No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the author.
Cognitive Load Theory, Learning Difficulty, and Instructional Design
Abstract
This paper is concerned with some of the factors that determine the difficulty of material that needs to be learned. It is suggested that when considering intellectual activities, schema acquisition and automation are the primary mechanisms of learning. The consequences of cognitive load theory for the structuring of information in order to reduce difficulty by focusing cognitive activity on schema acquisition is briefly summarized. It is pointed out that cognitive load theory deals with learning and problem solving difficulty that is artificial in that it can be manipulated by instructional design. Intrinsic cognitive load in contrast, is constant for a given area because it is a basic component of the material. Intrinsic cognitive load is characterized in terms of element interactivity. The elements of most schemas must be learned simultaneously because they interact and it is the interaction that is critical. If, as in some areas, interactions between many elements must be learned, then intrinsic cognitive load will be high. In contrast, in different areas, if elements can be learned successively rather than simultaneously because they do not interact, intrinsic cognitive load will be low. It is suggested that extraneous cognitive load that interferes with learning only is a problem under conditions of high cognitive load caused by high element interactivity. Under conditions of low element interactivity, re-designing instruction to reduce extraneous cognitive load may have no appreciable consequences. In addition, the concept of element interactivity can be used to explain not only why some material is difficult to learn but also, why it can be difficult to understand. Understanding becomes relevant when high element interactivity material with a naturally high cognitive load must be learned.
... CLT, proposed by Sweller (1988), explains how the cognitive load experienced by learners affects their learning performance. According to CLT, cognitive load arises from the limited capacity of a learner's working memory (Sweller, 1994). Key concepts within CLT include elements, schemata, and element interactivity. ...
... Schemata can be retrieved and broken down into elements based on the learner's prior knowledge. Element interactivity describes the degree of interaction between elements, which can be adjusted by modifying the material to have higher or lower levels of interactivity (Sweller, 1994). Task complexity is measured by the number of interactive elements in the material 4 (Chen et al., 2023). ...
... Cognitive load is categorized into three types: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane (Sweller, 1994). Intrinsic cognitive load is related to the complexity of the information being processed and is linked to element interactivity (Sweller, 1994). ...
Aim/Purpose: This study aims to analyze the cognitive load experienced by secondary school students in Biology within m-learning environments and its impact on learning performance. Background: Cognitive load has become a critical issue that schools need to address to ensure students can excel in their learning without being overwhelmed. While principles for reducing cognitive load have been extensively discussed in previous research, studies focusing on mobile learning (m-learning) for Biology among students in Malaysia remain limited. This study employed Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) to address this gap. By integrating four key principles—segmenting and pretraining, modality, redundancy, and seductive details—into m-learning tasks using the Successive Approximation Model (SAM1), this study aimed to reduce cognitive load and enhance students’ learning performance. Methodology: This study employed a quantitative approach using a randomized pre-test/post-test quasi-experimental design. Students were randomly assigned to either an intervention group (20 students) or a control group (18 students). The study was conducted over four weeks, comprising a three-week intervention period with a one-week interval. Statistical analyses, including independent t-tests, Mann-Whitney U tests, Quade ANCOVA, and Pearson correlation, were used to analyze the quantitative data. Qualitative feedback was analyzed using thematic analysis. Contribution: This study contributes by providing instructional design strategies that incorporate principles for reducing cognitive load in mobile learning for Biology. It also demonstrates how Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) and Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) can be effectively integrated. By examining the cognitive load experienced by secondary school students in m-learning environments, the study offers valuable insights for designing and implementing effective instructional strategies. Identifying the factors influencing cognitive load enables educators to develop targeted interventions that enhance learning experiences and optimize performance. Findings: The study indicated that the adoption of mobile learning tasks not only significantly reduced cognitive load but also corresponded to enhanced learning performance. Participants engaging in m-learning experienced lower cognitive load, which was positively associated with superior performance in learning tasks, emphasizing the beneficial impact of mobile learning on cognitive load management and academic achievement. Recommendations for Practitioners: Educators and instructional designers are encouraged to incorporate cognitive load principles into their instructional strategies and learning material design to enhance student performance. Policymakers should consider similar strategies to reduce the cognitive load for students in educational settings to improve learning outcomes. Recommendation for Researchers: Researchers are encouraged to replicate the design elements used in this study when developing mobile or online learning materials to reduce learners’ cognitive load and enhance their performance. They should also consider expanding this research to other topics, subjects, and educational levels to provide further insights and validate the effectiveness of these design elements across different contexts. Impact on Society: The findings of this study have significant implications for society, particularly in addressing mental health and stress issues among the younger generation. By identifying strategies to manage cognitive load and reduce stress in online learning environments, the study provides valuable insights for educators, parents, and policymakers. These strategies can help mitigate the adverse effects of cognitive overload, improve learning experiences, and promote better mental well-being. Additionally, the study’s recommendations can guide the development of more effective and supportive learning environments, contributing to overall societal well-being and academic success. Future Research: Future studies could explore cognitive load beyond the intrinsic and extraneous components focused on in this study, examining additional elements within the frameworks of cognitive load theory and multimedia learning. In addition to using the cognitive load questionnaire, exploring other measurement tools could ensure a more comprehensive understanding of cognitive load. Future research might also consider enriching mobile learning tasks by diversifying subject matter and conducting longitudinal cohort studies. Such studies could provide valuable insights into memory retention over extended periods, aiding in optimizing mobile learning frameworks and enhancing educational experiences.
... Cognitive load theory (CLT) posits that human working memory has limited capacity and that instructional designs should manage cognitive load to facilitate learning [37,44]. In chemistry education, students often struggle with the cognitive demands of processing multiple representations, such as chemical symbols, formulas, and structures [28,45]. ...
... The design of the AR module, informed by cognitive load theory and multimedia learning principles [34,44], likely contributed to its effectiveness. The use of scaffolding, feedback, and segmentation helped manage intrinsic cognitive load, while the integration of 3D models and information reduced extraneous load. ...
Augmented reality (AR) has emerged as a promising technology for supporting chemistry education by providing interactive and engaging visualizations of abstract concepts. This study investigated the effectiveness of an AR-based learning module developed using the Blippar platform for teaching molecular geometry to high school students. A quasi-experimental design was employed, with 49 students assigned to either the AR intervention or traditional instruction. Pre-and post-tests, surveys , and interviews were conducted to assess students' conceptual understanding, spatial reasoning, perceptions, and experiences. The results showed that the AR group significantly outperformed the control group in terms of measures of content knowledge and spatial ability. Students reported high levels of satisfaction, engagement, and intention to use AR for learning chemistry. The design features and instructional strategies that facilitated effective learning with AR were identified , including scaffolding, multiple representations, and real-world applications. However, technical challenges and the need for integration with other pedagogical approaches were also noted. The findings contribute to the theoretical and empirical foundations of AR in chemistry education and provide practical implications for the design and implementation of AR-based learning experiences in this domain. Future research should investigate the long-term impacts, individual differences, and collaborative aspects of learning with AR in chemistry.
... Cognitive Load Theory (CLT) posits three types of cognitive load: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane (Klepsch & Seufert 2020;Sweller 1988;Sweller et al. 2019). Intrinsic load is inherent to the learning material and depends on element interactivitythe complexity arising from the number of elements and their interactions that must be simultaneously processed (Sweller 1994;. Extraneous load results from suboptimal instructional design that does not facilitate learning, thereby imposing unnecessary cognitive demands (Sweller et al. 1998;. ...
... High element interactivity increases intrinsic load and can make material difficult to learn and understand (Sweller 1994). Extraneous load becomes particularly problematic under high intrinsic load conditions, as it can overwhelm the learner's cognitive resources; conversely, reducing extraneous load may have little effect when intrinsic load is low (Leppink et al. 2013;Sweller et al. 2011). ...
This study examines how morphological complexity affects cognitive effort in neural machine translation (NMT) post-editing across six languages. Analysis of the DivEMT dataset shows that morphologically richer target languages like Ukrainian and Turkish require more editing time, keystrokes, and frequent pauses, indicating higher cognitive demands. Vietnamese, despite simpler morphology, also showed high cognitive effort, suggesting other factors like syntax influence processing load. Mean Size of Paradigm (MSP) analysis confirmed Ukrainian and Turkish’s high morphological complexity compared to isolating languages like Vietnamese. Higher error rates in morphologically rich languages demonstrate increased editing needs. While user perceptions varied, the data reveals that greater linguistic distance correlates with higher cognitive effort in NMT post-editing, showing typological divergence impacts beyond morphology alone.
... All effect sizes were interpreted using Cohen's guidelines [61] (pp. [79][80][81]. ...
... This effect (termed expertise reversal) has been observed in previous studies [77,78]. In the context of cognitive load theory, which describes how working memory load can affect a learner's ability to process and retain information [9,79], expertise reversal refers to when an instructional strategy that is beneficial for novice learners becomes ineffective or even detrimental to more experienced learners. This distinction can be understood by comparing intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load-essentially, what is considered "intrinsic" for a novice can become "extraneous" for those with more background knowledge. ...
Understanding how student characteristics affect learning in General Chemistry can influence the pedagogical strategies employed by instructors. Previous studies have investigated the effects of characteristics including prior knowledge, math ability, and motivations on course performance. Student characteristics can also influence study strategies employed by students. Few studies, however, have focused on the role of language and reading comprehension skill in learning in chemistry. This work explores the effects of prior knowledge and reading comprehension skill on learning from reading texts about two chemistry concepts. Linear regression analyses were utilized to establish relationships between predictors and test scores after reading to determine whether reading comprehension skill influenced learning gains after reading texts. A meta-analysis of four large-scale studies showed that prior knowledge and reading comprehension correlated with post-test scores and that an effect called expertise reversal may help low prior knowledge students close the post-test score gap if they read texts with certain readability characteristics. However, our findings also suggest that texts with similar readability characteristics can hinder the learning of those with higher prior knowledge.
