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Task aversiveness and procrastination: A multi-dimensional approach to task aversiveness across stages of personal projects
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to explore notions of task aversiveness across stages of personal projects. 95 female and 66 male undergraduate students enrolled in an introductory psychology class completed Personal Projects Analysis (PPA; Little, 1983 [Personal projects: a rationale and method for investigation. Environment and Behaviour, 15, 273–309]). Based on theories of action proposed by and [Gollwitzer, P. M. (1990). The volitional benefits from planning. In P. M. Gollwitzer & J. A. Bargh, The psychology of action: linking cognition and motivation to behaviour (pp. 287–312). New York: Guilford Press], respondents’ projects were sorted into four broad stages: inception, planning, action and termination. Principal components analysis (PCA) revealed that boredom, frustration and resentment emerge as PPA dimensions associated with task aversiveness at each stage of project development. Personal meaning, autonomy, structure, stress and negative emotions were also found to be related to task aversiveness, but these aspects of aversiveness varied across the stages of project development. As hypothesized, each principal component identified with task aversiveness was found to be positively related with procrastination. These findings are discussed in terms of previous research in the area of procrastination and Kuhl's theory of action [Kuhl, J. (1987). Action control: the maintenance of motivational states. In F. Halisch & J. Kuhl, Motivation, intention and volition (pp. 279–291). New York: Springer-Verlag.; Kuhl, J. (1994). A theory of action and state orientations. In J. Kuhl & J. Beckman, Volition and personality: action versus state orientation (pp. 9–46). Toronto: Hogrefe & Huber].
... For instance, when dental patients must schedule dental appointments or when given preventive advice about the maintenance of oral hygiene, e.g., flossing. In addition, task aversiveness has been identified as a relatively strong predictor for procrastination [14], meaning that health-promoting behaviors seen as unpleasant in one way or another might be more prone to delay. Dental patients might tend to delay dental treatment for conditions that are perceived as not very serious, acute, or with low-intensity symptoms because seeking help or undergoing clinical examinations might be unpleasant in itself. ...
... MDAS includes five items where participants respond using a Likert scale (1)(2)(3)(4)(5) and is used by summarizing the scores of the items. MDAS scores are commonly used for differentiating between low (5-10), moderate (11)(12)(13)(14)(15)(16)(17)(18), and severe dental anxiety (>18), usually interpreted as a dental phobia (7 participants, 0.05%). The MDAS had a Cronbach's alpha level of 0.88. ...
... Furthermore, even though this study found no significant correlation between procrastination and delay of dental care, some of the reasons for the delay are associated with procrastination. For instance, the statements regarding stress, discomfort, and cost correlated positively with procrastination tendencies, indicating that when dental treatment or examinations are perceived as stressful, unpleasant, and costly, they can be prone to procrastination driven by task aversiveness [14]. ...
Delay of dental care is a problem for dental public health. The present study explored the relationship between procrastination and dental attendance, focusing on delay in seeking dental care. This hypothetical relation was compared to other avoidance-related factors affecting dental attendance. In addition, an inquiry into the reasons for delaying dental care was conducted. Students (n = 164) answered an internet-based questionnaire on socio-demographic factors, dental health, dental attendance, delay of dental care, reasons for the delay, procrastination (IPS), dental anxiety (MDAS), perceived stress (PSS) and oral health self-efficacy (OHSES). The study found no significant relation between procrastination and delay in dental care. However, procrastination was related differently to past, present, and future dental attendance and seemed to relate to oral health behavior. Delay of dental care was associated with higher dental anxiety and lower oral health self-efficacy. The cost of dental care was the most frequently given reason for the delay of dental care. Further research on the delay of dental care and dental attendance is warranted in understanding the behavior, implementing interventions, and improving the utilization of public dental care.
... The data collection method used is a scale method in the form of a Likert scale. The scale of task aversiveness of researchers is based on the theory of task aversiveness according to Blunt & Pychyl (2000) and the academic scale of academic procrastination is based on the theory of procrastination according to Ferrari, et al. (1995). The hypothesis test used is the product moment correlation. ...
... Boredom diartikan sebagai penilaian seseorang terhadap sejauh mana individu merasa tugasnya tersebut begitu membosankan. Individu yang menganggap tugas yang dihadapinya membosankan untuk dikerjakan mungkin tidak akan dapat mempertahankan kegiatan ini dan akan memilih untuk mengerjakan hal-hal lain yang dirasa kurang membosankan (Blunt and Pychyl, 2000). Seseorang akan memilih untuk sengaja tidak menyelesaikan tugasnya dan menggunakan waktu yang dimiliki untuk melakukan hal lain yang lebih menyenangkan dan mendatangkan hiburan, seperti membaca (Koran, majalah atau buku cerita lainnya), menonton, mengobrol, jalan-jalan, mendengarkan musik dan sebagainya (Ghufron dan Risnawita, 2012). ...
... Frustration terhadap tugas menyebabkan seseorang cenderung untuk menunda dalam memulai ataupun menyelesaikan tugas yang dimilikinya. Perasaan frustrasi yang dirasakan terus-menerus dapat menyebabkan seringnya perenungan atas emosi yang tidak relevan dengan tugas atau kognisi yang tidak terkendali (Kuhl dalam Blunt and Pychyl, 2000). Ketika disibukkan oleh emosi yang tidak relevan dengan tugas atau kognisi yang tidak terkendali, individu tidak akan dapat fokus pada kegiatan yang dimaksudkan, sehingga individu akan melakukan penundaan. ...
This study was designed to investigate the relationship between task aversiveness and academic procrastination in Postgraduate students at Mercu Buana University, Yogyakarta. The population of this study consists of three study programs, namely Masters in Psychology, Masters in Professional Psychology and Masters in Food Sciences, totaling 301 students. The sampling technique used was disproportionate stratified random sampling. The number of samples used in this study 172 students. The data collection method used is a scale method in the form of a Likert scale. The scale of task aversiveness of researchers is based on the theory of task aversiveness according to Blunt & Pychyl (2000) and the academic scale of academic procrastination is based on the theory of procrastination according to Ferrari, et al. (1995). The hypothesis test used is the product moment correlation. The hypothesis of this study is that there is a positive relationship between task aversiveness and academic procrastination in students. The purpose of this research is expected to make a scientific contribution to the development of the world of psychology, especially educational psychology by looking at the factors that contribute to academic procrastination.
... First, people are more likely to procrastinate on tasks which they find aversive, boring, effortful, anxiety inducing or otherwise causing negative affect, than on tasks which they find pleasant and engaging. A variety of task characteristics related to aversiveness has been measured to investigate this effect, including: boredom, frustration, resentment (Blunt and Pychyl, 2000), effort, and anxiety (Ferrari and Scher, 2000), among others. Additionally, task ambiguity (lack of clarity of how the task should be performed) and lack of control over the task completion method and goal-setting can predict lower engagement in the task and thus increase the likelihood of procrastination (Hoppe et al., 2018). ...
... Additionally, task ambiguity (lack of clarity of how the task should be performed) and lack of control over the task completion method and goal-setting can predict lower engagement in the task and thus increase the likelihood of procrastination (Hoppe et al., 2018). Regardless of the specific reason for disliking the tasks, it has been repeatedly shown in research that the more they are described as unpleasant, the more likely they are to be postponed (Ackerman and Gross, 2005;Blunt and Pychyl, 2000;Ferrari and Scher, 2000), meanwhile enjoyment of the tasks is related to taking fewer breaks while completing them (Strongman and Burt, 2000). However, as Steel (2007) points out, task aversiveness itself is more responsible for task avoidancesimply abandoning the unpleasant task. ...
Procrastination, the voluntary delay of beginning or completing an intended task despite the negative consequences of doing so, is a prevalent problem that entails severe academic, professional, financial, and health consequences. According to the influential emotion regulation process perspective, procrastination occurs when people prioritize short-term mood repair over pursuing their long-term goals. This suggests that chronic procrastination may be related to emotion regulation dysfunction; however, further research is still necessary. In this thesis, I discuss the current literature on emotion regulation dysfunction in procrastination, as well as report the present EEG study aiming to compare the effectiveness of the two emotion down-regulation strategies, cognitive distraction and cognitive reappraisal, in high and low procrastinating students (N = 40). Amplitudes of the late positive potential were measured during the emotion regulation task and participants' preference for using either strategy was assessed during the emotion regulation choice task. While no between-group differences were found in effectiveness or preference regarding emotion regulation, the results suggest that the high procrastinating group may be characterized by a reduced ability to distract attention from negative stimuli. The results indicate the need for further research on the ability to pursue long-term goals through effective emotion regulation in procrastination, which will help develop effective therapeutic methods for its treatment.
... Procrastination would be a strategy which permits to individuals to repair their negative feelings at the moment (Sirois & Pychyl, 2013;Tice & Bratslavsky, 2000). More precisely, it appears most often when the task is viewed as lacking immediate reward (Schouwenburg & Groenewoud, 2001), or as aversive: i.e., boring, tedious, or difficult (e.g., Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Lay, 1992). Indeed, aversive tasks produce negative feelings (anxiety and worry) and experiencing negative feelings motivates individuals to change their affective state. ...
... Avoidance-related goal orientations are linked with maladaptive self-regulatory processes anchored in failure and incompetence (Moller & Elliot, 2006), processes which may facilitate temporal discounting (e.g., by enhancing task aversiveness) (Howell & Watson, 2007, p. 169). Procrastination appears when the task is viewed as aversive (e.g., Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Lay, 1992). Aversive tasks produce negative feelings, and individuals can reduce such feelings by procrastinating. ...
