). The negative outcomes of workplace incivility are greater when the instigator is the boss or supervisor (Cortina & Magley, 2009). ...
... In other words, anger prepares individuals to attack, retaliate, and to sustain high levels of energy (Fredrickson, 1998;Lazarus & Cohen-Charash, 2001;Roseman, 1991). In terms of work behavior, this can negatively impact work performance and instigate counterproductive work behaviors on part of the target and witnesses of mistreatment (Bunk & Magley, 2013;Kabat-Farr et al., 2018;Porath & Erez, 2009). With regard to the former, the action tendency of resource mobilization may serve to create a cognitive interruption by driving attentional resources away from the mental labor required to focus on the task at hand. ...
Workplace incivility has been touted as a form of modern discrimination with serious negative consequences for the target. The increasingly unequal gender distribution in STEM workforce has also been attributed to workplace incivility. This study examines the lived experience of this covert mistreatment for women employees in STEM workplaces. Data from STEM women employees revealed a typology of STEM incivility, mapping onto ostracism, hostility, undermining, and sexual incivility. Further, the gendered nature and STEM-specific phenomenology of incivility against women employees, based on instigator characteristics, incivility frequency, and the general climate of STEM which aided or fostered interpersonal mistreatment was found. Drawing on affective events theory from organizational sciences and grounded in the STEM industry, this research examined the person-centric, emotional consequences of being a target of STEM incivility. Three broad themes that describe the first-person, felt-experience impact of mistreatment were as follows: discrete emotions, emotion regulation, duration of emotion experience. Upon encountering uncivil interpersonal experiences, participant reactions fell among one of four discrete emotional states: anger, fear, sadness, and surprise. Emotion regulation emerged as a key feature of the affective response. Specifically, STEM demands were tied to participant utilization of the regulation strategy of suppression to hide the felt emotion initially and reappraisal and response modulation over time. Importantly, although understood as a mild event, the emotional consequences of incivility were long-lasting such that they continued beyond the episode, lasting anywhere from two hours to a week. The STEM context was central to the emotion trajectories. Results are discussed with respect to work performance, attitudinal, and health-related consequences for women employees in STEM jobs. Practical implications are discussed with a special grounding in STEM context with an eye toward best practices for managing incivility for women in STEM.
... Supervisor incivility is associated with negative subordinate emotions including anxiety, guilt, and frustration (Kabat-Farr et al., 2018;Porath & Erez, 2009). Hence, even when a delegated task provides a desired developmental opportunity, a subordinate delegated to uncivilly may feel less control over the delegated task or overwhelmed by the increased workload (Kabat-Farr et al., 2019;Oh & Farh, 2017;Sliter et al., 2010). ...
... Hence, even when a delegated task provides a desired developmental opportunity, a subordinate delegated to uncivilly may feel less control over the delegated task or overwhelmed by the increased workload (Kabat-Farr et al., 2019;Oh & Farh, 2017;Sliter et al., 2010). Additionally, victims of uncivil behaviors tend to have negative ideation, distrust, and cynicism (Porath & Erez, 2009;Tepper et al., 2001). When negative ideation prevails, the risk of failing to perform the delegated task well may become more salient to the subordinate than the possible benefits of the task such as skill development. ...
Despite the prevailing positive view of leader delegation, subordinates are sometimes reluctant to fulfill a delegation request. We propose that direct reports’ acceptance of or resistance to a delegated task depends on how the delegation is performed as well as the nature of the delegated task. We apply social exchange theory in proposing that the delegation of non-developmental and undesirable tasks and supervisor incivility during delegation increase subordinate resistance to delegation due to weak commitment to a supervisor. Two experiments and one critical incident study found overall support for our proposed model. The findings suggest that the “what” and “how” of delegation, rather than simply the amount of work delegated, are important factors that influence subordinates’ commitment to their supervisors and resistance to delegation. In addition, we find that incivility does sometimes occur during delegation. However, being delegated to in an uncivil manner does not fully undermine the positive influence of being delegated a desirable and developmental task. This research contributes to the delegation and leadership literatures by challenging the assumption of subordinate compliance to delegation and positing that delegation may sometimes elicit counterproductive responses from subordinates due to poor delegation execution.
... Well-designed impolite behaviors might provide a useful perspective in specific situations because impolite and aggressive behaviors are sometimes observed in friendly relationships in human-human interaction, particularly in children [59,60]. However, impolite behaviors invite another risk, because they negatively affect people who observe such interactions [61][62][63]. Since these previous studies only focused on people's rudeness, the effects of a robot's rudeness remain unknown. ...
... For example, suppose people engage in more impolite behavior toward others because of past interactions with an impolite robot. In that case, others might witness such rude and impolite behaviors that cause other negative effects [61][62][63], propagating further negative effects. ...
This study experimentally compared the effects of encouragement with polite/ impolite attitudes from a robot in a monotonous task from three viewpoints: performance, mood, and propagation. Experiment I investigated encouragement effects on performance and mood. The participants did a monotonous task during which a robot continuously provided polite, neutral, or impolite encouragement. Our experiment results showed that polite and impolite encouragement significantly improved performance more than neutral comments, although there was no significant difference between polite and impolite encouragement. In addition, impolite encouragement caused significantly more negative moods than polite encouragement. Experiment II determined whether the robot's encouragement influenced the participants' encouragement styles. The participants behaved similarly to the robot in Experiment I, i.e., they selected polite, neutral, and impolite encouragements by observing the progress of a monotonous task by a dummy participant. The experiment results, which showed that the robot's encouragement significantly influenced the participants' encouragement styles, suggest that polite encouragement is more advantageous than impolite encouragement.
... Direct observation of an event will lead to individuals making their own interpretation of the activity. Porath and Erez (2009) suggested that witnessing interpersonal deviance might prime the interpretation of that deviant individual which may affect peers. According to social information-processing theory, direct observation of activity can provide cues about acceptable behavior in a work environment (Salancik and Pfeffer, 1978;cf. ...
... Being a witness to any act of incivility may result in individuals experiencing negative affectivity as their main concern is their own self (Truss, 2005). In addition, when observing hostility being directed to others, it might have an impact on the behavioral outcomes of the individual themselves since they do not want to become another victim (Porath and Erez, 2009), resulting in frustration, stress and job dissatisfaction (Johan Hauge et al., 2007;Vartia, 2001). Therefore, it is important to understand the relationship between self-serving behavior and workplace deviance as it could have a detrimental effect on individual well-being. ...
Purpose:
Antecedents and outcomes of workplace deviance have been studied over the past few decades but there is still a lack of research from an organizational climate, witness and cultural point of view. Theoretical considerations for the present research are based on the social cognitive theory perspective where the authors expect employees' involvement in workplace destructive deviance would depend on their organizational climate perception, witness behavior and cultural orientation.
Design/methodology/approach:
A total of 987 participants from India ( N = 404) and USA ( N = 583) completed an online questionnaire, and multi-group structural equation modeling analysis was conducted to test the hypothesized model.
Findings:
Across cultural groups, higher collectivism is associated with lower engagement in workplace deviance. Furthermore, employees' higher intervening witness behavior is associated with lower destructive deviant behaviors when employees showed higher endorsement of collectivism in India (not USA). However, employees' higher self-serving witness behavior is associated with higher destructive deviant behaviors. Interestingly, employees with higher endorsement of individualism associated with organizational climate are more likely to engage in destructive deviance.
Originality/value:
The main originality of this study is to further increase the understanding of the relationship between organizational climate, witness behavior (self-serving and intervening behavior) and workplace deviance (organizational and interpersonal destructive deviance) considering the role of employees' cultural orientation (individualism vs collectivism).
... In recent years, the awareness to rudeness in workplaces has grown, and there are many studies about the effects of exposure to this kind of behavior on individuals and groups [1][2][3][4][5]. Rudeness is defined as an insensitive or impolite behavior, which is enacted by a person who shows disrespect or inconsideration towards others. ...
... Other studies found that rudeness in the workplace, embodied by different sources, led to deteriorated performance, negatively affected creativity, social behavior and cognitive processes, as well as increased aggressive thoughts in onlookers to these behaviors. Therefore, rudeness in the workplace can have harmful and serious effects-performance, behaviors and atmosphere can be negatively affected [2]. ...
Background:
Group decision-making can be placed on a continuum of group dynamics, between Groupthink and Polythink.