... linked to cognitive load [7]. Prior work exploring cognitive load in computing and programming tasks found that experiencing a reduced cognitive load tends to improve student learning [21,32]. ...
... Our findings mirror the core principles of Cognitive Load Theory [32], which emphasise the role of well-structured instruction in reducing cognitive load to facilitate successful learning. The lowered cognitive load induced by DI and PF in the respective tasks after instruction likely contributed to the learning outcomes discussed in Section 5.1.3. ...
Productive Failure (PF) is a learning approach where students initially tackle novel problems targeting concepts they have not yet learned, followed by a consolidation phase where these concepts are taught. Recent application in STEM disciplines suggests that PF can help learners develop more robust conceptual knowledge. However, empirical validation of PF for programming education remains under-explored. In this paper, we investigate the use of PF to teach Python lists to undergraduate students with limited prior programming experience. We designed a novel PF-based learning activity that incorporated the unobtrusive collection of real-time heart-rate data from consumer-grade wearable sensors. This sensor data was used both to make the learning activity engaging and to infer cognitive load. We evaluated our approach with 20 participants, half of whom were taught Python concepts using Direct Instruction (DI), and the other half with PF. We found that although there was no difference in initial learning outcomes between the groups, students who followed the PF approach showed better knowledge retention and performance on delayed but similar tasks. In addition, physiological measurements indicated that these students also exhibited a larger decrease in cognitive load during their tasks after instruction. Our findings suggest that PF-based approaches may lead to more robust learning, and that future work should investigate similar activities at scale across a range of concepts.
... The feasibility of using EEG to tracking real-time cognitive load variations in VBL is investigated by examining the consistency between the EEG measures and the subjective ratings of real-time cognitive load variations using linear mixed models (LMM). To impose different amounts of cognitive load on learners throughout VBL, we explicitly manipulated two major types of cognitive load, that is, intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load, that can significantly influence the information processing during learning (Sweller, 1994;Sweller et al., 2019). Intrinsic cognitive load arises from the inherent complexity and interactivity of the information being processed. ...
... The influence of instructional design on cognitive load is a crucial topic in the field of teaching and learning (de Jong, 2010;Kirschner, 2002;Klepsch & Seufert, 2020;Sweller, 1994). In this study, we selected two major instructional factors, that is, content difficulty and narration speed, to manipulate intrinsic and extraneous load respectively. ...
Cognitive load is a critical internal state associated with learners' learning process and significantly influences learning outcomes. With the worldwide popularity of video‐based learning (VBL), tracking real‐time cognitive load variations becomes more and more important for the timely provision of adaptive learning support during the learning process. This study proposed and validated an electroencephalogram (EEG)‐supported approach to tracking real‐time cognitive load variations during continuous VBL. We recruited 108 healthy adult participants to watch a specially designed video lecture with a sequence of interconnected slides of equal length. EEG signals were continuously recorded throughout the session. The video lecture was designed with varying levels of content difficulty (ie, rated from 1 to 5) across slides and was narrated at three different speeds (ie, slow, normal and fast) to induce cognitive load variations. For each slide, the cognitive load was quantified using both subjective ratings (ie, self‐reported difficulty) and an EEG‐derived measure (ie, alpha power). Through linear mixed model analysis, we demonstrated the feasibility of using alpha power to track real‐time cognitive load variations during the continuous VBL process after controlling the effect of mental fatigue. This study provides a foundation for developing learning enhancement technologies that enable the timely provision of adaptive learning support in VBL.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic Video‐based learning has become a prevailing learning method for the current generation.
Tracking the internal learning state of learners is essential for the timely provision of adaptive learning support during the video‐based learning process.
Cognitive load is a critical aspect of internal learning state.
While EEG has been proven to be valuable in assessing average cognitive load of a task, few studies have investigated the feasibility of utilizing EEG to track real‐time cognitive load variations in a task.
What this paper adds An EEG‐supported approach was proposed to track real‐time cognitive load variations in video‐based learning.
A high consistency was found between subjective ratings and EEG‐derived measure of cognitive load.
The presence of mental fatigue exerted a significant impact on EEG‐derived measure of cognitive load.
Implications for practice and/or policy Generative AI can be leveraged to facilitate mass production of lectures required in the approach.
Real‐time tracking of cognitive load variations in video‐based learning enables the timely provision of adaptive learning supports.
Additional research is warranted to mitigate the effect of mental fatigue on real‐time tracking of cognitive load variations.
... Mathematics at the undergraduate level for engineering and science students is highly abstract; in this context, substantial mental activity is required to solve mathematical tasks [14]. Many factors influence task-solving processes and their difficulty levels in mathematics, and some of these factors are related to cognitive load theory [15]. This theory encompasses all widely accepted theories about how the human brain processes and stores information [16]. ...
... More precisely, the concept of cognitive load is related to the cognitive mechanisms that develop and could indicate difficulty levels during the resolution of a task. Cognitive load theory states that knowledge accumulated through learning processes is stored in long-term memory through schemas that organize it in a way that allows it to be remembered and used later in future learning processes [15]. According to this theory, learning develops through transforming and combining different schemas, leading to increasingly complex schemas. ...
This paper aims to assess the difficulty levels of mathematical tasks in relation to the appearance of unconscious patterns of thinking in students' cognitive processes that play a role in learning. The data analyzed using a mixed-methods approach was collected from a population of undergraduate engineering and science students enrolled in Calculus courses at the university while answering three questionnaires as part of their online class activities. Two criteria were used to find categories of difficulty levels: one subjective, given by an evaluation carried out by the subjects, and another behavioral, related to obtaining the correct answers. The relationships of these criteria with the appearance of these unconscious patterns of thinking were identified: a significant and strong correlation was noticed between the number of erroneous unconscious patterns detected and task difficulty levels determined by the percentage of correct answers, as well as a significant and strong correlation between task difficulty levels determined by the subjective evaluation and the number of these patterns recognized. Based on the results obtained, it can be stated that these unconscious erroneous patterns in students' reasoning about a mathematical concept are related to the index of the difficulty of a task and could be considered indicators of mental effort according to the cognitive load theory. The analysis showed the recognition of these unconscious patterns in students' cognitive mechanisms is relevant when solving mathematical tasks that require information processing at a higher level and could play a role in assessing the difficulty levels of a task related to the study of mathematical concepts in Calculus courses, which constitutes the main novelty of this study.
... In the following, we briefly refer to theoretical accounts that can provide explanations for the cognitive cost of multitasking with respect to text comprehension. Among them is the theory of cognitive load, which posits that when working memory (WM) becomes overloaded, cognitive functioning necessarily decreases (Sweller, 1994;Sweller et al., 2011). During the reading of a text, for instance, efficient WM is needed to process the content, which is integrated with our prior knowledge and transferred to long-term memory. ...
... That is, the two manipulated variables would not lead to a subjective impression of higher load on working memory, which means that the second concurrent reading task and the harder-to-read font were not perceived as imposing extraneous cognitive load on students. In contrast, according to Hypothesis 1b, both multitasking (Örün & Akbulut, 2019) and disfluency (Eitel et al., 2014, exp. 1) would have an independent negative impact on the perception of cognitive load (Sweller, 1994). Specifically, both variables would contribute to a subjective impression of overloaded working memory: multitasking because two tasks are carried out simultaneously (Örün & Akbulut, 2019) and disfluency because a harder-to-read font type is perceived as imposing extraneous load during reading, even when this is not actually the case (Alter et al., 2007). ...
... Cognitive load theory (CLT) focuses on human cognition and the limitations of short `term memory. Briefly, CLT seeks to appreciate the cognitive effort required to complete a learning task relative to the capacity of the short term memory (Sweller, 1988(Sweller, , 1994. CLT has developed to provide a framework for understanding practical implications for both the design of learning situations (sometimes called 'instructional design' or 'learning design') and the support and facilitation of learning (often called 'teaching'). ...
... CLT postulates that the short term memory has a limited capacity and exceeding this capacity may hinder learning (Chandler & Sweller, 1991;Sweller, 1988Sweller, , 1994. The theory attempts to resolve the issue through the development of instructional techniques that are designed to reduce the demands placed on the working memory and maximising the available resources of the working memory when processing information (Sweller, Van Merriënboer, & Paas, 1998). ...
This paper considers cognitive load theory (CLT) in the context of networked learning (NL). It aligns with NL practitioners' efforts to understand and eliminate barriers to learning in NL situations. The ideas presented are based on the premise that by recognising and either minimising or eliminating instances of unnecessary cognitive load in NL situations educators can improve learners’ abilities to acquire and develop schema and, in doing so, educators can support learning in NL situations. The presentation brings together current thinking in cognitive load theory and descriptions of key aspects of NL to identify and describe of potential instances of cognitive load experienced by networked learners.The paper is structured in three main sections: The first section provides the background to our exploration of CLT in the context of NL. It includes an overview of CLT and its development; an overview of NL; and a definition of the problem this paper seeks to address, namely, that NL situations include a number of instances of cognitive load which may not be present in other (e.g., face-to-face; on-campus) learning situations. The second section explores common features of NL and identifies potential sources of cognitive load in NL situations. It is organised according to key features of the 'architecture' of NL: the learning environment; learning tasks and learner activity. By identifying potential instances of cognitive load, the presentation provides a basis for, firstly, understanding cognitive load in NL; and, secondly, addressing it. Key sources of cognitive load referenced in this paper include the presentation of information in NL situations; the use of mediating technologies; the demands of managing information in connected environments; the load associated with technology-mediated social activity, including computer-mediated communication; the presentation of learning tasks; and the demands of 'learning to learn' in NL situations. The third section of the paper identifies a potential research agenda to guide further explorations of CLT in NL including: research into technical aspects of NL to improve the presentation of information and computer interfaces; research into the use of instructional design techniques sympathetic to CLT and specifically targeting NL and engagement tasks; research to understand learning to learn online in NL from a CLT perspective.