Procrastination could be conceptualized as a self-regulation failure. However, it is still not clear what type of self-regulation processes are precisely underlying the students’ tendency to procrastinate. The main objective of our study was therefore to predict variations in academic procrastination by considering two constructs related to self-regulation: motivational factors (i.e., achievement goals), and learning strategies: deep learning cognitive strategies -Elaboration and Critical thinking-, effort regulation management. The results of an online study on 249 first-year humanities and social sciences French students showed that 30% of the variance in procrastination was predicted positively by avoidance goals and negatively by effort regulation management. The effort regulation management strategy alone contributed to 24% of the variance in procrastination. Furthermore, the results confirmed the negative relationship between academic performance and procrastination tendency. Added together, these results support the conceptualization of procrastination as a self-regulation failure and specially of learning such as effort regulation management. Results are discussed in relation to possible interventions that aim to reduce procrastination in order to promote academic success and students’ well-being.
... If choices made during goal striving are associated with different values and preferences, attention to how such values and preferences relate to behavior is important (e.g., Grund and Fries, 2018). As academic tasks are often regarded as aversive (e.g., Blunt and Pychyl, 2000), this focus may be especially important in procrastination. Fourth, as the behavior that is procrastinated often will occur at a lower frequency than is needed for proper goal attainment, an understanding of how to increase the frequency of goal-relevant behavior is necessary. ...
... This correlational evidence is strengthened by experimental evidence (Senecal et al., 1997). Blunt and Pychyl (2000) examined 30 potential dimensions related to task aversiveness and found boredom, frustration, and task resentment to be the dimensions most strongly associated with perceived aversiveness over various stages of task execution. Other factors may instigate aversiveness strategies as well. ...
Academic procrastination – habitually delaying work with academic tasks to the extent that the delays become detrimental to performance, wellbeing, and health – represents a substantial personal, systemic, and societal problem. Still, efforts to prevent and reduce it are surprisingly scarce and often offered as treatment regimens rather than preventive efforts. Based on the principles of functional analysis and a broad examination of factors that are important for academic procrastinatory behaviors, this paper aims to describe a strategy for analyzing individual controlling conditions for procrastination and give parallel advice on how to change those controlling conditions. Both are ideographic, allowing for individual and dynamic analyses of factors responsible for instigating and maintaining procrastination, as well as tailor-made remedies that address controlling conditions in preventive and curative efforts to reduce procrastination. Although functional analysis integrates well with important research findings in the procrastination field, this approach suggests new criteria for identifying procrastinatory behaviors and an alternative model for analyzing their control conditions. We conclude that a functional approach may supplement procrastination research and efforts to prevent and alleviate this detrimental habit.
... 3 Task avoidance, task requirements, and the degree of reasonableness of work resources are all associated with employee procrastination behavior. 4,5 Meanwhile, responsibility as a personal trait is considered to be an important factor in understanding employee procrastination. For example, employees with a low sense of responsibility typically engage in procrastination. ...
... For example, employees with a low sense of responsibility typically engage in procrastination. 5,6 The aforementioned presentation suggests that responsibility can be an effective inhibition of employee procrastination. 7 The occurrence of responsible behavior, however, is associated with the emotional state of the individual. ...
Purpose:
Prior work suggests that responsibility is negatively associated with employee procrastination behavior. Based on the conservation of resources (COR) theory, we suggest this view is oversimplified and propose that procrastination can be induced when employees have congruent job and family responsibilities via the mediating effect of emotional exhaustion.
Methods:
This is a quantitative study of the configurational approach. Survey data were collected from 323 employees at two stages in southern Chinese internet enterprises in September 2020. A randomized cluster sample was used and an anonymous self-assessment questionnaire was distributed to all selected respondents (employees). Samples involved different departments, and the procrastination phenomenon is more significant among them. SPSS20.2 and MPLUS 8.3 software and Response Surface Analysis Strategy were used to test the hypotheses.
Results:
The data analysis results indicated that: a) employee procrastination behavior is higher when employees' job responsibility and family responsibility are congruent than the incongruent configurations. b) Procrastination is lower when job-family dyads are congruent at high levels of responsibility compared the low levels. c) Procrastination decreases as employees' job and family responsibilities become more discrepant (ie, incongruent); employees with low job-high family responsibilities procrastinate more than those with high job-low family responsibilities. d) Additionally, employee-experienced emotional exhaustion mediates the relationship in four configurations between job-family responsibilities congruence and procrastination behavior.
Conclusion:
Drawing on the conservation of resources theory, we proposed a model clarifying how varying combinations of job and family responsibilities affect employee procrastination behavior. The results showed that there are significant differences in the impact of different job-family responsibility combinations on employee procrastination behavior. Employee procrastination behavior is higher when employees' job-family responsibility are congruent than the incongruent configurations. Additionally, employee-experienced emotional exhaustion mediates the relationship in four configurations between job-family responsibilities congruence and procrastination behavior.
... It is well documented that negative emotions are potentially powerful drivers of procrastinatory behavior, as delay may be instrumental in mood repair and avoidance of aversive events (e.g., Blunt and Pychyl, 2000;Wohl et al., 2010;Pollack and Herres, 2020). The emotions of shame, guilt, or regret address negative feelings related to past events and are of particular interest in the present context. ...
... Although the directional relationship between these constructs is not determined, LoE may both act as an antecedent factor in procrastination and as a consequence. For example, low energy increases the likelihood that work becomes aversive, and as task aversiveness is a strong predictor of procrastination (e.g., Blunt and Pychyl, 2000;Grunschel et al., 2013;Laybourn et al., 2019), procrastination may result. However, working with difficult tasks (e.g., academic tasks) may itself be more energy-demanding compared to working with simpler tasks, speaking for a reversal of the causal chain. ...
Standard definitions of procrastination underscore the irrational nature of this habit, a critical criterion being that the procrastinating individual delays despite expecting to be worse off for the delay. However, an examination of more than 175 items in 18 procrastination scales reveals that they do not address such a forward-looking criterion. Consequently, scales run the risk of not separating maladaptive and irrational delays from other forms of delay. We propose that forward-looking considerations may not be the best way of operationalizing the irrationality involved in procrastination and argue that scales should instead focus on past negative consequences of unnecessary delay. We suggest a new scale to measure such procrastination-related negative consequences and demonstrate that this scale, used separately or combined with established procrastination scales, performs better in predicting negative states and correlates to procrastination than established scales. The new scale seems to be helpful in separating trivial forms of unnecessary delay from maladaptive forms and hence represents a potentially valuable tool in research and clinical/applied efforts.
... The assumption of the model that emotional distress is a cause of procrastination finds support in the argument of Sirois (2014) and Tice, et al. (2001) that procrastination could be caused by the experience of feeling emotionally distressed, as a strategy to restore positive mood. The literature indicates that task aversiveness is a relevant predictor of procrastination (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995;Pychyl & Sirois, 2016), which is corroborated by Steel's (2007) meta-analysis, when it identifies a moderate association between procrastinating and being averse to specific tasks (r=0.40) and averse to generic everyday tasks (r=0.40). In addition, there are arguments that allow interpreting task aversiveness as the cause of procrastination. ...
The one-dimensional procrastination theory is dominant and impacts clinical practice. However, structural validity studies provide evidence that this model should be refuted. This study proposes the Bi-factor Hierarchical Model of Procrastination as an alternative. This work presents the model rationale, as well as the Procrastination Mechanisms Questionnaire, created to test the model empirically. This paper also presents initial evidence of the validity of the model, by the analysis of content validity, in which eleven raters rated the questionnaire items in terms of their targeted dimensions. The rating was reliable and consistent with the original rating by the authors in the vast majority of items. Diverging ratings were analyzed and some items were modified. The initial evidence is favorable, and future studies that investigate the internal structure of the questionnaire and its association with related constructs and clinical outcomes are essential to obtain solid evidence of the validity of the model.
... Academic courses in the higher education context can differ in terms of assorted characteristics (e.g., Dresel et al., 2015) that may facilitate or reduce procrastination (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Corkin et al., 2014;Patrzek et al., 2015;Svartdal et al., 2020). However, surprisingly few studies have examined the role of higher education course characteristics in association with academic procrastination, and these mostly focussed on a single characteristic (or a small selection of them), not considering a multivariate approach (e.g., Ackerman & Gross, 2005;Corkin et al., 2014;Patrzek et al., 2015). ...
... Procrastinators' tendency to put off tasks that they find unpleasant, difficult, or complex, and engaging in unplanned acts (see Steel, 2007), is accompanied by discomfort and unpleasant feelings (Grunschel et al., 2013). Due to impulse-driven short-term mood management, the majority of procrastinators experience feelings of guilt, fear, and humiliation both before and after a procrastinating incident (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). Based on this, it can be said that both perfectionism and procrastination share some cognitive distortions and a paralyzing fear of failure (Flett et al., 1995). ...
This study examined the link between procrastination, psychological vulnerability, and the Big Three perfectionism (rigid, self-critical, and narcissistic perfectionism). A cross-sectional research design was used to collect data from 141 academic staff members working in Ethiopia's public universities. The results of the correlation analysis indicated that all three dimensions of perfectionism (Rigid, self-critical, and narcissistic) were positively and significantly associated with psychological vulnerability. Likewise, procrastination was positively and significantly correlated to psychological vulnerability. Hierarchical regression analyses also demonstrated that procrastination is a potential risk factor that predicted psychological vulnerability in Ethiopian academic staff. The outcomes of this study may offer crucial information to mental health practitioners for creating psychological intervention programs aimed at minimizing the habits of procrastination and the effects of perfectionism and protecting the well-being of academic personnel against psychological vulnerabilities.