Objective:
To present a new assessment tool for the characterization of medical teams' decision-making group dynamics, and test it to study the effects of exposure to rudeness on various types of group dynamics.
Methods:
Three judges who watched videotapes of critical care simulations evaluated 24 neonatal intensive care unit teams' decision-making processes. Teams were rated using the new assessment tool, especially designed for this quantitative study, based on items adapted from symptoms of Polythink and Groupthink.
Results:
Measures of reliability, inter-rater agreement and internal consistency, were reasonably good. Confirmatory factor analysis refined the tool and verified that the symptoms in each category (Polythink or Groupthink) of the refined 14 items' assessment tool were indeed measures of the construct. The average General Score was in the range of the balanced dynamic on the continuum, and without tendency towards one of the extremities (Groupthink or Polythink). No significant effect of exposure to rudeness on group dynamics was found.
Conclusions:
This is a first attempt at using quantitative methods to evaluate decision-making group dynamics in medicine, by adapting symptoms of Groupthink and Polythink as items in a structured assessment tool. It suggests a new approach to understanding decision-making processes of medical teams. The assessment tool seems to be a promising, feasible and reasonably reliable research tool to be further studied in medicine and other disciplines engaged in decision-making.
... Workplace aggression is associated with lower work productivity and commitment to organizational goals (Anderson & Pearson, 1999). Individuals who repeatedly experience acts of bullying tend to engage in counterproductive work behaviors (Penny & Spector, 2005), experience burnout, and often think about quitting their jobs (Cortina et al., 2001;Porath & Erez, 2009), with approximately 12% of victims of workplace aggression reporting that the bullying was an important factor in their decision to leave their position (Porath & Erez, 2009). In this study, we examined the degree to which bullying contributes to the job satisfaction of school psychology faculty. ...
... Workplace aggression is associated with lower work productivity and commitment to organizational goals (Anderson & Pearson, 1999). Individuals who repeatedly experience acts of bullying tend to engage in counterproductive work behaviors (Penny & Spector, 2005), experience burnout, and often think about quitting their jobs (Cortina et al., 2001;Porath & Erez, 2009), with approximately 12% of victims of workplace aggression reporting that the bullying was an important factor in their decision to leave their position (Porath & Erez, 2009). In this study, we examined the degree to which bullying contributes to the job satisfaction of school psychology faculty. ...
Widely recognized by graduate educators is that faculty positions within school psychology programs routinely go unfilled each year. Examining the factors influencing the job satisfaction of school psychology trainers may inform how to attract and, just as importantly, retain individuals in such positions. In this exploratory study, we investigated the extent to which workplace bullying is related to the job satisfaction of school psychology faculty members. We surveyed school psychology trainers (N = 243) to assess the prevalence of being bullied at work and their job satisfaction. Results revealed that victimization through bullying accounted for 9% of the variance in faculty member job satisfaction. Of the subtypes of bullying studied, only verbal bullying significantly contributed to job satisfaction. In the discussion, we focus upon the implications of these findings for school psychology trainer shortages.
... While a large body of existing organizational behavior literature has focused on the overall concept of rudeness and its negative consequences (Gallus et al., 2014;Johnson and Indvik, 2001;Porath and Erez, 2009), a lack of understanding exists regarding the processes that lead to rudeness in individuals. It is important to understand that most employees like to engage in socially desirable behavior in organizations to maintain favorable relationships with their colleagues. ...
... In this regard, some literature suggests that persistent irritability leads to violence and aggression in individuals and is reflected in individuals' behavior as well (Mumtaz, 2019). Expressed rudeness may be defined as one of the clear expressions that are reflected in individuals' behavior when they are unable to maintain positive relationships with other social groups (Porath and Erez, 2009). Thus, it is proposed that irritability is likely to lead to expressed rudeness in moral employees, i.e. individuals are likely to engage in a low intensity deviant and discourteous behavior with their colleagues as a result of consistently experiencing a negative internal state (Fida et al., 2014). ...
Purpose
This research focuses on the distinct group of high-status employees commonly referred to as workplace vigilantes, and conceptually investigates how unethical requests by these individuals impact the behavior and attitude of other employees over time using the social identity theory.
Design/methodology/approach
For developing a conceptual model, literature from the domains of social identity, organizational behavior and general management was searched through Google Scholar. To search the literature, some key terms such as “unethical activities”, “Islamic work ethics” and “social identity” were searched and analyzed.
Findings
Using the social identity theory, a conceptual process model is developed which suggests that when high-status employees propose unethical requests to employees, individuals with high morality are likely to refuse those unethical requests to protect their self-categorizations. However, taking the unfair advantage of their illegitimate powers, high-status employees are likely to eventually make wrong judgments and give unnecessary punishments to moral employees. It is further argued that consistent victimization is likely to negatively impact the social identity of such employees and leads to irritability in moral employees, particularly when such individuals are unable to get the requisite social support from their leaders.
Originality/value
While a considerable body of literature has focused on the antecedents and consequences of intense unethical business practices and the crucial role of leaders in such activities, limited attention has been given to the role of other employees and how they engage in mild unethical misconduct regularly, which is the key focus of this research. The novel conceptual framework needs to be tested in diverse contexts for further development and validation.
... workplace incivility has received increased attention in recent years (see Cortina et al., 2017;Schilpzand et al., 2016) and for good reason; incivility leads to negative consequences for incivility targets (Cortina et al., 2001), third-party observers (Porath & Erez, 2009), and the organizations at which such behaviors are prevalent (Pearson et al., 2005). ...
This research examines workplace incivility through the lens of the focus theory of normative conduct, demonstrating effects of descriptive and injunctive norms on incivility perpetration. Using an experimental vignette methodology, Study 1 demonstrated that incivility intentions toward an insulting colleague were higher when organizational incivility (vs. civility) was described as both common (descriptive norm) and approved (injunctive norm). Study 2 disentangled the influences of descriptive from injunctive norms, demonstrating that each exerts an independent effect on incivility intentions. In Study 3, workers' perceptions of the descriptive and injunctive norms for incivility at their organizations predicted their uncivil intentions toward an insulting colleague—beyond the effects of other established workplace mistreatment predictors. Study 4 replicated these findings in predicting uncivil behavior frequency; additionally, job satisfaction accentuated the effects of both norm types and organizational identification amplified the effects of injunctive norms. Overall, results support key tenets of the focus theory of normative conduct, provide novel evidence for individual difference moderators of the norms' effects, and suggest that norm‐based persuasive messaging interventions may hold promise for discouraging workplace incivility.
... Incivility in the workplace is a comparatively recent concept in the area of negative organizational behavior, its association with alienation refers to low-intensity disrespectful or unpleasant behavior with deliberate intent to harm the target and is in violation of workplace norm for mutual respect (Anderson & Pearson 1999). Researchers in the field of organizational behavior and management direct the impact of workplace incivility on various negative employee behaviors, such as withdrawal, abuse, production deviation, sabotage, and theft (Bibi, Karim & Din, 2013, Lim, Cortina & Magley, 2008, work dissatisfaction and fatigue (Kim, et al, 2008, Welbourne, Gangadharan & Esparza, 2015, absenteeism, higher levels of sadness, anger, and fear at work (Porath & Pearson, 2012) and reduction in creativity (Porath & Enez, 2009). Workplace incivility is also directly related to productivity (Rahim & Cosby, 2016) and turnover intention (Rahino & Cosby, 2016). ...
... The relationship between communication breakdowns and patient safety is well documented (Eppich 2015;Kohn et al. 2000). Even witnessing rudeness impairs cognitive functioning in onlookers (Porath and Erez 2009), even when they are not party to the rude interactions, a finding with relevance for healthcare (Flin 2010;Riskin et al. 2015). Issues of civility most certainly impact clinical practice, for example, during telephone conversations when clinical supervisors or subspecialists interrupt junior doctors abruptly or rudely question management decisions. ...
... In addition, incivility experiences can have monetary costs for organizations because they can reduce employee productivity (Pearson & Porath, 2009). Among behavioral reactions to experienced incivility, previous studies have found that workplace incivility experience is associated with various active employee behavioral reactions such as fewer organizational citizenship behaviors (OCBs; e.g., Porath & Erez, 2009;Taylor et al., 2012) and more counterproductive work behaviors (CWBs; e.g., Sakurai & Jex, 2012). ...