... There are three different types of WM load (workload) called: intrinsic, extraneous, and germane (Paas et al., 2010;Sweller et al., 1998). Intrinsic load is related to the complexity of the teaching material (Ayres, 2006;Sweller, 1994). Extraneous load is caused by students' cognitive activities which originate from the way in which the task is organized and presented to the students (by poor or inadequate design Cierniak et al., 2009;Sweller, 2020). ...
According to the theoretical frameworks and teaching practice, the constructs of the Technology acceptance model - TAM and the Cognitive load theory - CLT are in a close cause-and-effect relationship, and gaining insights into this issue is essential for educators. Our study aimed to examine continuous teaching intention (CTI) with emerging technologies (ET) through perceived usability (PUS), attitudes towards teaching (ATT) and perceived cognitive load (PCL) from the aspect of teachers’ perceptions. A survey research design using a cross-sectional survey technique was applied. The research involved 801 primary and lower secondary school teachers. Results showed that the TAM-CLT scale model is aligned and fits the overall sample well. In addition, teachers’ PUS can be a crucial factor in shaping ATT and CTI of ET because this construct positively influences these variables underlining the importance of designing user-friendly ET. However, our study reveals the lack of a significant negative relationship between teachers’ PCL and PUS, and the absence of mediation between PCL and CTI through PUS. These unexpected findings highlight the complexity of users’ experiences with ET and the need for a more nuanced understanding of the interplay between these constructs. One of the implications of our study refers to further investigation of the underlying mechanisms between PCL, PUS, and CTI. Other recommendations are stated in the discussion.
... Uma possível razão para issoé a quantidade de informação que o cérebro tende a processar por vez, sendo uma função limitada [Robins 2019]. A memória de trabalhó e essencial para a realização de tarefas cognitivas complexas, poisé onde as informações são temporariamente mantidas e manipuladas [Diamond 2013, Sweller 1994]. Segundo Miller [1956], capacidade da memória de trabalho foi considerada em torno de 7 ± 2 itens, o que significa que a maioria das pessoas pode processar entre cinco e nove elementos simultaneamente. ...
A avaliação da carga cognitiva em jogos é essencial para alinhar o design de interação à capacidade cognitiva do jogador, assegurando imersão e facilitando a aprendizagem. No entanto, a inclusão de elementos não contributivos, especialmente em contextos complexos como problemas de computação, pode prejudicar a aprendizagem. O objetivo deste estudo é investigar como a carga cognitiva influencia o design do jogo e a perspectiva dos jogadores. Para isso, um jogo sobre Problema da Mochila é analisado, ao qual utilizou-se o NASA-TLX e o MEEGA+ para avaliar as dimensões associadas ao esforço cognitivo de estudantes de cursos de computação do 3º ao 8º período. Resultados indicam que a carga cognitiva foi considerada moderada pelos estudantes, mas que ainda é desbalanceada em algumas fases, sugerindo a presença de elementos que causam sobrecarga cognitiva.
... Thought frameworks in the cognitive sciences, such as Kahneman's Dual-process theory (Kahneman, 2011), have greatly influenced various fields, including artificial intelligence. In this work, we draw ideas from another theory, less known in the community, the cognitive load theory (Sweller, 1994(Sweller, , 1988(Sweller, , 2010. According to this theory, three main factors influence the mental effort humans exert when solving a particular task or learning new information: intrinsic, extraneous and germane load. ...
... The fact that a stepwise introduction of changes led to less task execution time and (at the descriptive level) fewer adaptation errors indicates better adaptive performance compared to the introduction of changes all at once. The stepwise introduction of changes goes along with less information that must be processed simultaneously and, compared to an introduction all at once, a lower level of cognitive load (Sweller, 1994). From a long-term perspective, the stepwise introduction seems to be beneficial for adaptive performance, even though it takes more time until all changes are implemented. ...
The dynamics and frequency of change in today’s workplaces force organizations to address the question of how to create optimal conditions for facilitating adaptation to change. Identifying critical factors that affect performance and well-being in change situations can help answer this question. Given the need for applied research in this area, the aim of this paper is to investigate whether the way of change implementation has an impact on performance and well-being. Additionally, retentivity and specific self-efficacy as individual factors are exploratorily investigated. In an experimental study, seventy-one participants learned and trained specific manufacturing steps in a simulated production environment. Subsequently, they had to adapt the trained task execution as some of the previously learned manufacturing steps were subject to change. The changes were implemented a) either in a stepwise manner or b) all at once. The executed manufacturing steps were recorded, enabling the calculation of task execution time and classification of adaptation errors. The results of Mann-Whitney-U-tests showed that the stepwise introduction of changes led to significantly faster task execution time than the change introduction all at once. Additionally, descriptive statistics indicated fewer adaptation errors but higher frustration. Our exploratory analysis showed a significant negative relationship between retentivity and task execution time, as well as between specific self-efficacy and frustration. Stepwise change introduction seems to be beneficial for adaptation, even though emotional responses and individual factors must be considered.
... Cognitive load theory, formulated by Sweller, aims to understand the in uence of working memory capacity on learning. According to this theory, it is crucial to consider the cognitive load imposed on learners to optimize learning outcomes (Sweller, 1994). ...
We employed a mixed-methods approach to investigate the learning outcomes in programming education, comparing traditional classroom instruction with online learning settings. The study examines the educational achievement, contentment levels, and involvement of 120 engineering students at a university in Northern France by integrating quantitative and qualitative data. The ndings reveal signi cant correlations between the demographic characteristics of students and their level of interaction with teachers in both settings. Moreover, the study emphasizes a substantial discrepancy in understanding programming concepts between traditional classrooms and online learning environments. The thematic analysis elucidates each educational environment's merits (supervision, interaction) and drawbacks (a lack of follow-up). This research contributes to the existing information by providing novel insights into programming instruction. It emphasizes the importance of personalized support and instructional improvements to optimize student engagement and academic accomplishments. The ndings have practical implications that can aid educators, policymakers, and curriculum creators in enhancing programming instruction for students' achievement. Further research should explore other variables in uencing student accomplishment to fully understand the learning outcomes in programming education.
... Additionally, processing information to form beliefs about events can impose a cognitive load (Sweller, 1988(Sweller, , 1994, making individuals more insensitive to asymmetric events than to symmetric events (Choi et al., 2022;Wakker, 2010). Many economic experiments beyond trust and coordination games (e.g. ...
... E, por conseguinte, o engajamento dos estudantes (Salta et al., 2022). Entretanto, os tutores humanos têm limitações (Kim;Davis;Hong, 2022), isto é, dificuldades na análise de grandes volumes de dados, ou com elevadas cargas cognitivas (Sweller, 1994) e (Mayer, 2009). Ou seja, é difícil para um tutor humano realizar "busca ativa", acompanhar individualmente e em tempo real, as interações (mensagens enviadas, comentários, pedidos de ajuda, turno que estão disponíveis) de cada estudante no ambiente virtual de aprendizagem, especialmente em programas e cursos com muitos estudantes. ...
Abstract. This study addresses the difficulty of analyzing student engagement indicators in online teaching and learning activities. We analyzed the performance of different Machine Learning (ML) algorithms, combined with heterogeneous and homogeneous ensemble classifier strategies, in order to identify the most effective approaches in predicting student interaction levels. The results indicate that the Boosting ensemble algorithms with Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Decision Tree (DT) performed better, suggesting that this ML strategy can help identify indicators of engagement in e-learning activities. In this sense, the combinations of classifiers were applied for analysis and presentation of interaction indicators to support human tutors in promoting student engagement.
Resumo. Este estudo aborda a dificuldade de acompanhar indicadores do engajamento dos estudantes em atividades de ensino-aprendizagem on-line. Foi analisado o desempenho de diferentes algoritmos de Aprendizagem de Máquina (AM), combinados com estratégias de comitês de classificadores heterogêneos e homogêneos, para identificar as abordagens mais eficazes na previsão dos níveis de interação dos estudantes. Os resultados indicam que o comitê Boosting com os algoritmos Máquina de Vetor de Suporte (MVS) e Árvore de Decisão (AD) apresentaram melhor desempenho. Esta estratégia de AM pode ajudar a identificar indicadores de engajamento em atividades no aprendizado on-line. Neste sentido, as combinações dos classificadores foram aplicadas na análise e apresentação dos indicadores de interação para apoiar tutores humanos na promoção do engajamento estudantil.
... While the intrinsic load is immutable for a single trial, improving instructional design can reduce extraneous load and enhance experiment comprehension. Sweller (1994) emphasizes that well-designed instructional materials can mitigate extraneous cognitive load and facilitate better learning out-comes. For this article, we are speci cally interested in how cognitive load theory can be applied to instructional design to improve the clarity and effectiveness of instructions, thereby enhancing participants' comprehension and performance in economic experiments. ...
This study investigates strategies to enhance game form recognition within economic experiments, particularly focusing on the Becker DeGroot Marshak (BDM) method. The BDM method aims to elicit individuals’ subjective valuations of objects, yet challenges arise in participants’ comprehension and optimal decision-making. Drawing on cognitive load theory, this research proposes integrating output tables to facilitate participants’ understanding and decision-making in BDM experiments. A randomized controlled experiment was conducted with 129 participants from diverse academic backgrounds. Results reveal that participants exposed to output tables exhibited improved game form recognition and higher rates of optimal bidding. Gender and specialization analyses provided further insights into participant performance. These findings contribute to refining economic experimental methodologies and understanding cognitive influences on decision-making, aligning with principles of modality and divided attention in organizational behavior research.