... Procrastination is a complex, poorly understood behavior that involves different cognitive, emotional, and behavioral components [4][5][6]. It has been understood as a failure of self-regulation [4], an avoidance behavior toward unpleasant tasks [7], due to fear of failure [8], fear of success [9], or an expression of poor action control [9], and it has been consistently associated with low self-efficacy, e.g., [10]. ...
Academic procrastination is a persistent behavior in students’ academic development consisting of postponing or delaying the completion of necessary tasks and having a deadline for completion, which is associated with detriment in performance, school dropout, and loss of student well-being. The largest body of existing knowledge on this behavior comes from studies conducted with university students, although it is necessary to deepen the findings obtained at lower educational levels. The aim of this work has been to carry out a scoping review of the empirical publications focused on academic procrastination in children and adolescents. The inclusion and exclusion criteria are detailed following the general guidelines of the Joanna Briggs Institute. However, some modifications are incorporated in the flowchart to guide the review sequence. The search was conducted in eleven thematic (ERIC, MedLine, Psychology and Behavioral Sciences Collection, PsycINFO, PubPsych, and Teacher Reference Center) and multidisciplinary databases (Academic Search Ultimate, E-Journals, ProQuest, Scopus, and Web of Science) to identify relevant publications up to 2022, including grey literature. Out of the initial 1185 records screened, a total of 79 records were selected. The search results included a total of 79 records. The most used assessment instruments, the most studied variables, and the type of design and sources of information used in the selected studies are detailed. Cultural aspects that open new lines of future research are identified.
... For example, procrastination and conceptual hurdles were markers of a lack of engagement in academic work Gute and Gute (2008). Weariness, burnout, and stress have all been reported to be contributors to procrastination, as stated by Schraw et al. (2007), Blunt & Pychyl (2000), and Chu & Choi (2007), respectively (2005). On the other hand, Ferrari and Thompson (2006) discovered that emotions of emotional exhaustion were connected to procrastination in their participants. ...
The purpose of this study was to analyze PhD students' beliefs about writing and how they rated their writing abilities. The Writing Process Questionnaire was established to acquire a deeper grasp of the perspectives held by PhD students toward academic writing. The results of this survey were analyzed to determine how PhD students perceive academic writing. It was interesting to study whether or not there was a connection between the perceptions of writing held by PhD students and the mental health of those persons. This was another exciting aspect of the research. 669 PhD students attending a prestigious university in Finland volunteered their time to respond to a questionnaire. The university in question is the University of Helsinki. In the current study, 26 questions were used to produce sum variables. These sum variables were then used to develop six distinct theoretical constructs, which were measured using various scales. Blocks, procrastination, perfectionism, intrinsic ability, knowledge transformation, and productivity were the names given to the various structures that were up for discussion. A few examples of these ideas include production, overcoming challenges, striving for excellence, and an individual's intrinsic potential. A confirmatory factor analysis, often known as a CFA, was carried out to verify the six-dimensional notion. The relationship between perfectionism, procrastination, and blockages positively correlates with all of these elements (exhaustion, stress, worry, and a general lack of interest) but negatively correlates with productivity. This is because perfectionism, procrastination, and blockages positively correlate with all of these elements except productivity. The validity of the writing scale's six-factor structure, which evaluates writing skill, was established by employing LISREL for either confirmatory research or analysis. This allowed for the establishment of the scale's validity. As a result, there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the questionnaire is a reliable and valid instrument capable of accurately capturing a number of essential facets of the academic writing process, including the emotional components of this process. This conclusion can be reached as a consequence of the fact that there is sufficient evidence to conclude that the questionnaire is a reliable and valid instrument.
... For instance, procrastination and conceptual challenges were signs of disengagement from academic work, according to Gute & Gute (2008). Procrastination has been linked to exhaustion, burnout, and stress, according to Schraw et al. (2007), Blunt & Pychyl (2000), and Chu & Choi (2007), respectively (2005). On the other hand, Ferrari and Thompson (2006) found a link between procrastination and feelings of emotional weariness in their participants. ...
This study looked at how PhD students felt about writing and how well they thought they could write. The Writing Process Questionnaire was developed to gain a better understanding of the attitudes PhD students have toward academic writing. This survey's findings were examined to learn how PhD students view academic writing. It was fascinating to investigate whether there was a relationship between PhD students' views on writing and their mental health. This was another another intriguing feature of the study. A top institution in Finland recruited 669 PhD students who gave their time to answer a survey. The University of Helsinki is the institution in question. To create the sum variables for the current study, 26 questions were used. The six separate theoretical constructs that were created using these sum variables were then measured using different scales. The many structures that were on the table were referred to as blocks, procrastination, perfectionism, innate ability, knowledge transformation, and productivity. Production, overcoming obstacles, aiming for perfection, and an individual's innate potential are a few instances of these concepts. To confirm the six-dimensional theory, a confirmatory factor analysis, or CFA, was conducted. Exhaustion, stress, concern, and a general lack of interest are all positively correlated with perfectionism, procrastination, and obstructions, but negatively correlated with productivity. This is due to the positive correlations between perfectionism, procrastination, and obstructions and all of these factors except productivity. The six-factor structure of the writing scale, which assesses writing ability, was found to be valid through the use of LISREL in either confirmatory research or analysis. This made it possible to determine the scale's reliability. As a result, there is enough data to draw the conclusion that the questionnaire is a valid and reliable tool that can accurately capture a variety of key aspects of the academic writing process, including its emotional components. This conclusion can be drawn as a result of the fact that there is enough data to establish the validity and reliability of the questionnaire.
... Literature relates procrastination to other (moderating or controlling) variables, such as self-efficacy [34], fear of failure [35] task aversion [36], lack of self-regulation [37], or disruptive classroom behavior [38], among others. Likewise, different studies have found that academic procrastination is associated with factors generated by academic tasks and limited time planning skills [39][40][41][42][43][44]. ...
Procrastination is a phenomenon that affects university students and consists of not finishing a task or finishing it late, which has a direct impact on their academic performance. This is relevant because, in a context of high competition, higher education institutions and their decision-makers need to be aware of the factors that influence university students’ procrastination in order to implement actions that favor student attraction and retention. Based on the above, this research aims to propose a theoretical model of procrastination in university students, based on the literature review and content validation assessment through a semi-structured questionnaire. The proposed model is made up of nine dimensions: Psychological, Physiological, Social, Academic, Leisure, Time Management, Resources, Labor, and Environmental. Dimensions were obtained based on adequate levels of content validity provided by the literature and the questionnaire. In the future, the research proposes to study the way in which these dimensions are present in procrastination and design a scale that allows for their measurement.
... Each of these factors, separately or together, can play a role in academic procrastination, which poses a serious threat to students' academic achievement and subjective wellbeing (Klingsieck, 2013;Steel & Klingsieck, 2016). In general, numerous studies have identified that people procrastinate the tasks they find difficult, anxiety-provoking, stressful, frustrating, or boring (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). However, task aversiveness is a necessary but insufficient condition for procrastination. ...
Procrastination is a form of self-regulation failure that can have significant negative consequences for individuals. Research evidence indicates that mindfulness can be beneficial for self-regulation, and also procrastination is associated with low levels of mindfulness. Therefore, the current study tested the effectiveness of mindfulness training in reducing procrastination among students. Thirty-six procrastinating students were screened using the cluster sampling method and the multidimensional scale of academic procrastination. Participants were randomly assigned to either mindfulness training or wait-list control groups. Questionnaires related to procrastination were used to collect data at the beginning and end of the study. The mindfulness intervention was performed in eight 90-min weekly sessions for the training group to compare it with a wait-list control group. Analyses of covariance and follow-up comparisons between the mindfulness training and the wait-list control groups pre-and 1-week post-intervention revealed large effect sizes, with the mindfulness training group showing higher scores on self-regulation and mindfulness scales. They also reduced procrastination behavior and showed lower scores on negative emotions and perceived negative consequences. Our results indicate that mindfulness training may be an effective strategy to help students improve their self-regulation and reduce procrastination.
... In short, the TDM suggested that people pit task aversiveness against outcome value at time points between the present and future to decide whether to procrastinate (S. . Task aversiveness represents the unpleasantness one anticipates or perceives to perform a task (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000); thus, drives motivations to procrastinate. On the other hand, outcome value represents attractiveness of future outcomes that a task can yield (S. Zhang, Liu, et al., 2019), incorporating future benefits to motivate timely engagement. ...
Procrastination, an irrational delay of intended action, has caused harms in many life domains. Although procrastination has a robust link with the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC), the causal role of DLPFC in this behavior remains unclear. A recent temporal decision model (TDM) proposed that people pit task aversiveness against outcome value to decide to procrastinate or not. In short, people would procrastinate if task aversiveness has a stronger effect than outcome value. According to the TDM, the DLPFC might reduce procrastination by inhibiting task aversiveness, or amplifying outcome value, or both. The present study tested those possibilities by investigating whether brain stimulation on DLPFC changes procrastination and its underlying mechanism. One hundred and three participants with high procrastination were randomly assigned to receive either active or sham stimulation over the left (active, n = 27; sham, n = 27) or right (active, n = 25; sham, n = 24) DLPFC and rated task aversiveness, outcome value and task-execution willingness toward their self-planned real-life tasks before and after stimulation. We found that active stimulation of the left DLPFC significantly boosted task-execution willingness. This left DLPFC stimulation also changed subjects' evaluation of tasks such that decreasing task aversiveness and increasing outcome value. Causal mediation analyses further revealed that stimulation of the left DLPFC enhances willingness for task completion through increasing outcome value. Overall these results provide the first evidence that neuromodulation of the left DLPFC could improve timely task-execution willingness via increasing the outcome value, which offers new insights for treating individuals with severe or even pathological procrastination. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2022 APA, all rights reserved).