Despite the extensive literature on the effects of workplace incivility on employees’ affective, attitudinal, cognitive, and active behavioral reactions, it is unclear whether and how workplace incivility might affect employee silence, a more passive form of employee behavior with harmful consequences. Using social exchange theory as the theoretical framework, the current study explores the mediating role of trust in supervisor in the relationship between supervisor incivility and employee silence. The moderating role of perceived organizational support (POS) is also explored. We collected data from 196 participants across three waves using CloudResearch (formally known as TurkPrime) and results showed that supervisor incivility positively predicted employee silence, and trust in supervisor mediated this relationship. Further, the negative effect of trust in supervisor on employee silence was stronger for employees who perceive high POS. The findings contribute to our theoretical understanding of employees’ passive behavioral responses to supervisor incivility and the social exchange process in the relationship between supervisor incivility and silence.
... The impact of incivility has been widely recognised to jeopardise clinical performance, patient safety and staff well-being. Exposure to uncivil behaviour impairs the performance of both recipients [9] and onlookers, [10] culminating in deficient team collaboration [11]. This, in turn, risks patient safety and is repeatedly linked to adverse 'iatrogenic' events, such as medical errors and mortalities [12,13]. ...
Background:
Incivility is rude, dismissive or aggressive behaviour in the workplace. Rates of incivility are increasing in healthcare settings, with minority groups at greatest risk. Medical students are particularly vulnerable to incivility whilst on clinical placements, with detrimental consequences on students' learning and mental health. Therefore, this study explored the perceptions and experiences of incivility from healthcare workers amongst medical students.
Methods:
An online qualitative questionnaire study employing a thematic analysis. Students in years 3-5 or intercalating at a large West Midlands medical school were recruited between May-June 2022. Qualitative free-text questions explored students' experiences of incivility from healthcare workers over the past 12 months, and actions in response to incivility. Data were analysed using thematic analysis. All researchers agreed thematic saturation was reached at 50 responses, with all year-groups represented.
Results:
Five core themes were identified: abuse of hierarchy; exclusion; discrimination; response to incivility; barriers to action. Participants reported a range of uncivil behaviour from staff, including mocking, exclusion and discrimination. Discriminatory incivility targeted students' protected characteristics, including race, sex, sexual orientation and disability. In response to experiencing or witnessing incivility, participants varied in their preferred mode of action. Many viewed formal escalation to senior staff as favourable action. Meanwhile, other participants would not escalate concerns and instead respond with peer support or allyship. Marked barriers prevented students from challenging or reporting incivility, including a lack of confidence; failures and fears of reporting systems; and perceived severity of abuse.
Conclusion:
Our findings identify the extensive incivility experienced by medical students on clinical placements, which is frequently perpetuated by abusive workplace hierarchy. Whilst students recognise the importance of reporting uncivil behaviours, barriers to reporting include unrecognised incivility, psychological consequences and failed reporting systems. In order to reform toxic educational environments, we recommend medical schools to integrate formal civility training into the curriculum and restructure accessible, supportive reporting systems.
... These antisocial behaviours have been widely investigated in various professional environments, including healthcare. More recently, low-intensity negative interactions have also become a concern for organisational researchers. 1 Rude, dismissive and aggressive (RDA) communication, 2 as well as insensitive and disrespectful behaviours, are some of the manifestations of 'workplace incivility' 3,4 or 'interstaff incivility'. 1 Typical examples include belittling comments or dismissive gestures (eye rolling, lip sounds, sighs and muttering), skipping greetings, gossip, social exclusion, unavailability, impatience with questions, and condescending language or voice intonation. Workplace incivility has been defined as 'a low-intensity deviant behaviour with ambiguous intent to harm the target, in violation of workplace norms for mutual respect'. ...
The stressful nature of the medical profession is a known trigger for aggression or abuse among healthcare staff. Interprofessional incivility, defined as low-intensity negative interactions with ambiguous or unclear intent to harm, has recently become an occupational concern in healthcare. While incivility in nursing has been widely investigated, its prevalence among physicians and its impact on patient care are poorly understood. This review summarises current understanding of the effects of interprofessional incivility on medical performance, service and patient care. A structured search and screening of literature returned 13 studies of diverse origin, methodology, quality, size and population type. The consensus is that interprofessional incivility is common among physicians and nurses and has both psychological and clinical outcomes, resulting in stress, compromised patient safety and poor quality of care. Junior staff are affected more often than consultants, with higher rates in radiology, general surgery, neurosurgery and cardiology. Incivility also undermines medical team performance, particularly in perioperative settings. In patient care, incivility is associated with complications, medical errors, mortality, and compromised patient safety and quality of care. Patients whose surgeons have a record of incivility can be at higher risk of complications. The impact of incivility on medical performance, service and patient care appears systemic and must be addressed accordingly. This analysis was limited by the methodological weaknesses of the included studies, which highlights the need for more high-quality empirical research. This would benefit the NHS and other stakeholders when designing targeted interventions. In particular, establishing quantitative methods for identifying and measuring incivility will be crucial for improving our understanding of the phenomenon.
... This study further highlights the pervasive issue of mistreatment of residents [57][58][59][60][61]. Experiencing or witnessing this behaviour negatively impacts on health and wellbeing, with reports of psychological distress, posttraumatic stress disorder, professional demotivation, burnout, dissatisfaction with the job and with training, and thoughts of leaving [57,59,60,[62][63][64][65][66][67]. Patient care is also adversely affected, with an increase in errors, disruption to collegiality and communication and diminished teamwork and morale [57,59,60,[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69]. Mistreatment often remains unreported by residents [59-61, 64, 70-72]. ...
Context
The challenging nature of the transition from medical student to doctor is highlighted by the associated negative consequences to new doctors’ mental health and wellbeing. Enhanced understanding of the lived experience of recent medical graduates as they move through the stages of transition over the first year of practice can inform interventions to ease the difficulties encountered.
Methods
Using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA), a novel approach to this topic, we explored the lived experience of transition from student to doctor over the first year of practice after graduation. Twelve new graduates were purposively recruited. We conducted semi-structured interviews at the end of their first year of practice with respect to their experience over the first year.
Results
The experience of transition was characterised by overlapping temporal stages. Participants’ initial adjustment period was characterised by shock, coping and stabilisation. A phase of development followed, with growth in confidence and a focus on self-care. Adversity was experienced in the form of interprofessional tensions, overwork, isolation and mistreatment. Finally, a period of reflection and rationalisation marked the end of the first year.
Discussion
Following initial anxiety regarding competence and performance, participants’ experience of transition was predominantly influenced by cultural, relational and contextual aspects of clinical practice. Solutions to ease this challenging time include stage-specific transitional interventions, curricular change at both undergraduate and postgraduate levels and a re-evaluation of the clinical learning environment to mitigate the difficulties endured.
... Incivility from colleagues weakens the targeted individual's ability to accomplish work [54] (Lim et al., 2008) and increases work-related stress [34], employee turnover intentions [54], and work uncertainty [64]. Incivility from colleagues diminishes the intention among colleagues to be helpful and creates a distance between coworkers that ultimately results in conflicts and diminishes the execution of work [65,66]. ...
Employee performance is the backbone of achieving competitiveness and sustainability. This study aims to examine the impact of workplace incivility on employee performance. In addition, trust in supervisors is examined as a mediator. The conservation of resources (COR) theory and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs theory provided the grounds for developing the framework. The data were collected through closed-ended questionnaires and were analyzed using structural equation modeling with SmartPLS. The results affirmed that incivility is harmful to the performance of employees, and that trust in supervisors helps employees to perform well. The trust in the supervisor significantly mediates the incivility–performance relationship. The examination of the proposed model through the lens of two theories as well as the study of low-intensity deviant workplace behavior in a collectivist and developing economy are the contributions of this study to the growing body of literature. However, the use of a single sector was one of the limitations of this study.
... Additionally, trash talk is categorized as incivility expressed in a competitive context in which two or more parties are vying for resources, recognition, or status (Yip et al., 2018). Incivility is rude behavior characterized by displays of disrespect and disregard for others (Porath & Erez, 2009). Incivility violates social norms for mutual respect and has been associated with a number of negative interpersonal consequences (Martinko et al., 2013). ...