... Cognitive load theory is a fi eld of educational psychology that deals with instructional design principles based on understanding human cognitive architecture. The latter includes permanent knowledgeeverything learnt, from isolated facts to complex concepts -within the long-term memory and the working memory which serves as a temporary storage of verbal and pictorial information that is currently in the focus of our attention [Sweller, 1994;Sweller, 2011]. Thus, learning may be defi ned as an e ective transfer of information from working memory to long-term memory [Baddeley, 2007]. ...
In contemporary society reliance on the Internet for work, study, or entertainment has become routine. This resulted in the daily consumption and processing of enormous amounts of information. Moreover, the educational system, in response to societal demands, has embraced digitalisation which has increased the cognitive load on students. This article delves into how the digital learning environment infl uences students' abilities to manage extensive amounts of information, focusing on the core components of cognitive load: long-term and working memory. According to cognitive load theory, long-term memory is essential for obtaining new knowledge as it should be based on background education and key educational skills. In contrast, working memory capacity is essential for the learning process. The study introduces the concepts of cognitive and organizational ergonomics, detailing the aspects each fi eld addresses. Cognitive ergonomics encompasses cognitive load, attention, and memory, correlating with perception and human-computer interaction. Organizational ergonomics, on the other hand, aims to foster collaboration, teamwork, and discipline through time-and task-management strategies. Further, the author merges them into the concept of digital instructional ergonomics, which is highly important for developing an e ective digital learning environment. The author provides recommendations on how to organise the digital learning environment following the principles of ergonomics.
... However, the implications of this research are limited, as splitting concepts apart can only be done to a certain degree without inhibiting learning. For many schemas, acquisition requires many interacting components to be considered concurrently[80]. ...
... Theories in computing education research have been characterized [29] as learning sciences and education research theoriessuch as "cognitive load theory" [44]-or as domain-specific theories of computer science knowledge-such as Nelson et al.'s "formal theory of program tracing knowledge" [30]. Our research is most directly related to the latter kind of theory, the foundational theory underlying programming languages [35,49]. ...
... Another factor that may have negatively impacted the learning performance outdoors was the higher physical effort by the ARLang group. A recent study analyzed electroencephalography (EEG) P3 measurements demonstrating that performing a task while walking induces higher cognitive load than when sitting down [59,60]. Social factors associated with public outdoor contexts could have played a role in impeding learning outdoors. ...
With recent computer vision techniques and user-generated content, we can augment the physical world with metadata that describes attributes, such as names, geo-locations, and visual features of physical objects. To assess the benefits of these potentially ubiquitous labels for foreign vocabulary learning, we built a proof-of-concept system that displays bilingual text and sound labels on physical objects outdoors using augmented reality. Established tools for language learning have focused on effective content delivery methods such as books and flashcards. However, recent research and consumer learning tools have begun to focus on how learning can become more mobile, ubiquitous, and desirable. To test whether our system supports vocabulary learning, we conducted a preliminary between-subjects (N=44) study. Our results indicate that participants preferred learning with virtual labels on real-world objects outdoors over learning with flashcards. Our findings motivate further investigation into mobile AR-based learning systems in outdoor settings.
... Intrinsic cognitive load: Cognitive load theory suggests that intrinsic cognitive load should be maximized to promote deep learning (Sweller, 1994). Intrinsic cognitive load refers to the cognitive load imposed by the complexity of the learning materials and is directly related to the learning objectives. ...
eLearning has become a widespread and integral part of modern education and training. A key aspect of effective eLearning is interactivity, which can enhance engagement, learning, and knowledge retention. This paper provides a comprehensive review of the research literature on the levels of interactivity in eLearning environments. The review examines different taxonomies and frameworks proposed to categorize and assess the various levels of interactivity, from low-level interactions such as clicking and scrolling, to more advanced interactive features like simulations, virtual reality, and collaborative learning tools. The paper also discusses the pedagogical benefits of increasing interactivity, as well as the design and implementation considerations for achieving optimal levels of interactivity in eLearning. Finally, the review identifies gaps in the current research and suggests future directions for studying the impact of interactivity on eLearning outcomes.
... To improve educational efficacy and efficiency, CLT can also help policymakers make decisions about selecting and applying AI tools. This will encourage the deployment of technologies that are consistent with cognitive load management principles (Sweller, 1994). The arrows indicate the influence flow between the different theories and their key concepts, highlighting the synergies and interdependencies in the theoretical framework. ...
This qualitative research study investigates the development of a comprehensive policy framework for integrating artificial intelligence (AI) and related tools in educational settings, specifically within the Schools Division of Taguig City and Pateros, Philippines. Using a phenomenological approach, the study examines perspectives from school administrators, teachers, and education stakeholders across Clusters II, III, and X to understand the delicate balance between AI utilization and academic integrity. The research aims to establish clear guidelines distinguishing between legitimate AI use and academic dishonesty, while addressing ethical considerations, implementation challenges, and long-term implications. Through in-depth interviews and structured observations, the study seeks to inform policy development that promotes responsible AI integration in education while preserving academic authenticity. This research is particularly relevant as educational institutions globally grapple with emerging AI technologies and their impact on teaching and learning processes.
... Cognitive Load Theory (Sweller, 1994): ...
This research explores the role of language games as an educational tool in developing vocabulary acquisition among secondary ESL (English as a Second Language) learners at Ak/Al-Irfan Ladies College, Pottuvil. The main goal of this research is to identify whether the collaborative language games can enhance vocabulary acquisition when compared to conventional methods of teaching, such as memorization by repetition and textbook-based learning. A mixed method research design was used to collect data for this study which includes both qualitative and quantitative data. The quantitative data was gathered using the results of pre-tests and post-tests with the aim of assessing the learner’s vocabulary acquisition before and after the classroom instruction. On the other hand, the qualitative data include questionnaires, interviews and focus group discussion with students which aid in gathering valuable insights such as their viewpoints, attitudes and experiences in terms of incorporating language games in the classroom settings. According to the findings of the research, it is clear that incorporating language games in classroom settings has a very positive impact on students’ performances in terms of acquiring vocabulary. This particular group of students not only improved their vocabulary skills but also, they were more active than the other group students when it comes to classroom activities. On the other hand, the students who were taught vocabulary using the traditional teaching methods showed less engagement in classroom activities and they were only exposed to a limited acquisition of vocabulary due to the use of conventional teaching approach. The study suggests that language games foster a more interactive and enjoyable learning environment, which contributes to the students' long-term vocabulary retention. The element of fun and competition inherent in these games appears to stimulate students' interest in learning, reducing the monotony often associated with traditional methods. Consequently, the research concludes that incorporating language games into ESL instruction can offer significant pedagogical benefits, making it a viable and potentially superior alternative to conventional vocabulary teaching methods.
... For example, understanding the concept of cognitive load-the amount of information that working memory can hold at one time-can help teachers avoid overwhelming students with too much information at once (Sweller, 1994). By breaking tasks into smaller, more manageable steps, teachers can reduce cognitive overload and enhance students' ability to process and retain information. ...
Understanding student interests, abilities, and limitations is fundamental to effective education. By recognizing these elements, educators can create personalized learning experiences that engage students and foster a love for learning. Interests are vital as they motivate students to participate actively in their education. When lessons are aligned with what students are passionate about, they are more likely to engage deeply and retain information. For instance, incorporating themes from students’ favorite hobbies or current trends can make learning relevant and exciting. Abilities encompass both the strengths and weaknesses of each student. Differentiated instruction, which tailors teaching methods to meet diverse needs, allows educators to challenge advanced learners while supporting those who may struggle. Regular assessments and observations help identify these abilities, enabling educators to adapt their approaches and provide appropriate resources. Limitations, whether they stem from learning disabilities, socio-economic factors, or emotional challenges, also play a critical role in shaping educational experiences. Understanding these limitations allows teachers to implement inclusive strategies that ensure all students can access the curriculum. Ultimately, a comprehensive understanding of interests, abilities, and limitations fosters a supportive learning environment. This holistic approach not only enhances academic achievement but also promotes self-esteem and resilience in students. By prioritizing these factors, educators can empower students to reach their full potential, equipping them with the skills and confidence needed for lifelong learning and success.
... Users have to interact with multiple objects and locations repeatedly to acquire comprehensive spatial knowledge. Such tedious and complex interaction may increase users' cognitive load and learning performance (Buchner et al., 2022;Sweller, 1994;Sweller et al., 2011). Moreover, the lack of a global spatial reference system may hinder users' ability to integrate the acquired metric information into a coherent mental representation of the space (Ishikawa & Montello, 2006). ...
... Experimental studies employing eye-tracking technology have shown that the presence of an on-screen instructor can lead to decreased fixation on the learning content (van Wermeskerken et al., 2018) and increased visual attention directed towards the instructor in videos (Pi & Hong, 2016). This shift in focus from the instructional material to the instructor diverts learners' limited working memory capacity (Fiorella & Mayer, 2018), increasing extraneous cognitive load, which diminishes the mental resources available for processing relevant information, particularly in complex learning tasks (Sweller, 1994). ...
English academic presentation (EAP) is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students. With the rapid development of desktop virtual reality (DVR), its application in language learning is worth exploring. The present study aimed to examine whether there is an improvement and difference in students' EAP by learning from the DVR with an in‐video pedagogical agent (PA) or an out‐of‐video PA. Adopting a between‐subject experimental design, a total of 64 students were randomly assigned to one of two group conditions depending on whether the PA was inside or outside the lecture video embedded in DVR. Participants' EAP performance, attention allocation and behavioural patterns were measured and analysed. As hypothesized, t‐tests, repeated ANOVA and lag sequence analysis showed that the participants who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA. Overall, our findings suggest that in a VR educational environment of video lectures, instructors should consider using an out‐of‐video PA to increase their social presence and improve students' learning experience.