... Procrastination may result from negative emotions, such as fear of failure (Haghbin et al., 2012;Schouwenburg, 1992;Schraw et al., 2007) or discomfort intolerance (Harrington, 2005). According to Blunt and Pychyl (2000), negative emotions caused by tasks are related to the avoidance of such tasks. Overall, poor emotion regulation strategies are related to procrastination via two mechanisms. ...
The current scientific literature lacks studies on the relationship between problematic internet use (PIU) and procrastination, especially regarding the mediating mechanisms underlying this relationship. The present study examined the association between procrastination and PIU, as well as determining the mediating roles of tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. The conceptual model was tested using data collected from 434 Iranian college students. The participants completed a number of psychometric scales assessing procrastination, PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression. Structural equation modeling was used to test the hypothesized model. Results showed that PIU, tolerance for ambiguity, and suppression were positively associated with procrastination, and that there was a negative association between reappraisal and procrastination. Moreover, the mediation analysis indicated that tolerance for ambiguity, reappraisal, and suppression fully mediated the association between PIU and procrastination. However, it is also possible to interpret the results as suggesting that PIU is unimportant as a predictor for procrastination once mediators are controlled for.
... Sebagian besar pelajar di Amerika Serikat menunjukkan apabila prokrastinasi menjadi salah satu masalah besar yang ada (Ferrari dkk., 1995). Banyak penelitian yang menyebutkan mahasiswa menyebut diri mereka sendiri melakukan perilaku prokrastinasi dengan menunda mengerjakan tugas dan menggunakan sepertiga aktivitas sehari-hari mereka lebih sering untuk tidur, membaca atau menonton televisi (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Pychyl & Sirois, 2016). Berdasarkan penelitian oleh Muyana (2018) dari total subjek 229 mahasiswa, terdapat 3 mahasiswa yang memiliki prokrastinasi akademik yang tinggi, 161 mahasiswa berkategori prokrastinasi tinggi, dan 65 mahasiswa yang memiliki prokrastinasi rendah, dan tidak ada subjek yang memiliki prokrastinasi sangat rendah. ...
Tujuan dari penelitian ini adalah untuk mengetahui pengaruh fear of failure dan motivasi berprestasi terhadap prokrastinasi akademik mahasiswa yang sedang mengerjakan skripsi atau tugas akhir. Partisipan penelitian ini merupakan mahasiswa program sarjana dari berbagai perguruan tinggi di Indonesia dengan jumlah 101 partisipan. Pengumpulan data menggunakan metode survei dan alat ukur yang digunakan adalah Performance Failure Appraisal Inventory (PFAI) (27 aitem; α=0,900), Academic Motivation Scale (16 item; α=0,794), Skala Prokrastinasi Akademik (14 item; α=0,734) yang semuanya telah dimodifikasi. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan nilai signifikansi 0,156 (p>0,05) dan nilai koefisien determinasi sebesar 0,037 artinya sebesar 3,7% fear of failure dan motivasi berprestasi memengaruhi prokrastinasi akademik. Kesimpulannya tidak terdapat pengaruh yang signifikan pada fear of failure dan motivasi berprestasi terhadap prokrastinasi akademik mahasiswa yang sedang mengerjakan skripsi.
... (Zeenath & Orcullo, 2012). Temuan lain mendukung hasil penelitian di atas, yaitu tingkat task-aversiveness (ketidaksenangan terhadap tugas) yang tinggi akan diikuti dengan prokrastinasi akademik yang tinggi pula (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). ...
School is a part of learning environment that affect in forming student’s academic behavior including academic procrastination. Academic procrastination is delay either in initiating or completing academic assignments that lead to failure. Academic procrastination can be affected by school environment. The school environment is perceived differently by each student. The student’s perception of aspects having, loving, being, and health tend to be aspect that lead to the school satisfaction, also known as the school well-being.
This research aimed to determine the relationship between school well-being and academic procrastination on student 10th grade of State Madrasah Aliyah. Population in this research was the student of State Madrasah Aliyah 1 and State Madrasah Aliyah 2 Banjarnegara. Cluster random sampling consisted of 224 students was used by researcher. This research used both the Academic Procrastination scale (rix = 0.92) and School Well-Being scale (rix = 0,84) that has been tested on 107 students.
Product moment correlation revealed that correlation coefficient (rxy) of -0.477 which indicates that there is a negative relationship between well-being and the school academic procrastination. It indicates that the higher school well-being, the lower the academic procrastination and conversely, the lower the school well-being, the higher the academic procrastination.
... Students avoid working on assignments which make them feel uncomfortable. They delay less when assignments are perceived as interesting and include clear instructions (Akerman & Gross, 2005), and more often delay assignments perceived as dreary, frustrating and vague (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Nordby, Klingsieck & Svartdal, 2017). Studies have found a strong correlation between being deterred by an assignment and procrastinating in the face of it (Wilson & Neguyen, 2012). ...
This qualitative study examines academic procrastination among Israeli Master of Education students writing their theses. The majority of the the participants (80% of the 145) reported behaving differently on this task than on other assignments. One of the primary factors influencing procrastination derives from the complexity of the assignment. Considering the research literature describes tight relationships between academic procrastination and academic achievement, one surprising finding concerns the fact that respondents saw no relationship between their procrastination and their final grade. A gap was found between students' self-perception and their actual performance. Approximately 75% of the students perceive themselves as academic procrastinators, but in actuality nearly half of them completed the assignment on time. The starting date was found to be significant. Students who immediately began work upon receiving the assignment strongly tended to submit it on time. Students who did not begin early completed the project later than the scheduled date, if at all. Practitioner Notes Practitioner Notes 1. There are challenges to responding to student procrastination 2. Procrastination has a direct effect on student achievement 3. There is a gap between students' self-perception and their actual performance. 4. The complexity of the assignment has an effect on procrastination
... Procrastination is associated with poor levels of academic self-efficacy and self-esteem, high levels of examination and social anxiety, stress, and sickness, and goal avoidance behavior [12]. Procrastination has also been linked to low grades [13], high boredom [14], greater ineffectiveness, poorer use of problem-solving skills, and poor class performance [15]. ...
Academic procrastination among university students is a common problem. The authors examined the prevalence, reasons, areas, and effects of academic procrastination in selected higher education institutions in the Amhara Region, Ethiopia. We also examined whether academic procrastination varied with respect to the institutional category and gender of the student. 323 students sampled from three universities, using a stratified sampling technique, completed the questionnaire. In a concurrent mixed-methods study, both qualitative and quantitative data are integrated starting from data collection through conclusion. The results indicate that nearly 80 percent of the students are procrastinators to varying degrees, of which half always procrastinate due to poor time management skills, lack of planning for academic activities, laziness, and stress. The results also showed that procrastination happens irrespective of gender and institutional realities and results in not only academic failure but also affects student affective and emotional behavior. Finally, it is suggested that students are expected to improve their time management practices to minimize negative effects of the delay. It is also suggested that universities shall include such activities in their student support systems as counseling and training on specific areas that students procrastinate most.
... Similarly, Whitney also took advantage of online tools in order to avoid doing tedious calculations necessary for a project. Sometimes steps like this are enough to deter people from ever even beginning a project, even those that are passionate about what they have started [8]. Hence, using computers to avoid tedious work can be important to helping quilters achieve fnished quilts, or return to abandoned projects. ...
... Working on aversive tasks refers to a situation when individuals try to accomplish tasks they perceive as unpleasant (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000). For instance, searching for spelling mistakes in a long text may be perceived as relatively unrewarding but still requires sustained attention. ...
When conceptualizing work performance as requiring self-control, scholars often employ a resource-depletion perspective. However, this perspective neglects the role of self-control motivation and self-regulation strategies. In this diary study, we examine self-control motivation (viz. motivation to control impulses) and depletion at the beginning of work and at midday as predictors of afternoon task performance. Additionally, we investigate morning aversive tasks as an antecedent of increased depletion and decreased self-control motivation. Further, we examine the role of self-regulation strategies (organizing, meaning-related strategies, self-reward) for maintaining and improving performance when depleted or low in self-control motivation. Data from a 2-week diary study with 3 daily measurements (N = 135 employees; n = 991 days) was analyzed. Multilevel path modeling showed that self-control motivation at the beginning of work and depletion at midday predicted afternoon task performance. We found that self-reward in the afternoon counteracts the negative relationship between depletion and task performance. Further, we found an indirect effect from morning aversive tasks on task performance via depletion at noon buffered by afternoon self-reward. Organizing and meaning in the afternoon were positively related to afternoon task performance. Findings suggest that self-control motivation is important for task performance, in addition to low depletion. Moreover, results highlight that self-regulation strategies are beneficial for task performance.
... When individuals are confident in their ability to enact appropriate actions to obtain desired outcomes, they are more likely to persist, enjoy, and succeed in a task (Bandura, 1982). Past research found that perceived choice reduces the perceived task aversiveness and stress of performing effortful tasks (Blunt and Pychyl, 2000). When people find the task less aversive, they may have stronger confidence to manage it. ...