This paper challenges the Eurocentric interpretation of the intentionality of the use of trash talk in competitive sport. The power bloc established within sport enables the formation of a moral community amongst athletes within competitive sport. An anthropological exploration of the Black vernacular tradition of trash talk, from the Middle Passage to modern American sport, supports the use of trash talk as a mechanism used to ethically vet and form relationships within moral communities of competitive sport. The proposed conceptual framework advances philosophical scholarship on the sociology and ethics of sport by creating a line of literature that explores moral communities in sport from the perspective of the athlete. Framing trash talk as smack talk reveals the intentionality of the aggressive interactions as an ethical construct established by the athletes within the capitalistic environment of competitive sport. An understanding of athlete discourse will empower diversity, equity, and inclusion officers, administrators, and coaches in producing and regulating ethical environments for athletes in American sport.
... Incivility can also lead to rude behaviors not only toward perpetrators but also towards other employees [31][32][33], and it does not need multiple occurrences. A single event of incivility can lead to a contagion incivility spiral [31]. ...
There has been an increase in uncivil behaviors in the 21st century workplace, emphasizing the need for discussion. The current study is aimed at extending the literature available on workplace incivility by examining the impact of experienced workplace incivility on instigated workplace incivility. The study proposes that stress mediates the relationship between experienced workplace incivility and instigated workplace incivility. Furthermore, it is hypothesized that Islamic work ethics moderates the relationship between experienced and instigated workplace incivility, and between stress and instigated workplace incivility. Data were collected at three-time lags from respondents (N = 258) working in the sustainable public service sector. Results supported the hypotheses that experienced workplace incivility impacts instigated workplace incivility. The results also supported mediation and moderation hypotheses, confirming that stress is a mediator, and Islamic work ethics is a moderator. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed followed by limitations.
... The relationship between communication breakdowns and patient safety is well documented (Eppich 2015;Kohn et al. 2000). Even witnessing rudeness impairs cognitive functioning in onlookers (Porath and Erez 2009), even when they are not party to the rude interactions, a finding with relevance for healthcare (Flin 2010;Riskin et al. 2015). Issues of civility most certainly impact clinical practice, for example, during telephone conversations when clinical supervisors or subspecialists interrupt junior doctors abruptly or rudely question management decisions. ...
Health professions educators have increasingly focused on communication as a key skill to be mastered, which has had implications for curriculum development. However, communication in modern team-based healthcare also has explicit and intrinsic learning potential. Communication – or “talk” – can be viewed as the verbal content of speech and its associated “paralanguage” along with their social implications. Viewed in this light, talk is not only a skill that enables patient care but also represents a social medium of learning. This chapter explores the role of talk in the main scholarly perspectives of learning and examines conversational learning in both clinical workplaces and in explicit learning conversations in a variety of settings. Finally, the authors explore how conversational tensions influence learning and how psychological safety promotes productive conversational activities such as speaking up.
... Civility has four items which were adopted scale of Porath, & Erez, (2009). An example item of civility is "Do your co-workers is pleasant with you? ...
... Research on workplace aggression and abusive supervision also has found that higher workplace mistreatment results in less OCB in employees (Greitemeyer & Rudolph, 2003;Zellars et al., 2002). Merely attending to or observing workplace incivility events can result in employees engaging in less OCB (Porath & Erez, 2009). Incivility also negatively speculates individuals' OCB (Mao et al., 2019). ...
The impact of the work environment on employees has been well researched, with little focus on the pathways of such relationships. This study aimed to examine whether workplace incivility and personality predict workplace stress and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The role of John Henryism (JH), Probabilistic Orientation (PO), work self-efficacy, and resilience on workplace stress and OCB was also explored. The data were collected through a survey using self-report measures of perception of fair interpersonal treatment in the workplace, workplace incivility, work self-efficacy, JH, PO, workplace stress, and OCB from 206 (M=120, F=86) employees from the IT industry, aged 22 to 42 (M=30.47, SD=5.60). Multiple regression analyses revealed that workplace incivility (from supervisor and client) positively predicted workplace stress. At the same time, coworker incivility did not predict workplace stress. On the contrary, workplace incivility (supervisor, coworker, and clients) did not predict OCB significantly. JH and work self-efficacy positively predicted OCB, while PO negatively predicted OCB. This research provides new directions for future research that workplace stress is predicted by supervisor and client incivility, and OCB is not predicted by workplace incivility.
... Our study contributes to the existing literature and theory in several aspects. First, although the connection of workplace incivility to negative work behaviors or in-role performance has been examined (Cortina et al., 2001(Cortina et al., , 2002Pearson et al., 2001;Skarlicki & Folger, 1997), the relationship between workplace incivility and proactive behavior or extra-role performance has not been fully examined (Lan et al., 2020;Liu et al., 2019;Porath & Erez, 2009;Schilpzand & Huang, 2018). Since the relationship between workplace incivility and proactive performance and its mechanism might be different from that of other behaviors (Schilpzand et al., 2016), addressing this issue is important both theoretically and practically. ...
Workplace incivility has many negative effects, but its impact on personal initiative and related mechanisms are still unclear. Drawing from conservation of resource theory, we tested the relationship between workplace incivility, emotional exhaustion, meaningful work, and personal initiative. The results from three-wave lagged and multisource data ( N = 229) indicated that workplace incivility was negatively correlated with personal initiative, and this relationship was mediated by emotional exhaustion. In addition, meaningful work attenuated the relationship between workplace incivility and personal initiative. The findings reveal that workplace incivility hurts employees’ personal initiative in the organizational context by depleting individuals’ emotional resources, leading to emotional exhaustion, while meaningful work is a critical cognitive resource that can buffer this relationship. Implications for theory and practice are discussed.
Most of the work pertaining to incivility has approached the topic as if incivility were a chronic, ambient environmental factor in organizations—wearing people down and making them more vulnerable to future incidents. From this perspective, it is the frequency of encounters with incivility over a significant period of time that matters, and a single, isolated exposure to incivility does not merit much concern. To the contrary, isolated encounters with incivility can result in serious, negative consequences for individuals and organizations. In this review, we highlight research that focuses on incivility as discrete or episodic events and discuss findings as they relate to affect, cognition, and behavior. Throughout the review, we offer insight into the possible pathways by which incivility affects individuals and review various interventions aimed at diminishing the effects of incivility in the workplace. Lastly, we discuss research opportunities where additional investigations are needed to advance the field of incivility.
Purpose
Vicarious abusive supervision (VAS) has recently garnered the attention of hospitality researchers. VAS is prevalent in hospitality work settings characterized by long production chains and open operating environments. Based on the conservation of resources (CORs) theory, this study aims to examine how VAS influences hospitality employees’ work behaviours (i.e. supervisor-directed deviance, silence and helping behaviour) via affective rumination, with the moderating role of industry tenure as an individual contingency on the relationship between VAS and affective rumination.
Design/methodology/approach
The data were gathered from 233 restaurant frontline employees and their supervisors in Turkey. The authors tested the proposed model using partial least squares method through SmartPLS 3.
Findings
The results reveal that VAS triggers affective rumination, which, in turn, is positively related to supervisor-directed deviance and silence, and negatively related to helping behaviour. Moreover, industry tenure, as a buffer resource, significantly moderates the relationship between VAS and affective rumination.
Practical implications
To reduce the occurrence of VAS and mitigate its negative effects, managers should establish a work environment that embraces understanding and respect, pay attention to how they communicate with employees, implement appropriate interventions when VAS occurs and conduct stress management training and improve employees’ emotion regulation skills in ways that correspond to the employees’ industry experience.
Originality/value
This study advances research on VAS by offering insight into how VAS impacts employees’ work behaviours via the underlying mechanism of affective rumination through a COR lens. The findings also shed light on the salient buffering effect of industry tenure as an individual contingency.
Purpose
The perseverative cognition framework suggests that observing ostracism has negative implications for observers due to affective rumination and that a proactive personality might make observers more vulnerable to this effect.
Design/methodology/approach
Data from 49 team leaders and 218 team members were obtained through a three-wave survey in China. Path analysis was used to examine the theoretical model.
Findings
The results indicate that observing ostracism increased turnover intention and reduced task performance and that these relationships were mediated by affective rumination. Furthermore, these effects were stronger for observers with high proactive personality.
Research limitations/implications
Workplace ostracism harms employees; however, its effects on observers remain underexplored. This paper extends research on the effects of ostracism by revealing that ostracism is not only harmful to the well-being of its victims but also adversely affects the work-related attitudes and behaviors of observers, especially those with proactive personality.