Practitioner notes
What is already known about this topic EAP is an indispensable skill set of academic communication for university students.
PA is an effective social cue in video lectures to promote learning.
VR has been widely applied in language learning.
What this paper adds Reveals the relationship between the PA's positioning and the learners' EAP performance and deepens the understanding of the PA's positioning in video lectures of a DVR learning environment.
Provides empirical analysis of natural eye‐tracking during the video learning in DVR scene and EAP data during the experimental condition.
Students who learned from the DVR with an out‐of‐video PA showed better learning performance, less attention allocation on content and more frequent behavioural patterns than those with an in‐video PA.
Implications for practice and/or policy Designers are encouraged to use DVR with an out‐of‐video PA to enhance students' social presence and learning experience.
... The Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning (CTML) was conceptualized by Richard Mayer (1997, 2002 drawing upon various of cognitive theories, most notably Sweller's Cognitive Load Theory, which argued that effective instructions occur when learners' cognition is directly related to the learning resources (Chandler & Sweller, 1991). It also emphasizes that an overload of information in a learner's working memory can hinder the ability to comprehend, learn, and retain knowledge (Sweller, 1988(Sweller, , 1994(Sweller, , 1999(Sweller, , 2011van Merriënboer & Sweller, 2005). ...
This paper details the design and development of an immersive and self-guided Virtual Reality training system (iSGVRTS) for learning cleanroom microfabrication operations, with a specific emphasis on the photolithography process, within a college-level semiconductor laboratory curriculum. It presents the thorough construction of the iSGVRTS environment as well as the incorporation of integrated instructional methodologies. To assess the impact of the iSGVRTS intervention, pre-and post-tests were administered to evaluate learners' performance. The implementation of iSGVRTS yielded a notable enhancement for learners in laboratory operational proficiency, evidenced by improvements in task correct rates, reduction in procedural errors, and knowledge acquisition. Moreover, post-session interviews revealed learners’ reported increased confidence, a heightened sense of presence, manageable cognitive load, and positive feedback regarding the immersive learning experience.
... Salah satu kerangka teori yang relevan adalah teori beban kognitif (cognitive load theory) yang dikembangkan oleh John Sweller (1994). Teori ini berfokus pada hubungan antara arsitektur kognitif manusia dan desain instruksional, dengan premis utama bahwa pembelajaran efektif melibatkan pengelolaan beban kognitif intrinsik yang terkait dengan kompleksitas materi (Sweller et al., 2019). ...
Seiring dengan meningkatnya popularitas pemanfaatan alat-alat kecerdasan buatan generatif (Generative Artificial Intelligence) seperti ChatGPT dalam dunia pendidikan yang menjanjikan efisiensi dan pengalaman pembelajaran tanpa hambatan ("frictionless"), muncul pula perspektif kritis yang mempertanyakan dampaknya terhadap proses belajar-mengajar yang sesungguhnya. Artikel ini bertujuan untuk menganalisis secara teoritis pentingnya peran "friksi" atau hambatan dalam pembelajaran dan mengapa ia merupakan fitur esensial yang tidak dapat dihilangkan begitu saja dalam konteks pendidikan. Argumen utama yang diajukan adalah bahwa friksi, yang melibatkan upaya, alokasi waktu, dan penerapan pengetahuan sebelumnya, diperlukan agar pembelajaran yang bermakna dan berkelanjutan dapat terjadi. Melalui tinjauan literatur dari para pakar, kerangka teoritis dari pedagogi dan psikologi kognitif, serta diskusi implikasinya bagi para pendidik, artikel ini mengelaborasi bagaimana pendekatan kritis terhadap literasi AI yang justru menambah friksi dalam PROSIDING Vol.1 No.1 2022 SENTIKJAR 2 . sistem pembelajaran dapat memperkaya dan memperdalam proses belajar, alih-alih menghambatnya. Mempertanyakan dampak AI, menelaah keterbatasannya, mengeksplorasi bias yang terkandung, serta mendiskusikan aspek etisnya merupakan aktivitas yang dapat menstimulasi pemikiran kritis dan reflektif. Guru sebaiknya tidak hanya memburu efisiensi waktu melalui otomatisasi dan meniadakan friksi, melainkan memanfaatkan teknologi secara bijaksana sekaligus memperdalam keterlibatan siswa secara bermakna dalam proses pembelajaran.
... i. The intrinsic cognitive load describes the difficulty of a task itself and is often given by the element interactivity, which describes the connection of the elements of a task (Sweller, 1994). ii. ...
This study investigates the impact of different animation styles on learning outcomes in physics, with a focus on explanations of the seasons. Using a combination of pre-post performance tests and eye tracking, we compared animations featuring a presenter with pure animations without a person in the frame. The sample consisted of students from a seminar for prospective physics teachers (N = 32, mean age = 23.9, SD = 5.7). The results indicate that while both formats achieved high learning success, the pure animation significantly outperformed the presenter-inclusive format in terms of effect size and in attracting gaze to the key areas of interest (AOIs) essential for understanding the physics of seasons. Intriguingly, specific hand gestures in the animation with a presenter were shown to reverse this effect, substantially increasing gaze attention on relevant AOIs. These findings suggest that specific animation elements can enhance educational efficacy in physics. This understanding has the potential to improve educational animations in media but also traditional teaching in school or university.
... Referring to Tavakoli and Rezazadeh (2014), an argumentative writing task might impose more cognitive load on learners than a narrative writing task. This is particularly the case during CP stage (Franken and Haslett, 2002) as an argumentative task can elicit high content interactivity that requires student under the CP condition to synthesize much discrete information (Sweller, 1994). In such cases, it was likely for the students to feel concerned or even anxious when doing an argumentative task, which might, in turn, offset any potential advantages of CP. ...
Although many studies have investigated the differential effects of collaborative pre-task planning (CP), individual pre-task planning (IP), and no pre-task planning (NP) on EFL learners’ writing quality, none has explored such effects under the condition of combining IP with CP and whether such potential effects can be transferred to a new writing task. To bridge this gap, the study assigned 120 Chinese college learners to one of the four groups: CP group, IP group, IPCP group, and NP group. Two argumentative writing tasks were used in this study to collect the required data. To produce task 1, the learners in CP, IP, and IPCP groups were asked to do the relevant planning tasks before writing, while the learners in the NP group were required to write immediately. To explore learning transfer, one week after they produced task 1, the learners in all four groups were required to produce task 2, for which there was no planning time. The results showed that the learners under the CP condition composed writings with higher syntactic complexity than the learners under IP, IPCP, and NP conditions for both two tasks, with no such effects found for other measures of writing quality. Limitations, suggestions for future studies, and implications were discussed.
... Additionally, dealing with social risk factors can tax people's physical, emotional, and mental energy and add to their cognitive load, preventing them from participating or continuing in programs [78,79]. An overloaded working memory (high cognitive load) leads directly to difficulty learning [80], poor time management [81], and inappropriate or unresponsive parenting [82]. Therefore, addressing social risk factors prior to or concurrently with participating in early intervention or prevention programs such as a music enrichment program may promote better enrollment and completion rates. ...
Background: Emerging evidence suggests that low socioeconomic status (SES) home environments may play a role by promoting excess energy intake through a lack of access to non-food reinforcers. Because of the deleterious effects of SES-related disparities on child health and development, feasible and culturally acceptable interventions are urgently needed. Community-based music enrichment programs may be an ideal intervention strategy. Methods: In collaboration with a local non-profit organization and music studio, we conducted a pilot randomized controlled trial to assess the effects of a music enrichment program versus a play date control in a group of 9–24-month-old healthy infants (N = 16). The study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of Children’s Mercy Hospital Kansas City. This study is registered with clinicaltrials.gov (NCT05868811). Results: Overall, we found some intervention effects on the relative reinforcing value of food (RRVfood) and the home environmental enrichment measures (i.e., increased music use at home and the home language environment). Our intervention demonstrated large effects on the increased use of music at home. We did not find significant group differences in the RRVfood and home language environment, but some of the effect sizes were medium-to-large. Results also suggest that our intervention is feasible and acceptable. Parent feedback indicated that the intervention was well-liked and that the steps we took to help reduce barriers worked. Conclusions: Music enrichment programs may be a high-impact, low-cost strategy to address socioeconomic disparities.
... Additionally, understanding how learners perceive and estimate their mental workload while working with and without the BCI, is necessary for evaluating the learning experience. Perceived mental workload refers to the perceived mental effort required to complete the learning task and its impact on the experience (Hancock and Meshkati, 1988), where higher perceived mental workload translates into a less optimal learning experience (Sweller, 1994). Therefore, we hypothesize that (H1b) "neuro-adaptivity reduces perceived mental workload compared to the absence of neuro-adaptivity" (Figure 1). ...
Computer-based learning has gained popularity in recent years, providing learners greater flexibility and freedom. However, these learning environments do not consider the learner’s mental state in real-time, resulting in less optimized learning experiences. This research aimed to explore the effect on the learning experience of a novel EEG-based Brain-Computer Interface (BCI) that adjusts the speed of information presentation in real-time during a learning task according to the learner’s cognitive load. We also explored how motivation moderated these effects. In accordance with three experimental groups (non-adaptive, adaptive, and adaptive with motivation), participants performed a calibration task (n-back), followed by a memory-based learning task concerning astrological constellations. Learning gains were assessed based on performance on the learning task. Self-perceived mental workload, cognitive absorption and satisfaction were assessed using a post-test questionnaire. Between-group analyses using Mann–Whitney tests suggested that combining BCI and motivational factors led to more significant learning gains and an improved learning experience. No significant difference existed between the BCI without motivational factor and regular non-adaptive interface for overall learning gains, self-perceived mental workload, and cognitive absorption. However, participants who undertook the experiment with an imposed learning pace reported higher overall satisfaction with their learning experience and a higher level of temporal stress. Our findings suggest BCI’s potential applicability and feasibility in improving memorization-based learning experiences. Further work should seek to optimize the BCI adaptive index and explore generalizability to other learning contexts.