Past research suggested that when individuals feel that it is their free choice to perform a task, they are more likely to succeed. However, little has been known about the effect of perceived choice of self-control and the psychological processes underlying the benefits of this perception in everyday contexts. To fill this gap, a 7-day experience sampling study (115 college students and 1,725 reported episodes of self-control) was conducted to test whether confidence in sustaining the current self-control activity (expectancy) and perceived value of current self-control (value) could mediate the link between perceived choice and success in the current self-control activity. The results of multilevel analysis suggested that the perceived choice can boost self-control success by increasing expectancy and value of self-control. These findings add mechanistic understanding of the effect of perceived choice on self-control success.
... Procrastination can be considered as a result of cognitive impairment, these problems are not related to abilities or level of intelligence, but procrastinators have difficulties in perception and adequate assessment of time (Fetiskin, 2002). The relationship with the emotional sphere was revealed in the course of research on procrastination: 1) with the fear of failure and neuroticism; 2) with impulsivity (Blunt, Pychyl, 2000). ...
The article actualizes the problem of psychological research features of procrastination, and definition of its influence on formation of professionalism at student's age. The psychological analysis of the concept of "procrastination" is carried out, the essence and specifics of procrastination development in student age are investigated, the level of procrastination development in student age and psychological mechanisms of its influence on formation of professionalism are investigated. The following methods were used in the study: theoretical methods (analysis of scientific and methodological literature of noctive and foreign authors in psychology); empirical methods (Scale of assessment of the need for achievements of Yu. Orlov; Methods of research of volitional self-regulation A. Zverkov, E. Eidman; Melbourne decision-making questionnaire (adaptation of T. Kornilova, S. Kornilov); Scale of procrastination for students S. Ley; Methodology "Self-assessment organization"; Questionnaire "Control over action" Yu. Kulya; Temporary Perspective Questionnaire (ZTPI) Zimbardo; Questionnaire "Integral job satisfaction" N. Fetiskin, V. Kozlov, G. Manuilov). The experimental base of the study were students majoring in 053 "Psychology" of Donetsk National University named after Vasyl Stus (n = 92 people) aged 18-22 years.
... These behaviors seem to be more frequent in people working from home 8 , and they are associated with worse perceived performance, lower job satisfaction, and higher levels of work-related exhaustion and/or Burnout Syndrome [19][20][21][22] . Procrastination is related to an aversion to less pleasurable tasks and duties 23 . It represents a growing and expressive work-related problem with a prevalence of around 20% in workers before the pandemic 17,24 . ...
Objective:
To investigate burnout and procrastination in a sample of Brazilian workers during the COVID-19 pandemic according to their current work mode.
Methods:
This cross-sectional study used data from an online survey conducted in 2020: 435 workers were included. The Copenhagen Burnout Inventory and the Irrational Procrastination Scale were used to access burnout and procrastination respectively.
Results:
There was no difference between workers working from home (WFH) and at face-to-face work regarding burnout symptoms. However, the WFH group had higher levels of procrastination. Clinically significant levels of burnout were associated with being female, increased childcare load and living with children under 12 years old.
Conclusions:
WFH may have more advantages than disadvantages in ideal conditions. However, work-life imbalances seem to be a key aspect regarding distress among workers WFH, especially in women with small children.
... The assumption of the Model that emotional distress is a cause of procrastination finds support in the argument of Sirois (2014) and Tice, Bratslavsky and Baumeister (2001) that procrastination could be caused by the experience of feeling emotionally distressed, as a strategy to restore positive mood. The literature indicates that task aversiveness is a relevant predictor of procrastination (Blunt & Pychyl, 2000;Ferrari, Johnson, & McCown, 1995;Pychyl & Sirois, 2016), which is corroborated by Steel's (2007) meta-analysis, when it identifies a moderate association between procrastinating and being averse to specific tasks (r=0.40) and averse to generic everyday tasks (r=0.40). In addition, there are arguments that allow interpreting task aversiveness as the cause of procrastination. ...
Procrastination as an intentional delay of personal tasks in spite of anticipating negative consequences as a result is a widespread behavior, particularly among young adults. Previous research points to a reduction of procrastinatory tendencies across the adult lifespan; it is unclear to date which mechanisms underlie this decrease of procrastination behavior. Given evidence of fear of failure strongly influencing younger adults to postpone the start or delay of intended actions, as well as a possible decrease of fear of failure with increasing age, this study set out to explore a potential mediating effect of fear of failure on procrastination. A total of 197 participants, aged 18 to 90 years, took part in this study via online questionnaires. Statistical analyses showed that procrastination behavior decreased across the adult lifespan. Higher levels of fear of failure were linked to more procrastination behavior. A mediation analysis indicated that the relationship between age and procrastination was mediated by fear of failure. Results are discussed in terms of theoretical and practical implications.
Detection and treatment of clinically relevant forms of procrastination would be greatly facilitated by diagnostic criteria as formulated for psychological disorders in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual (DSM-5). In the present article, the steps for deriving and validating diagnostic criteria for pathological procrastination are described. In an online survey of a random sample of N = 10,000 German university students, 990 answered 13 items derived from the attempts in the literature to define procrastination, the Aitken Procrastination Inventory (API) and the Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9). A subset of six items related to the first factor onset delay of the API was selected by Best Subset Multiple Regression (BSMR). A latent class analysis (LCA) of these six items sorted the students into six clusters. A cluster of pathological procrastinators (10%) was separated from the clusters of less impaired habitual , average , and occasional delayers . In addition, a cluster of unconcerned delayers (10%), with strong procrastination tendencies but little personal disadvantages, and a small cluster of fast performers (2%) emerged. The pathological procrastinators differed from all other clusters significantly on nine of the 13 items. They were older, had studied longer but had fulfilled less of their study obligations and were more depressed. The answer options of the six questions were collapsed into two categories ( procrastination feature present for at least half a year or absent ). These criteria were used for the clinical diagnosis of pathological procrastination. For a diagnosis, two fixed criteria ( delaying important tasks needlessly and strong interference with personal goals ) plus at least two of four additional criteria ( time spent procrastinating , time pressure , physical and psychological complaints , below performance potential ) must be met. This diagnostic rule captured 92% from the cluster of pathological procrastinators and 10% of the habitual delayers , but no one from the remaining clusters. Using these diagnostic criteria for clinical diagnosis and intervention decisions will facilitate the comparison and integration of the results from future studies of procrastination.
Academic procrastination is one of the main problems students encounter during studying. It affects their mental health, academic performance, and even everyday activities. A lack of time management was once thought to be the cause of procrastination. Procrastination, however, has been linked to mood control, according to recent studies. Decision-making is also a factor that is influenced by emotion or a person’s affect. The present study aims to find whether decision-making and affective styles influence academic procrastination among Indian students. The participants (N = 211) who are currently studying any discipline in a regular mode and who are between the ages of 17 to 30 years (mean = 21.10 & SD = 2.168) were selected using purposive sampling, and data was collected online using Academic Procrastination Scale, General Decision-Making Style Instrument and Affective Style Questionnaire. Data were analyzed using Pearson correlation, along with multiple regression analysis. Results found a significant inverse correlation between rational decision-making and academic procrastination and a weak inverse correlation between adjusting affective style and academic procrastination. A significant positive correlation between avoidant decision-making and academic procrastination was also found. Through regression analysis avoidance, decision-making has been found as a positive predictor of academic procrastination along with rational decision-making, and spontaneous decision-making as negative predictors. No significant correlations were found for academic procrastination with intuitive, dependent, spontaneous, concealing, and tolerating styles. The current results contribute to the existing literature on academic procrastination and the development of effective strategies to reduce academic procrastination by managing unhealthy decision-making styles.
Background: The relationships between procrastination and psychological well-being represent an important issue in the everyday life of university students. Empirical evidence suggests that the more the university students adopt procrastinating behaviors, the more their levels of psychological well-being are reduced. Using the affective profiles model as the framework, this chapter focused on (1) the differences in procrastination and psychological well-being among Italian university students, (2) the association between procrastination and well-being, and (3) the association of these variables to average grades in exams. We expected that students with self-fulfilling and high affective profiles would obtain higher scores in psychological well-being and lower scores in procrastination compared to students with self-destructive and low affective profiles.Method: A sample of 270 university students (222 females) answered to the Italian versions of the Positive Affect and Negative Affect Schedule, the General Procrastination Scale, and the Psychological Well-Being Scales. As instructed by Norlander and colleagues (2002), students were categorized in the four affective profiles: self-fulfilling (high PA, low NA), high affective (high PA, high NA), low affective (low PA, low NA), and self-destructive (low PA, high NA). In addition, data regarding average grades in exams was also collected. All data were collected during the second semester of the 2019–2020 academic year, that is, the period of COVID-19 pandemic emergency, through the Microsoft Teams platform.Results: Students with a self-fulfilling profile scored higher in eudaimonic well-being and in the factor “getting tasks done on time” than those with any of the other profiles. Conversely, students with a self-fulfilling profile scored lower in the factor “tendency to postpone tasks” than students with the other affective profiles. Procrastination and eudaimonic well-being were strongly negatively related in the whole sample and within each type of affective profile. Moreover, university students who reported the highest grades in exams reported higher levels of psychological well-being.Conclusions: This study allowed us to deepen the knowledge of the connection between procrastination and psychological well-being in relation to students’ own affective profile. The results underline that autonomy, personal growth, and environmental mastery are the most relevant dimensions in this association.KeywordsProcrastinationAffective profilesPsychological well-beingUniversity students
Group work can increase individual effort, performance, and positive affect, if group members perceive their own contribution as indispensable for the group product. A vignette methodology was applied to investigate whether group work may also reduce procrastination. The vignettes described a typical academic assignment, while varying the task structure (individual work vs. conjunctive group work vs. additive group work) and group member ability (high vs. low). For each vignette, student participants (N = 443) provided ratings on their perceived indispensability, procrastination of the assignment, and affect. When group member ability was high, procrastination was lower in additive group work as compared to individual work. When group member ability was low, procrastination was lower in conjunctive group work as compared to both individual work and additive group work. As predicted, perceived indispensability mediated the difference in procrastination between conjunctive and additive group work. Moderation analyses further revealed that the effects were more pronounced for high trait procrastinators. Further, both types of group work led to increases in task-related positive affect as compared to individual work. By demonstrating the relevance of group work as a social factor, the results
should be useful for the extension of existing programs targeting procrastination, and may inspire measures for preventing procrastination by changes in the study environment.