Practical implications
Organizations should be aware of the harmful effects of workplace ostracism on observers, and take actions to inhibit workplace ostracism as well as reduce the negatives impacts.
Originality/value
The results reveal the cognitive mechanism of affective rumination, in which observing workplace ostracism affects observers' behaviors and attitudes, highlighting the importance of observing effect of workplace ostracism.
While observer reactions to perceived supervisor incivility (PSI) have been substantially studied, observer silence (i.e., bystanderism) and the emotional mechanisms and contingencies that engender it have been empirically underexplored. Drawing on deontic justice theory and the “cultural regulation of emotion” perspective, our research offers theoretical arguments and empirical evidence to understand observers’ anger in response to PSI and the resulting bystanderism. Across three studies using an online scenario, an online experiment, and a survey, we test a mediation model, moderation models, and moderated mediation models, respectively. Study 1 demonstrates that observer anger negatively mediates the relationship between PSI and bystanderism. Study 2 substantiates the buffering moderation effect of observer power distance on the positive relationship between PSI and anger. In addition to replicating the findings from the first two studies, Study 3 shows that observer power distance and collectivism mitigate the negative relationship between anger and bystanderism and then the negative indirect relationship between PSI and bystanderism via anger. Taken together, our findings suggest that although observers feel anger in response to PSI, the expression of such anger can be suppressed by power distance and collectivism, ultimately leading to bystanderism. We also discuss the implication and limitations (e.g., generalizability of our online experiment) of our study and call for further research involving leaders and followers in real-world contexts.
Uncivil interpersonal communication exchanges demonstrate disregard and disrespect for others while violating social interaction norms and expectations. Incivility is characterized by low‐intensity, subtle behaviors with an ambiguous intent to harm. Because of its harmful effects on interpersonal relationships, incivility is extremely problematic in the workplace. Incivility in the workplace is a growing phenomenon and has a number of negative consequences for both individuals and organizations. At the individual level, workplace incivility can increase feelings of anxiety and depression, decrease self‐esteem, and cause withdrawal. Workplace incivility also damages organizations by reducing employees’ abilities to work together and achieve organizational goals. Due to the relational damage incivility creates, workers become far less productive and less willing to collaborate with others.
İHBAR DAVRANIŞI-İFŞA ETME
(WHISTLEBLOWING)
Örgütler küreselleşmeyle birlikte değişen rekabet koşullarına ve çevre koşularına uyum sağlamak,kaynaklarını etkin kullanılabilmeye yönelik küçülme stratejisi ortaya koyabilmektedir. Örgütsel küçülme stratejisi, insan kaynağının etkin şekilde yönetilmesi gerekliliğini beraberinde getirmektedir. Uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları örgütsel değerler, yaklaşım ve istihdam politikalarının belirlenmesi, örgüt çalışan ve yöneticilerinin nasıl davranması gerektiğini ortaya koyan kurumsal
değerin oluşmasına katkı sağlayan unsurları içermektedir. Bu doğrultuda bu çalışma ile küçülme sürecinde uygulanan insan kaynakları politikaları ve yöneticilerinin algıları arasında nasıl bir ilişki olduğunu ve küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkileri nitel bir araştırma yöntemiyle ortaya konulmak istenmiştir. Araştırmanın sonucuna göre çıkan kodlar küçülme süreci ve yönetici algıları arasında adil ve şeffaf olma, faydacı ve geride kalan çalışanlara yönelik plan ve program yapmadır. Ayrıca, çıkan sonuçlar küçülmenin yöneticiler üzerindeki etkilerini örgütsel bağlılığın ve güvenin azaldığını, motivasyon sorununun ve psikolojik iş baskısı olduğunu göstermektedir.
Bu çalışmanın amacı işyeri nezaketsizliği, örgütsel vatandaşlık, duygusal bağlılık, iş tatmini, tükenmişlik ve iş-aile çatışması arasındaki ilişkileri incelemektir. Bu kapsamda Kayseri, Nevşehir, Aksaray ve Konya’da faaliyet göstermekte olan turizm işletmelerinde çalışmakta olan işgörenlerden kolayda örneklem yöntemiyle 492 anket toplanmıştır. Araştırma kapsamında güvenilirlik analizi, frekans analizi, doğrulayıcı faktör analizi, korelasyon analizi ve regresyon analizinden faydalanılmıştır. Yapılan regresyon analizi sonucunda iş yeri nezaketsizliğinin örgütsel vatandaşlık davranışı, duygusal bağlılık ve iş tatmine ile negatif yönlü, tükenmişlik ve iş-aile çatışması ile pozitif yönlü etkiye sahip olduğu tespit edilmiştir. Araştırma bulgularının literatürde önemli bir boşluğu doldurmasının yanı sıra, uygulamada turizm işletme sahip ve yöneticilerine işletmelerdeki etik olmayan uygulamaları engelleyebilecek ve işyerindeki medeni davranışları teşvik edecek öneriler sunulması hedeflenmektedir.
Günümüzde modern hayatın ve teknolojinin getirdiği rekabet, yoğun iş temposu ve zaman kısıtı gibi faktörler bireylerin çalışma hayatında uymaları gereken saygı kurallarını ihmal etmelerine neden olmaktadır. Bu tür durumlar, bireysel ve örgütsel açıdan birçok olumsuz sonuçlara yol açan nezaketsiz davranışları da beraberinde getirmektedir. Çoğu zaman farkında olunmayan işyeri nezaketsizliğinin tespit edilmesi, yönetilmesi ve önlenebilmesi için bu kavramın detaylı olarak incelenmesi büyük önem taşımaktadır. Bu bölümde işyeri nezaketsizliği kavramı ve özellikleri hakkında detaylı bilgiler verilerek, işyeri nezaketsizliği süreci ve aktörleri açıklanmaktadır. Bununla birlikte üretkenlik karşıtı iş davranışlarının başlangıcı olarak görülen işyeri nezaketsizliğinin diğer olumsuz işyeri davranışlarından farklarına değinilmekte ve nezaketsizliğin işletmeler açısından önemi ve yönetimi üzerinde durulmaktadır. Son olarak ise, işyeri nezaketsizliğinin ortaya çıkmasında etkili olan bireysel ve örgütsel faktörler incelenerek işyeri nezaketsizliği sonuçları hakkında bilgi verilmektedir.
In line with the organizational support theory, our study examined the influence of managerial support and perception of fairness on employees’ turnover intention, and the mediating influence of workplace civility. Data was collected over a period of 2 months from 935 full-time employees (manufacturing and service sector) in two waves to minimize the common method bias. Our study finds that managerial support and fairness perception positively influence workplace civility. We also find that civility shows a vibrant role in clarifying the relationship between contextual factors (managerial support, perception of fairness) and turnover intention. Furthermore, we discuss the theoretical and practical implications along with future directions.
L’équilibre entre la vie professionnelle et la vie privée, le bien-être subjectif et la satisfaction au travail sont autant d’éléments susceptibles d’avoir un impact sur la vie des collaborateurs dans l’entreprise. L’employeur a donc tout intérêt à traiter avec soin ces sujets pour maintenir ou construire un lien avec les employés. L’article propose d’étudier ces rapports dans le contexte particulier de collaborateurs suivant un parcours santé d’AMP qui exacerbe encore un peu plus ces liens de causes à effets. C’est toute la problématique de l’accompagnement par l’employeur des collaborateurs en vulnérabilité qui est explorée ici. De la qualité de cet accompagnement par la GRH notamment, dépend donc la force du lien entre l’employeur et le collaborateur.
We examine how minority ethnic employees account for witnessing selective incivility to ethnically similar others. Our study is based on qualitative interviews with British Asian employees – the majority who witnessed incivility directed towards migrant Asian employees working for the same company. Our findings indicate that, for those whose minority ethnic identity was of central importance, witnessing selective incivility towards others from a similar ethnic background can be perceived as an identity threat. We provide insights into three identity work strategies undertaken by witnesses of selective incivility, while illuminating how minority ethnic identity shapes the way witnesses' respond to selective incivility in the workplace.