... The challenge in applying the FC approach to medical education is the large amount of information that courses must cover. Chunking content and course materials, i.e., presenting smaller subsets of information with fewer components, is a practical solution that reduces cognitive load by allowing students to better manage their working memory during instruction [7,72], so they can focus on understanding the content [73]. For additional useful strategies, van Merrienboer and Sweller [74] provided design principles that are applicable to the development and implementation of out-of-class and in-class instructional materials. ...
The role of a flipped classroom (FC) instructional method has been expanding in medical education. Despite recent interest in FC pedagogy, little is known about optimal FC implementation strategies in medical education and their impact on learning outcomes. This article aimed to outline the educational theories that guide the design of the flipped instruction method and review the relevant literature to provide evidence-based recommendations for planning, designing, developing, implementing, and evaluating FC instruction in medical education. The review incorporates evidence-based literature that highlights students’ performance outcomes and perceptions of the FC instruction method in medical education.
Purpose
This research explores the effects of combining argument mapping (AM) with translanguaging pedagogy on the argumentative writing abilities of third-year university English as a Foreign Language students (EFL) at a Thai university. The aim is to explore synergies between AM and translanguaging to enhance students’ argumentative writing skills and contribute to language education literature.
Design/methodology/approach
A sequential mixed-method research type, utilizing a single-group pre- and post-test design, was employed. About 27 third-year EFL university students participated in 13 sessions of AM with translanguaging to facilitate their argumentative writing tasks.
Findings
Quantitative results revealed a significant difference across development of writing content and development of writing coherence as manifested in their pre- and post-test scores. ANOVA showed significant differences in students’ quiz writing performances. Additionally, the participants perceived translanguaging as a normative and respectful practice, despite being EFL learners. Qualitative findings indicated participants embraced the use of AM with translanguaging, acknowledging its benefits in enhancing their writing tasks.
Originality/value
This study highlights the innovative approach of this integration, not only for improving argumentative writing skills but also for fostering cognitive and linguistic fluency, along with critical thinking skills. This contributes to language education literature, urging further exploration of AM with translanguaging in diverse educational contexts.
Many nonnative English-speaking undergraduates have a fear of reading English academic articles. This study was performed to explore whether cognitive load theory can be a useful guiding strategy to promote English article reading among Chinese medical undergraduates. The results showed that cognitive load theory can serve as the basis for an effective strategy to guide English medical education article reading activities among undergraduates in China, and students’ attitudes toward the reading activities were favorable.
El presente estudio se centra en dar respuesta a determinadas necesidades de aprendizaje que presentan nuestros estudiantes al enfrentarse a la traducción de un texto especializado en el ámbito biosanitario, tanto en el aula de Traducción Científico-Técnica como en la de Traducción Biosanitaria, con el fin de desarrollar una metodología que le permita adquirir un conocimiento experto básico sobre la materia abordada en el texto objeto de traducción. De esta manera, nuestro objetivo principal radica en el diseño de una metodología didáctica adecuada para instruir al educando en conceptos relacionados con la medicina que resultan necesarios para la correcta interpretación del texto en una lengua extranjera y su traslación a la lengua meta. Ante la imposibilidad de adquirir un dominio experto completo sobre una disciplina tan vasta, la tarea documental resulta esencial a este respecto. Sin embargo, la comprensión textual en el caso del discurso científico presenta una serie de particularidades, debido a su complejidad retórica, dificultad interpretativa y al bajo nivel de familiaridad del lector con este tipo de contenidos (Saux et al., 2015).
Ante el consenso científico sobre el empleo de elementos no verbales para mejorar la compresión y difusión del conocimiento, se estimó pertinente incluir en nuestra propuesta metodológica el empleo de recursos multimodales que fomentaran el procesamiento cognitivo de la información por parte del estudiante. En lo que respecta a la fundamentación teórica y didáctica sobre la que argumentar esta propuesta, establecimos como otro de nuestros objetivos, sustentar nuestro trabajo en los procesos cognitivos involucrados en la comprensión del texto, con el propósito de integrar los principios de la Teoría de la Carga Cognitiva (TCC) y la Teoría Cognitiva del Aprendizaje Multimedia (TCAM) a nuestra metodología pedagógica.
With operations in the built environment becoming increasingly data-rich (via Building Information Models and Internet of Things devices) and the rapid development of highly immersive environments, there are new opportunities for components of traditional “real-world” tasks to be undertaken in a “virtual” environment. However, an approach to compare both subjective (psychological) and objective (task-based) performance in real and virtual environments is rarely used in this context. This paper begins by introducing the industrial, technological, and psychological context of real-world and virtual tasks. A systematic review of the application of CAVE Automatic Virtual Environments (CAVEs) for “virtual” built environment tasks is conducted, and research gaps regarding the development of systems and comparison of task environments (CAVE and real-world condition) is identified. A theoretical framework to assess task performance is developed, and a novel practical experiment to compare participant(s) psychological and decision-making performance for an identical task in the real world and in a CAVE is proposed.
Purpose
This paper aims to investigate the impact of perceived variety on consumers’ online shopping cart abandonment (OSCA). It also discerns how e-tail format (single- vs multi-brand), the cognitive processing styles of consumers (System 1 vs System 2) and device type (mobile vs laptop) influence shopping cart abandonment asymmetrically.
Design/methodology/approach
Three studies were conducted. Data were analysed using Hayes’ Process macro.
Findings
Perceived variety increases the likelihood of OSCA via the mediation of cognitive load. The consumer is likely to experience a greater (lesser) cognitive load for a multi-brand (single-brand) e-tailer. System 1–oriented thinkers tend to experience lesser cognitive load, thus diminishing the effect of cognitive load on OSCA compared to individuals who rely on System 2 processing. Furthermore, the impact of perceived variety on cognitive load decreases significantly when a laptop is used rather than a mobile phone.
Originality/value
This paper establishes linkages between OSCA and choice overload literature to demonstrate how an excess of choice may be detrimental to e-retailers’ prospects and the asymmetries of single-brand vs multi-brand e-tail formats for this effect.
Purpose-This paper aims to investigate the impact of perceived variety on consumers' online shopping cart abandonment (OSCA). It also discerns how e-tail format (single-vs multi-brand), the cognitive processing styles of consumers (System 1 vs System 2) and device type (mobile vs laptop) influence shopping cart abandonment asymmetrically. Design/methodology/approach-Three studies were conducted. Data were analysed using Hayes' Process macro. Findings-Perceived variety increases the likelihood of OSCA via the mediation of cognitive load. The consumer is likely to experience a greater (lesser) cognitive load for a multi-brand (single-brand) e-tailer. System 1-oriented thinkers tend to experience lesser cognitive load, thus diminishing the effect of cognitive load on OSCA compared to individuals who rely on System 2 processing. Furthermore, the impact of perceived variety on cognitive load decreases significantly when a laptop is used rather than a mobile phone. Originality/value-This paper establishes linkages between OSCA and choice overload literature to demonstrate how an excess of choice may be detrimental to e-retailers' prospects and the asymmetries of single-brand vs multi-brand e-tail formats for this effect.
The study arises from a context in which many informal and formal experimental studies report the best practices of the use of instructional strategies in the flipped classroom learning in
different fields of studies. But none of the studies dedicated to reporting on the above represent the needs of the cohort of blended technology teachers. The success of flipped learning is based on the proper amalgamation of the elements included in the instructional framework, which has usually proved to be true. The premise underlying this study is that adopting of elements of
instructional framework shaping the effectiveness of instructional strategies in flipped learning of technology teachers. It could be fundamental to selecting of the implementation models
needed to facilitate the effective implementation of instructional strategies in flipped classroom learning technology teachers. This study stems out from the afore-said significant need to better
understand the effectiveness of instructional strategies in flipped learning of technology teachers.
Underpinning the study is an instructional framework consisting of ideas found in selecting of instructional strategies mainly in constructivist theory and predominant theories of learning. The review of relevant literature enabled the identification of two instructional strategies (Self-Directed Learning – SDL and Self-Regulated Learning) and subsequent two implementation models (Staged Self-Directed Learning Model – SSDL and COPES Topology) in flipped classroom learning. Thus, a non-randomized, quasi-experimental pre-test and post-test design with mixed-method research methodology was employed in the study context. It was privileged to study the major study question with two extreme cases found in the population – what is the most effective instructional strategy for technology teachers in flipped classroom learning? The effectiveness of the two selected instructional strategies was statistically tested in the first phase and the statistical power of the two implementation models was decided via two scales measured with the data derived from five rating Likert-scale questionnaires in the second phase.
The study added new insights into the instructional framework, proposed five norms for instructional activity selection in blended professional courses, proposed a new framework for blended learning and postulated two didactical procedures for self-paced learning. The interesting major finding of the study is that SDL is the statistically efficient instructional strategy, compared to SRL, in determining cognitive achievements of pre-service and in-service technology teachers in flipped classroom learning. The two implementation models have an adequate predictive power of the variability of dependent variables.
La investigación tuvo como objetivo identificar cómo cambia la escritura argumentativa en un grupo de 8 que participa en un programa de admisión universitaria y recibe formación en argumentación escrita por ocho semanas. La instrucción fue directa, estuvo basada en el modelo argumentativo de Toulmin y apoyada en formatos de instrucción elaborados bajo el principio de elementos aislados derivado de la Teoría de la Carga Cognitiva.