El objetivo principal es presentar una escala de procrastinación que tome en cuenta los factoresmentales y emocionales que influyen en un estudiante al momento de procrastinar. La Escala deMotivos para Procrastinar (EMP) es una prueba psicológica destinada a medir los niveles de procrastinacióntomando en cuenta los factores detrás de esta en estudiantes universitarios. Su usoestá orientado para reconocer patrones de procrastinación y si estos tienen algo que ver con unadesregulación emocional. Los resultados mostraron que este test cuenta con la fiabilidad y valideznecesaria para ser aplicado en muestras de estudiantes universitarios de Santa Cruz de la Sierra.Este test debe ser tomado como una herramienta para identificar los factores que motivan estepatrón desadaptativo.
With the development and popularization of communication technology, massive amounts of information have brought great challenges to how people receive and process information. In this environment, people have begun to exhibit typical negative behaviors, such as forgetting to process the information, delaying replies, and reading without replying. Negative use behavior refers to the non-active and non-interactive behavior taken by users in an attempt to resist using information systems. To explore users’ negative use behavior of instant messaging software, this study extracts characteristics of the negative use behavior through semi-structured interviews, constructs a conceptual model based on stimulus-organism-response (SOR) theory, and uses a structural equation model (SEM) to verify the proposed hypotheses. The results reveal that information overload, task load, and time pressure have a positive effect on individual information anxiety and psychological resistance. Information anxiety and psychological resistance have a positive effect on individual passive attention and delayed reply. We also found that perceived utility negatively mediates the relationship between individual perceptions and delayed reply. This study collects data from China with a cross-sectional design. Future research should include other countries, different online platforms and longitudinal methods to examine negative use behavior. The research conclusions present suggestions for operators to optimize software functions and users to improve multiple information literacy.
Esta investigación tuvo como objetivo general, establecer la relación entre procrastinación
y autoeficacia académica en los estudiantes del nivel secundario del Colegio Simón
Bolívar de Tarapoto, 2018. El diseño de estudio fue no experimental, de tipo descriptivo
correlacional. La muestra fue de 117 estudiantes, que pertenecen al 4° y 5° de secundaria
del colegio en mención. Los instrumentos empleados fueron: la Escala de Procrastinación
Académica (EPA) de Busko adaptada por Álvarez (2010) y la Escala de Autoeficacia,
basada en la teoría de Bandura, adaptada por Alegre (2013).
Los resultados mostraron que la dimensión de procrastinación que predomina es la
cognitiva con 44.4%. El nivel de autoeficacia que prevalece para la mayoría de estudiantes
(38.5%) es “Alto”. Finalmente, el coeficiente de correlación de Rho de
Spearman demuestra que existe una correlación inversa significativa entre procrastinación
académica y autoeficacia (r=-,350**, p= 0.00), lo que da como resultado que, a mayor
procrastinación académica será menor la autoeficacia en los estudiantes de 4° y 5° de
secundaria del Colegio Simón Bolívar de Tarapoto, 2018.
Procrastination is the irrational delay of an intended task and is common among students. A delay can only be defined as procrastination when it is voluntary, the action was intended but not implemented, and the delay is accompanied by subjective discomfort. Established scales of procrastination cover mainly behavioral aspects but have neglected the emotional aspect. This inaccuracy concerning the construct validity might entail misconceptions of procrastination. Accordingly, we developed and validated the Behavioral and Emotional Academic Procrastination Scale (BEPS), which covers all aspects of the definition of procrastination. The 6-item scale measuring self-reported academic procrastination was tested in three studies. Study 1 ( N = 239) evaluated the psychometric qualities of the BEPS, indicating good item characteristics and internal consistency. Study 2 ( N = 1,441) used confirmatory factor analysis and revealed two correlated factors: one covering the behavioral aspect and the other reflecting the emotional aspect. Measurement invariance was shown through longitudinal and multigroup confirmatory factor analyses. Study 3 ( N = 234) provided evidence for the scale’s convergent validity through correlations with established procrastination scales, self-efficacy, and neuroticism. The BEPS thus economically operationalizes all characteristics of academic procrastination and appears to be a reliable and valid self-report measure.
It was aimed in this study to reveal the reasons of physical education teacher candidates' for procrastination and their levels of academic procrastination. A mixed-method design was used in the study. 664 students participated in the quantitative part of the study, while 307 students participated in the qualitative part. In the research, semi-structured interview form was used as a qualitative data collection tool and Academic Procrastination Scale (APS) was used as a quantitative data collection tool. In addition, a personal information form was created to obtain the information of the participants. Reasons for academic procrastination were asked in analyzing the qualitative data, and the answers were subjected to content analysis. T-test, ANOVA, and post hoc test statistics (Tukey HSD) were performed in the analysis of the quantitative data which showed normal distribution. It was determined in the study that reasons for leaving academic duties and responsibilities to the last minute stemmed from factors related to individuals themselves, educational elements, and the environment. The participants' procrastination, effective use of time, and total APS scores were determined to be at the medium level, effective use of time and total APS scores of the male students were determined to be higher than the average of female students' scores, and the procrastination, effective use of time, and total APS scores of those who perceived their grade point average as low were determined to be higher. The findings of the study show that the participants sometimes left their school-related assignments to the last minute; however, they still sometimes fulfilled their academic duties and responsibilities regularly.
The main purpose of this study is to examine the effect of group counseling program aimed at reducing academic procrastination based on reality therapy for secondary school students on academic procrastination. In this study, this concept which is important for each level of the education system, was examined specifically for high school students and it was aimed to reduce procrastination behaviors by raising awareness about procrastination behaviors. Participants determined in the experimental and control group in the study were selected among 218 students studying at the Anatolian High School in Şahinbey District of Gaziantep in 2020-2021 academic year. Personal Information Form and Academic Procrastination Scale were applied to 218 students at 9th, 10th and 11th grades. Then, the students who wanted to participate in the study voluntarily were determined. Along with verbal consent, written consent was obtained from the participants by using the “Individual Interview Informed Consent Form” and “Parent Consent Form”. Then, among the students who scored one standard deviation above the average score obtained from their answers to the academic procrastination scale, they were assigned to two groups, one experimental group an one control group, by drawing lots. It was ensured that there were 10 participants in each group. 8 weeks after the end of the 8 week group counseling program, a follow-up test was conducted to determine the permanence. In this study, Academic Procrastination Scale Cronbach Alpha reliability coefficient was found as .86. According to the results of this study, it was seen that the psychoeducation program developed based on Reality Therapy had an effect on reducing the academic procrastination of high school students in the experimental group. The academic procrastination posttest score averages of the experimantal group participants participating in the group counseling program are significantly lower than the pretest mean scores.
Keywords: Academic procrastination, reality therapy, high school students, group guidance
Procrastination is a widespread phenomenon that has been extensively studied but about which a clear and integrated picture is still lacking, as reflected in the multiplicity and diversity of its definitions, causes and consequences. In addition, its examination
in everyday life has been somewhat overlooked. The aim of this paper is to further the understanding of procrastination, first by providing an overview of its various definitions, causes, and consequences. Using a qualitative approach, we then provide an in-depth descriptive account of procrastination episodes retrospectively reported by six participants from the general population in diverse situations of their daily life, focusing in particular on the definitions, causes, and consequences of procrastination behaviours. Finally, this descriptive account of procrastination is discussed in terms of a dimensional, multifactorial, and integrative approach.