Workplace aggression is a serious problem for workers and their employers. As such, an improved scientific understanding of workplace aggression has important implications. This volume, which includes chapters written by leading workplace aggression scholars, addresses three primary topics: the measurement, predictors and consequences of workplace aggression; the social context of workplace aggression; and the prevention of workplace aggression. Of note, the book encompasses the various labels used by researchers to refer to workplace aggression, such as 'abusive supervision', 'bullying', 'incivility' and 'interpersonal conflict'. This approach differs from those of previous books on the topic in that it does not focus on a particular type of workplace aggression, but covers an intentionally broad conceptualization of workplace aggression - specifically, it considers aggression from both the aggressors' and the targets' perspectives and includes behaviors enacted by several types of perpetrators, including supervisors, coworkers and customers.
Drawing from job demands- resources model (JD-R), we examine how patient incivility (PI) is linked with nurses’ unethical behavior (UB) and patient-oriented organizational citizenship behavior (POCB) through surface acting. Further, we introduced receiving help from colleagues as a boundary condition in the surface acting–unethical behavior and surface acting–POCB relationships. Two- wave multi source data gathered from 339 nurses and their colleagues working in various private hospitals of Lahore, Pakistan. We found support for the two contrasting hypotheses that patient incivility (PI) is positively associated with nurses’ unethical behavior (UB) and negatively associated with patient-oriented organizational citizenship behavior (POCB) with the mediating role of surface acting. Receiving help from colleagues moderates surface acting–unethical behavior relationship such that it mitigates the negative effects of surface acting on unethical behavior whereas no moderation was found for surface acting–POCB relationship.
Background
Speaking up with concerns is critical for patient safety. We studied whether witnessing a civil (i.e. polite, respectful) response to speaking up would increase the occurrence of further speaking up by hospital staff members as compared with witnessing a pseudo-civil (i.e. vague and slightly dismissive) or rude response.
Methods
In this RCT in a single, large academic teaching hospital, a single simulated basic life support scenario was designed to elicit standardised opportunities to speak up. Participants in teams of two or three were randomly assigned to one of three experimental conditions in which the degree of civility in reacting to speaking up was manipulated by an embedded simulated person. Speaking up behaviour was assessed by behaviour coding of the video recordings of the team interactions by applying 10 codes using The Observer XT 14.1. Data were analysed using multilevel modelling.
Results
The sample included 125 interprofessional hospital staff members (82 [66%] women, 43 [34%] men). Participants were more likely to speak up when they felt psychologically safe (γ=0.47; standard error [se]=0.19; 95% confidence interval [CI], 0.09–0.85; P=0.017). Participants were more likely to speak up in the rude condition than in the other conditions (γ=0.28; se=0.12; 95% CI, 0.05–0.52; P=0.019). Across conditions, participants spoke up most frequently by structuring inquiry (n=289, 31.52%), proactive (n=240, 26.17%), and reactive (n=148, 16.14%) instruction statements, and gestures (n=139, 15.16%).
Conclusion
Our study challenges current assumptions about the interplay of civility and speaking up behaviour in healthcare.
The importance of creativity to organizations is significant, ergo, scholars have begun to investigate how sensory elements in the workplace might impact creative performance. Our research examines effects of the sensory experience of taste, specifically sweetness, on creativity. Using a range of real taste tests and imagination tasks, we demonstrate that sweet taste facilitates creative performance. We argue that this is because sweet taste, as a positive implicit affective cue, increases cognitive flexibility and creativity independent of the elicitation of positive emotions. However, when the positive associations of sweet taste are externally overridden, such as when health risks are made salient, the positive impact of sweet taste on creativity is attenuated. We further demonstrate that sensory experience of sweetness increases performance on related tasks that require cognitive flexibility, but does not increase performance on non-creative tasks.
Effects associated with observed incivility are often neglected, especially in hospitality industries. The current research, drawing upon social identity theory, proposes that observed leader incivility and the relative relationship between observers and the supervisor (LMXSC) may jointly influence observers’ social categorization process. When observers hold higher rather than lower levels of LMXSC, they tend to define the victim of leader incivility as an organizational outsider, which would be a mediator in the interactive effect on deviant behavior toward the victim. In addition, observers’ trait self-control would be an important moderator in weakening the relationship between perceived outsider status of the target and deviant behavior. By using an experimental study with a two-factor between-subject design and a two-wave field investigation, results supported all our hypotheses. In addition, a three-way interactive effects were reported. Our findings propose a new perspective to explain how, why, and when hospitality observers react to leader incivility.
The importance of authentic leadership has increased in various organizations as one of the positive leadership styles that affect the survival and continuity of organizations in a dynamic work environment. This is due to the influence of authentic leadership on many organizational outcomes such as performance, satisfaction, productivity, incivility, and counterproductive work behaviors. The objectives of this study are to assess the impact of authentic leadership on workplace incivility and counterproductive work behaviors, identify the impact of workplace incivility on counterproductive work behaviors, and explore the mediating role of workplace incivility in the relationship between authentic leadership and counterproductive work behaviors in Egyptian and Turkish travel agents. Data were obtained from 647 employees working in Egyptian and Turkish travel agents. Results indicated that authentic leadership is negatively affected both workplace incivility and counterproductive work behaviors, while workplace incivility is positively affected counterproductive work behaviors. The results also highlighted that workplace incivility plays a partial mediating role in the link between authentic leadership and counterproductive work behaviors in Egyptian and Turkish travel agents.
Subtle slights refer to a wide range of ambiguous negative interactions between people that may harm individual health, wellbeing and performance at work. This literature review aims to help human resource development practitioners and researchers understand the similarities and distinguishing features of disparate bodies of subtle slight research. A systematic review yielded 338 papers, the majority of which concerned three constructs: microaggressions, everyday discrimination and workplace incivilities. Meta-synthesis revealed that all three categories related to subtle, low-intensity interactions but differed in their descriptions of the type of perceived violation. The most common demographic factors under scrutiny were race or ethnicity, gender, sexual orientation, and age. We propose a framework that involves four dimensions common to all subtle slights: type of violation, intensity, duration and intent (VIDI). This framework may help future efforts to understand, monitor and address this issue of contemporary concern in the workplace.
We provide the first systematic investigation of trends in the incivility of American politicians on Twitter, a dominant platform for political communication in the United States. Applying a validated artificial intelligence classifier to all 1.3 million tweets made by members of Congress since 2009, we observe a 23% increase in incivility over a decade on Twitter. Further analyses suggest that the rise was partly driven by reinforcement learning in which politicians engaged in greater incivility following positive feedback. Uncivil tweets tended to receive more approval and attention, publicly indexed by large quantities of “likes” and “retweets” on the platform. Mediational and longitudinal analyses show that the greater this feedback for uncivil tweets, the more uncivil tweets were thereafter. We conclude by discussing how the structure of social media platforms might facilitate this incivility-reinforcing dynamic between politicians and their followers.
The procedures organizations commonly use as they try to motivate employees to perform well can discourage them from making morally responsible choices in their interactions with colleagues and clients. Key issues addressed here highlight the unfortunate side effects of emphasizing monetary outcomes, building a distinct identity, and incentivizing performance targets. These motivational strategies are meant to focus people’s efforts and enhance task achievement. However, they can also invite unethical and morally irresponsible behavior. Our analysis builds on research evidence revealing the hidden costs of these common motivational practices – for task performance as well as organizational morality. We highlight how lack of attention for workplace conduct may undermine perceptions of fairness and justice in different ways, and introduces various moral hazards. Solutions relate to the importance of treating employees with respect, and confronting misbehavior – instead of condoning or ignoring this. Communicating and enacting the moral values that define their shared identity, and treating employees as valued members of the organization offers a sense of purpose that benefits task performance as well as rule compliance.
Fazio, Sanbonmatsu, Powell, and Kardes (1986) demonstrated that Ss were able to evaluate adjectives more quickly when these adjectives were immediately preceded (primed) by attitude objects of similar valence, compared with when these adjectives were primed by attitude objects of opposite valence. Moreover, this effect obtained primarily for attitude objects toward which Ss were presumed to hold highly accessible attitudes, as indexed by evaluation latency. The present research explored the generality of these findings across attitude objects and across procedural variations. The results of 3 experiments indicated that the automatic activation effect is a pervasive and relatively unconditional phenomenon. It appears that most evaluations stored in memory, for social and nonsocial objects alike, become active automatically on the mere presence or mention of the object in the environment.