Se desarrolló una investigación descriptiva con diseño evolutivo contemporáneo
longitudinal de campo. El instrumento utilizado fue un cuestionario para estimular la
producción textos en torno a un experimento y su relación con el tópico gases y sus
propiedades. Se obtuvieron los diferentes textos como respuesta a la misma pregunta antes de una lectura sobre gases y sus propiedades, después de tal lectura y después de la formación en argumentación. Se realizó el análisis del discurso y del contenido utilizando un sistema de categorías que permitió identificar el nivel de progresión y la presencia o ausencia de los elementos básicos de la argumentación.
Los resultados revelan que el alcance del esquema argumentativo de Toulmin es
limitado para el aprendizaje de la escritura argumentativa: si bien los cambios
observados en el uso de los componentes del discurso argumentativo después de la
instrucción desembocan en textos con un mayor número de pruebas aludidas (datos), se presentan importantes deficiencias en el manejo de los contenidos que dificultan la identificación de datos, tesis y justificaciones adecuadas. La transferencia de procedimientos aprendidos es uno de los mecanismos críticos del aprendizaje y la habilidad general de escribir un texto argumentativo no es directamente transferible a un tema científico.
Palabras claves: Argumentación, Teoría de Carga Cognitiva, Modelo argumentativo
de Toulmin, Escritura argumentativa.
This chapter explores how students' cognitive load changes when using writing assistants, machine translation, and AI chatbots for L2 text revision. By contributing to the ongoing scholarly conversation about how various technologies impact language learners' proofreading and post-editing performance, this study also explores how cognitive load theory applies to L2 academic writing. A convergent parallel design was employed to collect data from 41 translation students at a state university in Turkey. Participants engaged in proofreading and post-editing using Grammarly, DeepL, and ChatGPT. Data collection involved a subjective cognitive load scale and open-ended questions. Results indicated non-significant correlations between cognitive load and text revision performance, as well as between cognitive load and technology usage frequency. Notably, ChatGPT was the most frequently used application on a daily basis. An interesting finding is the significant gender difference in cognitive load during post-editing with DeepL, where female students experienced a higher cognitive load.
Virtual reality (VR) is found to present significant cognitive challenges due to its immersive nature and frequent sensory conflicts. This study systematically investigates the impact of sensory conflicts induced by VR remapping techniques on cognitive fatigue, and unveils their correlation. We utilized three remapping methods (haptic repositioning, head-turning redirection, and giant resizing) to create different types of sensory conflicts, and measured perceptual thresholds to induce various intensities of the conflicts. Through experiments involving cognitive tasks along with subjective and physiological measures, we found that all three remapping methods influenced the onset and severity of cognitive fatigue, with visual-vestibular conflict having the greatest impact. Interestingly, visual-experiential/memory conflict showed a mitigating effect on cognitive fatigue, emphasizing the role of novel sensory experiences. This study contributes to a deeper understanding of cognitive fatigue under sensory conflicts and provides insights for designing VR experiences that align better with human perceptual and cognitive capabilities.
This volume presents research on second language learning through audiovisual input, conducted within the SUBTiLL (Subtitles in Language Learning) project at the University of Barcelona. It includes studies exploring various language dimensions and skills, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, and reading, while also considering learner factors, such as language learning aptitude and proficiency. Two distinctive features of this collective volume are 1) the inclusion of children and teenagers as participants in studies, addressing the gap concerning young learners in this line of research, and 2) an emphasis on longitudinal studies, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. The studies in this volume also showcase a diverse range of research instruments, from eye-tracking to retrospective interviews, enriching our comprehension of this innovative research area. A concluding chapter synthesizes these findings, linking them to prior research and advancing our understanding of the role of audiovisual input in language acquisition.
This volume presents research on second language learning through audiovisual input, conducted within the SUBTiLL (Subtitles in Language Learning) project at the University of Barcelona. It includes studies exploring various language dimensions and skills, such as vocabulary, pronunciation, and reading, while also considering learner factors, such as language learning aptitude and proficiency. Two distinctive features of this collective volume are 1) the inclusion of children and teenagers as participants in studies, addressing the gap concerning young learners in this line of research, and 2) an emphasis on longitudinal studies, enhancing the ecological validity of the findings. The studies in this volume also showcase a diverse range of research instruments, from eye-tracking to retrospective interviews, enriching our comprehension of this innovative research area. A concluding chapter synthesizes these findings, linking them to prior research and advancing our understanding of the role of audiovisual input in language acquisition.
Several cognitive concepts can provide hypotheses concerning appropriate structures for instructional material in mathematics, science, and technology: (a) Schema acquisition is the primary component of skilled problem-solving performance; (b) learning through schema acquisition is interfered with if instructional material misdirects attention and imposes a heavy cognitive load; (c) for these reasons, conventional problem solving can sometimes interfere with learning; and (d) instructional material that requires learners to mentally integrate disparate sources of mutually referring information (e.g., text and diagrams) also interferes with learning by misdirecting attention and imposing a heavy cognitive load. Using mathematics and engineering materials, we found evidence for both the relevant cognitive concepts and the efficacy of alternative instructional materials generated by the concepts. Radical recasting of current instructional formats in most technical areas is called for.
Tested the 2-process theory of detection, search, and attention presented by the current authors (1977) in a series of experiments. The studies (a) demonstrate the qualitative difference between 2 modes of information processing: automatic detection and controlled search; (b) trace the course of the learning of automatic detection, of categories, and of automatic-attention responses; and (c) show the dependence of automatic detection on attending responses and demonstrate how such responses interrupt controlled processing and interfere with the focusing of attention. The learning of categories is shown to improve controlled search performance. A general framework for human information processing is proposed. The framework emphasizes the roles of automatic and controlled processing. The theory is compared to and contrasted with extant models of search and attention. (31/2 p ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the distinctive strategies employed by expert and novice problem solvers (forward-chaining and means–ends, respectively) in 7 experiments using 14 mathematics graduates and 162 9–12 yr olds. Exp I studied the course of development of expertise using a subset of kinematics problems. Ss demonstrated the switch from a means–ends to a forward-chaining strategy. This was associated with the conventional concomitants of expertise such as a decrease in the number of moves required for solution. Ss appeared to categorize problems according to the order in which equations would be required. Exps II and III tested the hypothesis that the means–ends strategies used by novices retarded the acquisition of appropriate schemata. The use of nonspecific rather than specific goals was found to enhance the acquisition of expertise, the number of moves required for solution, and the number of equations written without substitutions. Exps IV and V, using geometry problems, duplicated the enhanced rate of strategy alteration found with reduced goal specificity. Results of Exps VI and VII indicated that reduced goal specificity also enhanced the rate at which problem solvers induced appropriate problem categories. It is concluded that in circumstances in which the primary reason for presenting problems is to assist problem solvers in acquiring knowledge concerning problem structure, the use of conventional problems solved by means–ends analysis may not be maximally efficient. (20 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Researchers have suggested that often, having students study worked examples may be superior to active problem solving. The guidance provided by such examples reduces cognitive load compared with that imposed by the means–ends strategy used by most novice problem-solvers. This may facilitate schema acquisition. The guidance provided by worked examples or other sources of information, such as subgoals, must not themselves require significant cognitive resources for effective processing. In many areas of mathematics, conventional methods of presentation may result in a splitting of attention between multiple sources of information that must be mentally integrated. The cognitive load imposed may eliminate any benefit of a worked example or other form of guidance. A series of 5 geometry experiments provided evidence for this hypothesis. When guidance in the form of subgoals or worked examples was provided using a conventional format requiring attention to 2 sources of information, Ss' performance was no better and possibly worse than when solving conventional problems. Presenting information using a format that did not split attention resulted in a superiority of worked examples over conventional problems. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Hypothesized that schema acquisition would precede rule automation and that it would have a strong effect on problems similar to initial acquisition problems. We further hypothesized that rule automation would have its primary effect on transfer and that the use of worked examples could facilitate both transfer and performance on similar problems. Experiments 1 and 2 contained simple algebra transformation problems involving the changing of the subject of an equation. The results indicated that subjects whose training included a heavy emphasis on worked examples or an extended acquisition period were better able to solve both similar and transfer problems than were those subjects trained with conventional problems. In Experiment 3, the use of verbal protocols gave some support to the hypotheses. Experiment 4, using algebra word problems, yielded data supporting the hypotheses. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Evidence is accumulating that the means–ends problem-solving strategies used conventionally by novice problem solvers are relatively ineffective as vehicles for the acquisition of schemata characteristic of experts. It is suggested that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity and that this load retards knowledge acquisition. A series of 3 experiments using trigonometry problems and a total of 20 10th-grade and 42 9th-grade students as Ss was carried out. The problem goal was modified with the intention of disrupting the strategy used by novices. It was hypothesized that the development of adequate cognitive representations of the sine, cosine, and tangent ratios would be enhanced as a consequence. Results indicate that preventing novice problem solvers from using means–ends analysis resulted in fewer mathematical errors both during acquisition and on subsequent problems, including transfer problems. This provided some evidence for the contention that a means–ends strategy places a heavy load on cognitive processing capacity, which retards knowledge acquisition. (13 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied the differential effect on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load for 3 computer-based training strategies. The conventional, worked, and completion conditions emphasized, respectively, the solving of conventional problems, the study of worked-out problems, and the completion of partly worked-out problems. The relation between practice-problem type and transfer was expected to be mediated by cognitive load. It was hypothesized that practice with conventional problems would require more time and more effort during training and result in lower and more effort-demanding transfer performance than practice with worked-out or partly worked-out problems. With the exception of time and effort during training, the results supported the hypothesis. The completion strategy and, in particular, the worked strategy proved to be superior to the conventional strategy for attaining transfer. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