H ακαδημαϊκή αναβλητικότητα φαίνεται ότι επηρεάζεται και από μη γνωστικούς παράγοντες, όπως οι συναισθηματικές ικανότητες και τα κίνητρα μάθησης. Σκοπός της μελέτης ήταν η διερεύνηση της σχέσης ανάμεσα στην ακαδημαϊκή αναβλητικότητα, στη συναισθηματική νοημοσύνη και στην ακαδημαϊκή κινητοποίηση. Οι συμμετέχοντες ήταν 108 προπτυχιακοί φοιτητές του τμήματος Δημοτικής Εκπαίδευσης του Πανεπιστημίου Δυτικής Μακεδονίας. Συμπλήρωσαν ερωτηματολόγιο με τις κλίμακες Procrastination Assessment Scale for Students, Wong and Law Emotional Intelligence Scale και Academic Motivation Scale. Τα αποτελέσματα ανέδειξαν αρνητική σχέση ανάμεσα σε όλες τις ικανότητες συναισθηματικής νοημοσύνης και στην ακαδημαϊκή αναβλητικότητα και επιπλέον αρνητική σχέση ανάμεσα στην αυτόνομη κινητοποίηση και στην ακαδημαϊκή αναβλητικότητα. Ειδικότερα, η κατανόηση των συναισθημάτων του εαυτού, η χρήση των συναισθημάτων για ενίσχυση της επίδοσης και η εσωτερική ρύθμιση προβλέπουν χαμηλότερα επίπεδα ακαδημαϊκής αναβλητικότητας. Τα αποτελέσματα της έρευνας υποστηρίζουν τις ευεργετικές επιδράσεις της συναισθηματικής νοημοσύνης και της αυτόνομης κινητοποίησης στην ακαδημαϊκή αναβλητικότητα και θα μπορούσαν να συμβάλουν στον τρόπο με τον οποίο τα πανεπιστημιακά τμήματα οργανώνουν το πρόγραμμα σπουδών τους αλλά και στην ανάδειξη του αντικειμένου σπουδών από τους ίδιους τους πανεπιστημιακούς δασκάλους, ώστε να ενισχυθούν οι ακαδημαϊκές επιδόσεις των φοιτητών.
Technology has enriched our lives in more ways than we can imagine. Inventions like the television have completely changed the way we receive information and entertain ourselves. Technology is necessary, but it does not always have a positive influence on modern life. This issue of the negative impact of television has emerged within the last decade due to the impressive pace of technology. Young people have very easy access to television and thus spend much time watching shows rather than doing productive work, which leads to procrastination. In our study, we conducted a survey amongst the students of Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), India and analyzed the relationship between television watching habits and procrastination with respect to four variables. The results show that frequent procrastination due to television watching depends on various factors, such as gender, age group, TV watching hours, and prioritization of television over assignments and examination.
Procrastination remains an omnipresent phenomenon impeding especially students' academic performance and well-being. Preliminary findings suggest that procrastination emerges due to dysfunctional emotion regulation efforts to regulate aversive emotions. This study's objective was to clarify whether the enhancement of general adaptive emotion regulation skills reduces subsequent procrastination. For the purpose of this study, data from a two-armed randomized controlled trial (RCT) with (N = 148) university students, comprising an active intervention (IG) and a passive wait-list control (WLC) group, was collected. Participants of the intervention group were provided with an online emotion regulation training over a period of 9 weeks. The results showed that the enhancement of general emotion regulation skills significantly reduced subsequent procrastination behavior within the IG as compared to the untreated WLC. Moreover, subsequent mediation analyses revealed that the reduction of procrastination was significantly mediated by the increase in general ER skills. The present results suggest that trainings which enhance general ER skills are an appropriate measure to reduce procrastination behavior among university students. The practical value of ER training interventions, particularly for student populations, is discussed.
The article describes a study on the topic “Aspects of the manifestation of academic procrastination in 1st year university students in the context of a stable worldview”, which was carried out by the authors of this article. In the context of this study, academic procrastination is considered as periodic systematic postponement of academic assignments accompanied by negative emotions and conditions, which can lead to a decrease in academic progress. The authors analyzed other definitions of procrastination presented in the literature and identified possible causes of procrastination. The aim of the research was to study aspects of the manifestation of academic procrastination in 1st year students and emotional states accompanying procrastination. Accordingly, the research object was the 1st year students of the Southern Federal University. The study used both already known methods (Test of meaningful life orientations by D. A. Leontyev, General level of procrastination for students by C. H. Lay) and a questionnaire compiled by the authors. Even though the results of the study are based on the subjective experience of students, they are quite informative in the context of studying the specific aspects of academic procrastination. They also revealed the division of students into chronic and situational procrastinators.KeywordsAcademic procrastinationAcademic assignmentsUniversitySustainable worldview
Procrastination is thought to be affected by trait-based and by situational, or task-specific determinants. Situational and task-specific influences on students' procrastination behavior have rarely been studied. Most research has examined trait-based individual differences in students' general procrastination tendencies. This study used an adaptive experience sampling approach to assess students' (N = 88) task-related perceptions of ambiguity and their situation-specific procrastination behavior during exam preparation six times a day for seven days (n = 3581 measurements). Results revealed that 30% of all intended study sessions were procrastinated. The risk that study sessions were procrastinated increased with students' task-related ambiguity perceptions. Individuals' average risk of procrastinating study sessions was further predicted by their procrastination tendency and conscientiousness assessed at baseline. The findings suggest interventions that promote students’ ability to self-regulate but also modify tasks and instructions. Further implications and suggestions for future research are discussed.
The personal project is proposed as a new unit of analysis for the study of personality in its social, physical and temporal context. A sequential model of personal projects is proposed in which the major stages of project inception, planning, action, and termination are described in detail and related to dimensions of individual differences. A new methodology for assessing personal project content and structure is introduced, including techniques for assessing interproject impact and linkages with values and actions. The relevance of a projectanalytic approach to recent issues in environmental psychology is discussed. It is proposed that personal projects methodology might serve as a coupling device between the fields of personality and environmental psychology.
Using B. R. Little's (see record
1983-26972-001) method of assessing ongoing personal projects (PPRs), 72 college students rated their PPRs on dimensions including task aversiveness and likelihood of failure and rated the extent to which they spent adequate time on each PPR. At 3, 6, and 12 wks later, Ss reported on adherence to PPR schedules and completed a trait procrastination scale. Trait procrastinators spent less adequate time on short-term PPRs than nonprocrastinators. Compared with low procrastinators, high procrastinators spent less adequate time on PPRs more likely to succeed and more adequate time on PPRs more likely to fail. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the frequency of 342 college students' procrastination on academic tasks and the reasons for procrastination behavior. A high percentage of Ss reported problems with procrastination on several specific academic tasks. Self-reported procrastination was positively correlated with the number of self-paced quizzes Ss took late in the semester and with participation in an experimental session offered late in the semester. A factor analysis of the reasons for procrastination Ss listed in a procrastination assessment scale indicated that the factors Fear of Failure and Aversiveness of the Task accounted for most of the variance. A small but very homogeneous group of Ss endorsed items on the Fear of Failure factor that correlated significantly with self-report measures of depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, delayed study behavior, anxiety, and lack of assertion. A larger and relatively heterogeneous group of Ss reported procrastinating as a result of aversiveness of the task. The Aversiveness of the Task factor correlated significantly with depression, irrational cognitions, low self-esteem, and delayed study behavior. Results indicate that procrastination is not solely a deficit in study habits or time management, but involves a complex interaction of behavioral, cognitive, and affective components. (16 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The focus of this chapter is on the course of action, which is understood to be a temporal, horizontal path starting with a person's desires and ending with the evaluation of the achieved action outcome. The phenomena of choosing an action goal, initiating the appropriate actions, and executing these actions are assumed to be situated in between. This comprehensive perspective conceives of the course of action as a number of consecutive, distinct segments or phases. It raises questions concerning how people choose action goals, plan and enact their execution, and eaaluate thek efforts. The concept of "mind-set" is employed to find answers to these questions in terms of the cognitive processes or orientations that allow for easy completion of the different action phases.
Assume that you have decided to accomplish a personal wish or desire that has been on your mind for quite some time. Should you go ahead and plan the execution of behaviors that will eventually lead to your desire? Or would planning only be a waste of time, as you already feel highly committed to act and ready to go? Would passively waiting for a good opportunity to get started not be sufficient? As planning might not add anything to the commitment implied by your decision, the time and effort devoted to planning might be unnecessary. The present chapter focuses on this issue: Does planning promote the willful implementation of a person's goals and thus provide volitional benefits? My colleagues and I believe that planning helps to alleviate crucial volitional problems of goal achievement, such as being too easily distracted from a goal pursuit or giving up in the face of difficulties when increased effort and persistence are needed instead. The conceptual analysis of this question relies on ideas that have evolved around the model of action phases (Heckhausen & Gollwitzer, 1987). In particular, we use two different but related concepts to understand the processes by which planning unfolds its beneficial effects on goal achievement: "implemental mind-sets" (Gollwitzer, 1990) and "implementation intentions" (Gollwitzer, 1993).
Personal projects are extended sets of personally relevant action, which can range from the trivial pursuits of a typical Tuesday (e.g., “cleaning up my room”) to the magnificent obsessions of a lifetime (e.g., “liberate my people”). They may be self-initiated or thrust upon us. They may be solitary concerns or shared commitments. They may be isolated and peripheral aspects of our lives or may cut to our very core. Personal projects may sustain us through perplexity or serve as vehicles for our own obliteration. In short, personal projects are natural units of analysis for a personality psychology that chooses to deal with the serious business of how people muddle through complex lives (Little, 1987a).
Procrastinating in routine life tasks was investigated in university students (N = 314) by administering self-report measures of the phenomenon and various personality tests. Two conceptually independent aspects of procrastination—when one performed the task and how one handled scheduling tasks and adhering to schedule—were found to be highly correlated. Procrastination was greater on tasks regarded as unpleasant or as impositions, and to a lesser extent on tasks requiring skills the respondent did not believe he or she possessed. The phenomenon was inversely related to self-regulation, time-related factors of Type A behavior pattern, and life satisfaction, in men only. The findings were discussed in relation to broad concepts of cognitive appraisal, self-regulation, and coping with stress.