A synthesis is proposed such that social leafing, social facilitation, and deindividuation are viewed as different ways of arranging social consequences. The effects of such arrangements have been measured in past research through productive output (social leafing and social facilitation) or through antinormative behaviors (deindividuation). All three effects are manipulable by changing individual identifiability, evaluation, social identity, task difficulty, and presence in a group. In general, when people are in groups then there is less individual visibility and therefore fewer negative social consequences individually for reducing output or for increasing socially unacceptable behaviors, even if outputs are not explicitly pooled (traditional social leafing). Whereas social leafing and social facilitation have been empirically linked in past experiments, social leafing and deindividuation have not. An experiment was therefore conducted in which participants worked on a brainstorming task alone or in a group, and with or without individual identifiability. Effects of both a modified social leafing paradigm (reduced output in groups) and a deindividuation paradigm (more socially unacceptable responses in groups) were found simultaneously for the first time. Combined with other good evidence linking social leafing and social facilitation, this supports the idea that the three topics are not separate phenomena but different arrangements of social consequence variables.
Content analysis of 122 social psychology textbooks confirmed that displaced aggression received a surge of attention immediately following J. Dollard, L. W. Doob, N. E. Miller, O. H. Mowrer, and R. R. Sears (1939), but subsequent interest sharply declined. Contemporary texts give it little attention. By contrast, meta-analysis of the experimental literature confirms that it is a robust effect (mean effect size = +0.54). Additionally, moderator analyses showed that: (a) The more negative the setting in which the participant and target interacted, the greater the magnitude of displaced aggression; (b) in accord with N. E. Miller's (1948) stimulus generalization principle, the more similar the provocateur and target, the more displaced aggression; and (c) consistent with the contrast effect (L. Berkowitz & D. A. Knurek, 1969), the intensity of initial provocation is inversely related to the magnitude of displaced aggression.
We hypothesized that attitudes characterized by a strong association between the attitude object and an evaluation of that object are capable of being activated from memory automatically upon mere presentation of the attitude object. We used a priming procedure to examine the extent to which the mere presentation of an attitude object would facilitate the latency with which subjects could indicate whether a subsequently presented target adjective had a positive or a negative connotation. Across three experiments, facilitation was observed on trials involving evaluatively congruent primes (attitude objects) and targets, provided that the attitude object possessed a strong evaluative association. In Experiments 1 and 2, preexperimentally strong and weak associations were identified via a measurement procedure. In Experiment 3, the strength of the object-evaluation association was manipulated. The results indicated that attitudes can be automatically activated and that the strength of the objectevaluation association determines the likelihood of such automatic activation. The implications of these findings for a variety of issues regarding attitudes—including their functional value, stability, effects on later behavior, and measurement—are discussed.
We investigate the ways in which concern for fairness influences decision-making. We use a paradigm previously shown to illustrate circumstances under which a decision maker sacrifices some of his or her own potential for financial gain to punish or reward someone who has demonstrated a prior intent to be either unfair or fair to another person. By ruling out alternative hypotheses related to the original finding, we obtain evidence that “virtue is its own reward”: Decision makers make self-sacrificing allocations, despite the absence of short- or long-term benefits for doing so. Extending the generality of this effect, we also identify circumstances under which the desire for virtuous fairness produces decisions that are not self-sacrificial and do reward someone whose motives seemingly include a willingness to exploit others. These special circumstances apparently indicate the decision maker's belief that “two wrongs don't make a right.” Thus, these studies show that the fairness motive and moral concerns can influence decisions that have economic impact. We extend the range of effects in other studies to include condemnation of interactional injustice and we discuss implications of the overall set of studies in terms of three new foci for attention: A focus on the perpetrator, a focus on the victim, and a focus on the offensiveness of the act itself.
Examined the influence of social value orientations on negotiator cognition and behavior. 133 Dutch undergraduates participated in an assessment of social value orientation and a negotiation task. Consistent with predictions, prosocials, relative to individualists and competitors, exhibited lower levels of demand, exhibited greater levels of concessions, and ascribed greater levels of fairness and considerateness to the other person. Moreover, prosocials as well as individualists and competitors exhibited tendencies toward log rolling, making greater concessions on low-priority rather than high-priority issues."
This article advances a theory of incivility as a veiled manifestation of sexism and racism in organizations. To support this argument, I draw from social psychological research on modern discrimination. The result is a multilevel model of selective incivility, with determinants at the level of the person, organization, and society. Selective incivility could be one mechanism by which gender and racial disparities persist in American organizations, despite concerted efforts to eradicate bias. I dis- cuss scientific and practical implications.
Prior research using experimental games has demonstrated that social value orientations affect the ways in which individuals approach and react to interdependent others; prosocials exhibit greater cooperation than individualists and competitors. This article extends these lines of research by examining the influence of social value orientations on negotiation cognition and behavior. Consistent with predictions, prosocials, relative to individualists and competitors, exhibited lower levels of demand, exhibited greater levels of concessions, and ascribed greater levels of fairness and considerateness to the other person. Moreover, prosocials as well as individualists and competitors exhibited tendencies toward logrolling, making greater concessions on low-priority rather than high-priority issues. The discussion describes several theoretical and practical implications of these findings.
Two alternative methods for parceling questionnaire items for use in confirmatory analyses are presented. The first method requires that parcels must (a) pass a minimum standard of reliability and (b) provide indications of unidimensionality to be retained for analysis. The second method requires that parcels be equally representative of the multiple aspects of a domain. The parcels may then serve as adequate indicators for the general construct. The latter method is consistent with the rationale underlying aggregation of measures, a procedure currently recommended for improving the psychometric properties of behavioral measures of personality. The two methods for parceling and a comparison are illustrated with an empirical example.
Previous research has shown that people remember details from emotional events differently than details from neutral events. However, past research suffers from inadequate equating of the details tested in the emotional and neutral events. In the current five experiments, involving a total of 397 subjects, we equated the to-be-remembered detail information. Subjects in these experiments were presented with a thematic series of slides in which the content of one critical slide in the middle of the series varied. When the critical slide was emotional (a woman injured near a bicycle), compared to neutral in nature (a woman riding a bicycle), subjects were better able to remember a central detail but less able to remember a peripheral detail. To determine whether the emotional event led to different performance simply because it was unusual, we included a third condition, in which subjects saw an “unusual” version of the event (a woman carrying a bicycle on her shoulder). Subjects in the unusual condition performed poorly when recalling both the central and the peripheral detail, and thus differently from those in the emotional condition. To determine what subjects were attending to, in Experiment 4 we gathered reports of thoughts that were evoked while subjects viewed the critical slide. Analyses of these reports indicated that differential elaboration occurred when people viewed emotional, unusual, and neutral events.
How can the beneficiaries of collective action be persuaded to contribute the resources (time, energy, money) necessary for the effort to succeed? Rational and selfish players will recognize they can free ride on the successful contributions of others. If the effort is not successful, they will lose a contribution—and be “suckered.” Other than relying on altruism, organizers of the group effort can modify incentives so that players are more prepared to contribute. Laboratory experiments offer one way of assessing the effectiveness of various such modifications; we conducted such tests to see how well contributing is promoted by (1) assuring contributors that they will not lose if the group effort fails (a “money-back guarantee”) and (2) enforcing contributions if it succeeds (“fair share”). We expect the latter to be more successful because it is “stable,” unlike the former, whose success can be undermined by expectations of that success. Three experimental replications demonstrate that the money-back guarantee is no more successful than a standard dilemma, but fair-share requirements increase contributing significantly over that base. Analysis of subjects' expectations about others' behavior offers some support to the hypothesized process undermining the money-back guarantee, but motivational factors must also be taken into account for a full explanation.
According to the attentional narrowing account of emotional memory, physiological arousal results in attention being directed towards central rather than peripheral characteristics of the situation. Consequently, memory for central details would be relatively good, whereas memory for peripheral information would be impaired. The present experiment sought to test this attentional narrowing hypothesis under highly stressful conditions. Spider phobics and low-fear controls were confronted with a large live spider, eliciting high levels of emotion in the phobic group. Afterwards, subjects' memory for the experimental situation was tested. On a cued recall test, phobics displayed a poor memory for peripheral detail information relative to control subjects. There were no differences between phobics and controls with respect to central detail information. Thus, the present data provide partial support for the attentional narrowing account of emotional memory. © 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
In this article we introduce the concept of workplace incivility and explain how incivility can potentially spiral into increasingly intense aggressive behaviors. To gain an understanding of the mechanisms that underlie an "incivility spiral," we examine what happens at key points: the starting and tipping points. Furthermore, we describe several factors that can facilitate the occurrence and escalation of an incivility spiral and the secondary spirals that can result. We offer research propositions and discuss implications of workplace incivility for researchers and practitioners.