Female college students (N = 112) completed a test battery of personality scales and performance tasks at home over four consecutive evenings, under one of eight combinations of the following experimental conditions: Schedule Source (experimenter versus self) × Scheduled Starting Time (strict versus lenient) × Plausibility of the Experiment. Delay in starting, summed over four evenings, constituted the measure of behavioral procrastination. This measure was moderately correlated with high test anxiety scores and low self-regulation. Procrastination was exacerbated when subjects were permitted to schedule the time of their expected completion of the test battery. Significant interactions of specific experimental conditions and specific personal traits demonstrated the situational requirements for trait-behavior relationships to emerge. Findings supported the internal consistency and construct validity of the behavioral procrastination measure. The practical and heuristic applications of a stimulus-organism-response (S-O-R) design and the theory-coordinated choice of experimental manipulation and corresponding organismic variable are recommended for future investigations of procrastination.
Even when goals are self-generated, they may not feel truly "personal," that is, autonomous and self-integrated. In three studies (one concurrent and two prospective), we found that the autonomy of personal goals predicted goal attainment. In contrast, the strength of "controlled" motivation did not predict attainment. Studies 2 and 3 validated a mediational model in which autonomy led to attainment because it promoted sustained effort investment. In Study 3, the Goal Attainment Scaling methodology was used to provide a more objective measure of goal attainment, and additional analyses were performed to rule out expectancy, value, and expectancy x value explanations of the autonomy-to-attainment effects. Results are discussed in terms of contemporary models of volition and self-regulation.
According to McClelland’s classic theory of motivation (McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, & Lowell, 1953), a moderate discrepancy between an individual’s goals and her/his current achievements is the motivating source for subsequent efforts to approach those goals. Although the model claimed that large discrepancies resulted in a decrease of motivation, I tend to believe that scientists are sometimes motivated even by extremely large discrepancies between their goals and their achievements. When Heinz Heckhausen decided to pick up the line of research initiated by Jack Atkinson (1957), he created the perfect conditions for generating an inexhaustible source of motivation for his own subsequent research activities and those of his students. This motivational potential derived from the vast discrepancy between the simplicity of Atkinson’s structural model and the complexity of Heckhausen’s process-oriented visions of a future theory of motivation. Having been directly exposed to both sides of this discrepancy during my years at Michigan and Bochum, I might have experienced even more impatience about the discrepancy between aspirations and achievements in motivation research than my colleagues there. Each of us felt the need to transcend the rigid limitations of expectancy-value theories of motivation and each of us reduced the goal discrepancy in a different way, as many chapters in this volume testify.
focuses on goals that specify what a person is typically trying to do / examples are "trying to overcome shyness with strangers," "avoiding being dependent on others," and "making others feel good about themselves" / these goals, which cannot be achieved by a single course of action, are enduring and recurring / calls these goals "personal strivings" / proposes that they are, like other personality attributes, relatively stable over time and consistently expressed in a variety of situations / [discuss] how personal strivings affect a person's subjective well-being / argues that it is not the actual fulfillment of these goals that is critical, but the kind of strivings people hold, how they frame them, and, most importantly, how they handle the conflicts between them / suggests that the negative relation between conflict and subjective well-being may be mediated by the conflicted individual's failure to solicit and utilize social support
argues that creative integrations of personal projects may reverse the negative effects of conflict / through the creative integration of agentic (power) and communal (intimacy) strivings, the generative individual is able to achieve a reconciliation between power and intimacy / points out that certain personality traits (e.g., neuroticism) and implicit beliefs regarding the incompatability of goals may account for both the generation of conflict and the individual's potential for resolution / observes low subjective well-being in individuals who let their goals stand unrelated next to each other / argue that the experience of subjective well-being needs more than the possession of and progression toward important life goals / rather, people need to integrate separate goal strivings into a coherent Gestalt or philosophy of life (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research in the field of personality psychology has culminated in a radical departure. The result is "Personality Psychology: Recent Trends and Emerging Directions." Drs. Buss and Cantor have compiled the innovative research of twenty-five young, outstanding personality psychologists to represent the recent expansion of issues in the field. Advances in assessment have brought about more powerful methods and the explanatory tools for extending personality psychology beyond its traditional reaches into areas of cognitive psychology, evolutionary biology, and sociology. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Procrastination is a stress- and deadline-related phenomenon. Its forms are (a) delaying initiation of necessary tasks, and (b) perseveration on some aspect of a task. It follows from the structure of a situation rather than from purposeful design. Its likelihood increases with increase in the number of choice points, the amount of cognitive restructuring necessary, and the amount of stress at the choice point. Perseveration is more likely for task subcomponents that require less cognitive restructuring and are less stressful. Long-term consequences of the behavior are ignored but the procrastinator continues to maintain that choice is possible, sometimes at the expense of other desirable diversions. The self-image of the procrastinator deteriorates as he/she feeels less in control of behavior. S. Milgram's obedience experiments are interpreted in this framework. (9 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
explore the use of the project analytic perspective to examine the daily pursuits of adolescents and to develop a line of argument about self-identity and the nature of alienation in adolescents
personal projects and action theory
focus on a specific dimension of meaning in PPA [Personal Projects Analysis] (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Affective correlates of procrastination were examined through experience-sampling. 45 undergraduate students carried electronic pagers for 5 days preceding an academic deadline. Students were paged 8 times daily. At each signal, the participants indicated what they were doing, extent of procrastination and affective state. Contrary to previous research, procrastination was not found to be correlated with either positive or negative affect. Participants' appraisals of their tasks when paged revealed that they procrastinated on unpleasant, stressful and difficult tasks, while engaging in activities that were significantly more pleasant. Specious rewards, self-regulation and the apparent short-term benefits of procrastination are discussed in relation to these findings and as a basis for counseling intervention. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on personal goals in relation to subjective well-being (SWB) typically involves appraisals of these goals on a number of appraisal dimensions. In this study, we examined how dimensional specificity affects predictions of SWB. Two studies were conducted. In the first, 19 doctoral candidates were interviewed with respect to their personal projects. Using a grounded-theory approach to the interview transcripts, 11 context-specific dimensions were identified: time pressure, time conflict, procrastination, anxiety, guilt, financial stress, uncertainty, social support, passion, commitment and positive effects on mood. These dimensions were then used in a second study of 81 doctoral students who completed a questionnaire package including: Personal Projects Analysis (PPA), the NEO Personality Inventory, and SWB measures. Regression analyses revealed that the context-specific PPA dimensions identified in Study 1 accounted for unique variance in perceptions of life satisfaction and provided a more detailed perspective on doctoral students' stress and coping resources. The results of the two studies are discussed in terms of the Personal Action Constructs now being used in studies of the conative aspects of well-being.
This paper considered three studies designed to examine procrastinatory behavior. In Study I, a general form (G) of a true-false procrastination scale was created. This form was based on an earlier version of the scale containing parallel forms A and B. Procrastination was positively related to measures of disorganization and independent of need-achievement, energy level, and self-esteem. High scorers on the procrastination scale were more likely to return their completed inventory late. Procrastination was unrelated to grade-point average (R = −10). In Study II, subjects completed Form G of the procrastination scale and a variation of Little's (1983) Personal Projects Questionnaire. Based on ratings of their personal projects, procrastinators and nonprocrastinators were distinguished in a number of ways, foremost being the nonprocrastinator's more positive response to the project dimension of stress and the procrastinator's greater sensitivity to how enjoyable the project was in terms of time spent. In Study III, after completing a personality inventory, air-passengers awaiting their flight departure were asked to take an envelope with them and to mail it back on a designated date. Procrastinators were less accurate in doing so than were nonprocrastinators. Various aspects of procrastinatory behavior were discussed, including a reconsideration of the defining of the construct.
The purpose of this research was to examine the relation between state orientation, proneness to boredom and procrastination as proposed in Kuhl's theory of action (Kuhl, 1994a). The findings from two studies are reported. Based on data collected from 143 undergraduate students on the Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1994b), study 1 revealed arousal, avoidance and decisional procrastination to be positively related to state orientation. Results of study 2 (n = 120) demonstrated proneness to boredom to be positively related to state orientation, arousal procrastination and decisional procrastination. Overall, this research provides support for a link between proneness to boredom, state orientation, and procrastination. The results are discussed in terms of self-identity and time perception.
Coherence and congruence-based measures of personality integration were related to a variety of healthy personality characteristics. Functional coherence was defined as occurring when participants' "personal strivings" (R.A. Emmons, 1986) help bring about each other or help bring about higher level goals. Organismic congruence was defined as occurring when participants strive for self-determined reasons or when strivings help bring about intrinsic rather than extrinsic higher level goals. Study 1 found the integration measures were related to each other and to inventory measures of health and well-being. Study 2 showed that these goal integration measures were also related to role system integration and were prospective predictors of daily mood, vitality, and engagement in meaningful as opposed to distracting activities.
The relationships among five aspects of academic procrastination--behavioral delay, personal upset about the delay, task aversiveness, task capability, and the desire to reduce behavioral delay--were investigated in 10th-grade Israeli students (N = 195). Upset about delay was weakly related to delay itself, and--unlike delay--was strongly related to perceived capability to perform academic tasks and to the desire to change delaying behavior. Students delayed more on academic tasks labeled unpleasant than pleasant, were neutral in between, and were correspondingly more upset about the former than the latter. They more frequently acknowledged reasons for academic procrastination that were less threatening to their self-image (e.g., problems in time management) than reasons that were more threatening (e.g., lack of ability). Interest in reducing delay is related more to self-perceived ability to handle tasks than to time spent procrastinating or reasons given for procrastinating.
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Level of molarity, project cross impact and resistance to change in personal projects systems
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Personal projects and well-being: happiness and meaning: on doing well and being yourself
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