This cross-level field study, involving 187 employees from 35 groups in 20 organizations, examined how individuals' antisocial behaviors at work are shaped by the antisocial behavior of their coworkers. We found a positive relationship between the level of antisocial behavior exhibited by an individual and that exhibited by his or her coworkers. We also found that a number of factors moderated this relationship. Finally, we found that dissatisfaction with coworkers was higher when individuals engaged in less antisocial behavior than their coworkers.
Negative (adverse or threatening) events evoke strong and rapid physiological, cognitive, emotional, and social responses. This mobilization of the organism is followed by physiological, cognitive, and behavioral responses that damp down, minimize, and even erase the impact of that event. This pattern of mobilization-minimization appears to be greater for negative events than for neutral or positive events. Theoretical accounts of this response pattern are reviewed. It is concluded that no single theoretical mechanism can explain the mobilization-minimization pattern, but that a family of integrated process models, encompassing different classes of responses, may account for this pattern of parallel but disparately caused effects.
A solution is suggested for an old unresolved social psychological problem.
Aggression and violence are of increasing concern to American employees and employers; however, these issues have received limited research attention in the management literature. We focus here on those aggressive actions and violent outcomes that are instigated by factors in the organization itself, labeled organization-motivated aggression (OMA) and organization-motivated violence (OMV). Specifically, we define the terms OMA and OMV, provide a social learning model of OMA, and present research propositions related to the model.
SUMMARY According to the attentional narrowing account of emotional memory, physiological arousal results in attention being directed towards central rather than peripheral characteristics of the situation. Consequently, memory for central details would be relatively good, whereas memory for peripheral information would be impaired. The present experiment sought to test this attentional narrowing hypothesis under highly stressful conditions. Spider phobics and low-fear controls were confronted with a large live spider, eliciting high levels of emotion in the phobic group. Afterwards, subjects' memory for the experimental situation was tested. On a cued recall test, phobics displayed a poor memory for peripheral detail information relative to control subjects. There were no differences between phobics and controls with respect to central detail information. Thus, the present data provide partial support for the attentional narrowing account of emotional memory. & 1997 by John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
We review recent developments in structural equation modeling (SEM) since Fassinger’s (1987) introductory article. We discuss issues critical to designing and evaluating SEM studies. Our review includes recent technological developments in SEM such as new approaches from hypothesis testing to determining statistical power and assessing model fit. Moreover, we discuss innovations in applying SEM to different research contexts and designs (e.g., experimental and longitudinal designs and interactions among latent variables). Finally, we discuss procedures for redressing common problems and misunderstandings in the application of SEM procedures to counseling research.
In four experiments subjects remembered the critical information in a traumatic slide as either more focused spatially than in its original presentation or more focused spatially than information in a matched neutral slide. Subjects comprehend a neutral scene by automatically extending its boundaries and understanding the visual information in a broader external context. However, when subjects are negatively aroused by a scene, they process more elaborately those critical details that were the source of the emotional arousal, and they maintain or restrict the scene's boundaries. ‘Tunnel memory’ results from this greater elaboration of critical details and more focused boundaries. Tunnel memory may explain the superior recognition and recall of central, emotion-arousing details in a traumatic event, as shown in previous research on emotion and memory. © 1998 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The different emotions are accompanied by recognizably different bodily states, and the direct manipulation of bodily state, by drugs or surgery, also manipulates emotional state. This chapter describes the implications of a cognitive-physiological formulation of emotion, and a series of experiments designed to test these implications. The emotional states are a function of the interaction of cognitive factors with a state of physiological arousal. Cognitions arising from the immediate situation provide the framework within which one understands and labels his feelings, and cognitive factors can lead the individual to describe his feelings with any of a variety of emotional labels, such as euphoria or anger. The experimental results suggest that given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no explanation, he labels this state in terms of the cognitions available to him, and by manipulating the cognitions of an individual in such a state, his feelings can be manipulated in diverse directions. Under the state of physiological arousal for which the individual has a completely satisfactory explanation, he does not label this state in terms of the alternative cognitions available. While, under the constant cognitive circumstances, an individual reacts emotionally only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal.
Although antisocial behaviour has become an issue of political and policy concern, social science lacks basic information on such events. This article explores one aspect of such everyday incivility - how people react emotionally and behaviourally to the badly behaved stranger. Mainstream criminology, as well as the social theory of Goffman and Bauman, is oriented around a fear/avoidance vision. This dominant paradigm is unnecessarily restrictive on intellectual inquiry. A raft of other options including anger/intervention; disgust/aversion and indifference/do nothing are analytically reconstructed from the classical social theory of Durkheim, Elias and Simmel. These various models are applied to incidents coded from the transcripts of the Melbourne Everyday Incivility Project. The results show that emotions and behaviours tend to pair up as predicted. Fear/avoidance, however, is a relatively uncommon response to incivil encounters. Anger/intervention and indifference/do nothing are more frequent. The former is especially associated with events where the respondent is a ‘victim’, and the latter with those where the respondent is an onlooker. These findings suggest the limitations of current criminological research in areas related to incivility and fear of crime, and have implications for collective efficacy, social capital and broken windows criminology.
Two experiments investigated the effects of experimentally induced mood states on memory and judged comprehension of stories. The experiments examined the issue of whether induction of a depressed mood would affect prose memory and comprehension and impair the ability of individuals to use prior knowledge, activated by way of a title, in remembering the passage. In Experiment 1, depressed subjects who were given a title for the passage recalled fewer idea units when compared with neutral control conditions, but no depressive deficit in recall occurred in the absence of a title. In Experiment 2 the same pattern of results occurred when subjects learned two successive passages. The depressive deficits obtained were interpreted in terms of a resource allocation model which proposes that emotional states increase the production of irrelevant, competing thoughts that interfere with processes important in remembering the criterion passage. Alternative explanations involving cognitive initiative and schema theory were discussed. Finally, judgments of comprehension predicted passage recall and were better predictors for neutral than depressed mood subjects. A depressed mood state did not affect average judgments of comprehension even when recall was correspondingly impaired.
This paper explores interdependences between cognitive and excitatory processes that concur during experiences of acute anger and the performance of aggressive actions, and it develops the implications of these interdependencies for anger and aggression. Specifically, the influence of cognitive processes on the time course of excitatory activity (mainly, sympathetic dominance in the autonomic nervous system), on anger, and on aggressive behavior is projected from theory and documented with pertinent research findings. The influence of different and changing levels of excitatory activity on cognitive functioning (mainly, the appraisal and reappraisal of endangerments), on anger, and on aggressive behavior is likewise derived from theory and documented with empirical research. Special attention is given to the anger- and aggression-diminishing capacity of the cognitive reassessment of endangering conditions, and to impulsive destructive behaviors that result from the transitory impairment of cognitive functioning at extreme levels of excitation.
This article proposes a framework for representing personality constructs at four levels of abstraction. The total aggregation model is the composite formed by the sum of scores on all items in a scale. The partial aggregation model treats separate dimensions of a personality construct as indicators of a single latent variable, with each dimension being an aggregation of items. The partial disaggregation model represents each dimension as a separate latent variable, either freely correlated with the other dimensions or loading on one or more than one higher order factor; the measures of the dimensions are multiple indicators formed as aggregates of subsets of items. The total disaggregation model also represents each dimension as a separate latent variable but, unlike the partial disaggregation model, uses each item in the scale as an indicator of its respective factor. Illustrations of the models are provided on the State Self‐Esteem Scale—including tests of psychometric properties, invariance, and generalizability.
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This study tested the hypothesis that schadenfreude (or pleasure in another's misfortune) would be more closely related to resentment and a wish to correct a perceived injustice than to envy, and that sympathy would involve different processes. Participants were 184 undergraduates who responded to scenarios in which a student with a record of either high or average achievement that followed high or low effort subsequently suffered failure under conditions where there was either high or low personal control. Results showed that resentment about the student's prior achievement could be distinguished from envy. Schadenfreude about the student's subsequent failure was predicted by resentment and not by envy. Sympathy was not predicted by either resentment or envy. Deservingness was a key variable in the models that were tested.