A 2-process theory of human information processing is proposed and applied to detection, search, and attention phenomena. Automatic processing is activation of a learned sequence of elements in long-term memory that is initiated by appropriate inputs and then proceeds automatically--without S control, without stressing the capacity limitations of the system, and without necessarily demanding attention. Controlled processing is a temporary activation of a sequence of elements that can be set up quickly and easily but requires attention, is capacity-limited (usually serial in nature), and is controlled by the S. A series of studies, with approximately 8 Ss, using both reaction time and accuracy measures is presented, which traces these concepts in the form of automatic detection and controlled search through the areas of detection, search, and attention. Results in these areas are shown to arise from common mechanisms. Automatic detection is shown to develop following consistent mapping of stimuli to responses over trials. Controlled search was utilized in varied-mapping paradigms, and in the present studies, it took the form of serial, terminating search. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Studied 4 computer-based training strategies for geometrical problem solving in the domain of computer numerically controlled machinery programming with regard to their effects on training performance, transfer performance, and cognitive load. A low- and a high-variability conventional condition, in which conventional practice problems had to be solved (followed by worked examples), were compared with a low- and a high-variability worked condition, in which worked examples had to be studied. Results showed that students who studied worked examples gained most from high-variability examples, invested less time and mental effort in practice, and attained better and less effort-demanding transfer performance than students who first attempted to solve conventional problems and then studied work examples. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
An argument is detailed for modifications to some traditional procedures of mathematics and science instruction. It is suggested that cognitive research findings, in revealing the essential domain specificity of problem-solving skills, have pointed to negative aspects of some traditional emphases. As a major example, conventional problem solving frequently can interfere with the acquisition of knowledge. Alternatives to problem solving such as studying worked examples can be equally ineffective unless they are designed in accordance with current findings. It is concluded that if material is structured with learning rather than goal attainment in mind, problem-solving skills can be enhanced substantially. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Investigated the information-processing demands of transitive inference problems with a probe reaction-time (RT) secondary task. Two versions of a primary task were used: the standard 3-term inference problem and a matched verification task that did not require premise integration. In the 1st 2 experiments, with a total of 40 undergraduates, the premise and target-matching components of the primary task were presented sequentially. Results indicate that for the transitive inference task, probe RT was especially slow when the probe occurred during the 2nd premise phase, but no such effect was found with the matched verification task. This implies that premise integration imposed an increased load on processing resources. A 3rd experiment with 10 undergraduates showed that the processing demand associated with premise integration also occurred with simultaneous presentation. Other variations in problem form (e.g., premise markedness, negation, and pivot search) did not influence probe RT, although they are known to affect solution time. It is concluded that solution time and measures of processing load may be independent. (39 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Cognitive load theory suggests that some instructional procedures are ineffective because they require students to engage in superfluous cognitive activities purely because of the manner in which the material is presented rather than because of its intrinsic nature. When students are forced to process redundant material or split their attention between multiple sources of information, an extraneous cognitive load may be imposed. Four experiments were designed to investigate the redundancy and split-attention effects using a primary-school paper-folding activity. Experiment 1 indicated that instructional presentations with extraneous information eliminated were superior to formats containing redundant material. Experiment 2 indicated that the redundancy effect could be increased if more elaborated text was included in the redundant format of the instructional material. The aim of Experiment 3 was to test the prediction that the redundancy effect could also be generated by the inclusion of extraneous diagrams. It was found that redundant instructional material could increase cognitive processing load even when all redundant information is conveyed diagrammatically. Experiment 4 indicated that a format in which instructions were embedded in materials that required manipulation could facilitate learning by reducing redundant information and removing the need to split attention between physically separated materials. It was concluded that the usefulness of additional information must outweigh the consequences of having to process that information.
The experiments reported in this article flow from the following assumptions concerning our cognitive processes: (a) Schema acquisition and automation are major learning mechanisms when dealing with higher cognitive activities and are designed to circumvent our limited working memories and emphasize our highly effective long-term memories. (b) A limited working memory makes it difficult to assimilate multiple elements of information simultaneously. (c) Under conditions where multiple elements of information interact, they must be assimilated simultaneously. (d) As a consequence, a heavy cognitive load is imposed when dealing with material that has a high level of element interactivity. (e) High levels of element interactivity and their associated cognitive loads may be caused both by intrinsic nature of the material being learned and by the method of presentation. (f) If the intrinsic element interactivity and consequent cognitive load are low, the extraneous cognitive load is critical when dealing with intrinsically high element interactivity materials. These assumptions are the basic points of cognitive load theory. They were used to suggest that, when learning to use equipment such as computer applications, learning might be facilitated by not having the equipment present, if the material that needed to be learned had an intrinsically high degree of element interactivity. A series of four experiments supported this hypothesis. It was concluded that an analysis of both intrinsic and extraneous cognitive load can lead to instructional designs generating spectacular gains in learning efficiency.
Cognitive load theory suggests that effective instructional material facilitates learning by directing cognitive resources toward activities that are relevant to learning rather than toward preliminaries to learning. One example of ineffective instruction occurs if learners unnecessarily are required to mentally integrate disparate sources of mutually referring information such as separate text and diagrams. Such split-source infonnation may generate a heavy cognitive load, because material must be mentally integrated before learning can commence. This article reports findings from six experiments testing the consequences of split-source and integrated information using electrical engineering and biology instructional materials. Experiment 1 was designed to compare conventional instructions with integrated instructions over a period of several months in an industrial training setting. The materials chosen were unintelligible without mental integration. Results favored integrated instructions throughout the 3-month study. Experiment 2 was designed to investigate the possible differences between conventional and integrated instructions in areas in which it was not essential for sources of information to be integrated to be understood. The results suggest that integrated instructions were no better than split-source infonnation in such areas. Experiments 3, 4, and 5 indicate that the introduction of seemingly useful but nonessential explanatory material (e.g., a commentary on a diagram) could have deleterious effects even when presented in integrated format. Experiment 6 found that the need for physical integration was restored if the material was organized in such a manner that individual units could not be understood alone. In light of these results and previous findings, suggestions are made for cognitively guided instructional packages.
A variety of researches are examined from the standpoint of information theory. It is shown that the unaided observer is severely limited in terms of the amount of information he can receive, process, and remember. However, it is shown that by the use of various techniques, e.g., use of several stimulus dimensions, recoding, and various mnemonic devices, this informational bottleneck can be broken. 20 references. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
We describe a set of two computer‐implemented models that solve physics problems in ways characteristic of more and less competent human solvers. The main features accounting for different competences are differences in strategy for selecting physics principles, and differences in the degree of automation in the process of applying a single principle. The models provide a good account of the order in which principles are applied by human solvers working problems in kinematics and dynamics. They also are sufficiently flexible to allow easy extension to several related domains of physics problems.
Previous studies have suggested that the use of a means-ends problem-solving strategy imposes a heavy cognitive load which interferes with learning. In this article, we discuss some of the contributing factors. A computational model was used to suggest that cognitive load is at a maximum when subgoals are manipulated and calculated. This allowed us to predict that on two-move problems, most errors should occur during the calculation of the subgoal rather than the goal (labeled the stage effect). Experiment 1 supported this hypothesis using two-move geometry problems. Experiment 2 found that the presentation of unfamiliar problems tended to lead to the use of a means-ends strategy, and this strategy, in turn, increased the likelihood of the stage effect. Experiment 3 revealed that if the problem-solving environment was altered to reduce the likelihood of a means-ends strategy being used, error location became random. Experiment 4, using three-move problems, found that most errors were located at the subgoal immediately preceding the goal. Protocol analysis in Experiment 5 indicated that means-ends analysis also was most likely to be used at the subgoal immediatley preceding the goal. It was concluded that means-ends analysis imposes a heavy cognitive load during the calculation of subgoal stages and this may explain the detrimental effect of the strategy on learning.
Two instructional strategies were implemented in a two-and-a-half hour computer-based training program that was designed to teach elementary turtle graphics programming techniques to novice undergraduate students ( N = 40). Learning activities that either emphasized the completion of existing programs or the generation of new programs were studied for the two strategies. In the completion group, the information needed to perform the program completion tasks appeared to be largely available in the to-be-completed programs; in the generation group, students frequently had to search for useful examples while they were performing their program generation tasks. It is hypothesized that during practice, the direct availability of examples in the form of incomplete computer programs facilitates the acquisition of programming language templates, especially because students cannot complete a program without carefully studying it so that “mindful abstraction” is explicitly provoked. Data in this study on learning outcomes support this hypothesis: the completion group showed a superior use of programming language templates in both a program construction test and a multiple choice test that measured the knowledge of language statements.
2 dual-task paradigms, the memory load interference paradigm and the easy-to-hard paradigm, were used as converging operations to study capacity limitations in children's reasoning. The primary task was N-term series reasoning and the secondary task was short-term retention and rehearsal of items. Pilot experiments showed that passive retention of a short-term memory load did not interfere with reasoning. Interference was observed from active rehearsal of large memory loads in Experiment 1, but the results also suggested that interference is probably a function of amount of processing in the secondary task and is not exclusive to mnemonic secondary tasks. The performance of 5-6-year-olds on transitive inference was significantly reduced by a concurrent information-processing task, suggesting a capacity limitation. In Experiment 2, the easy-to-hard paradigm was used and showed that transitive inference scores were predicted by performances on an easier version of the N-term series task performed concurrently with a short-term rehearsal task, when separate performances on the latter 2 were partialed out. It was concluded that transitive inference ability in children is capacity limited.
This article demonstrates the feasibility and effectiveness of teaching several mathematical skills by presenting students with carefully chosen sequences of worked-out examples and problems - without lectures or other direct instruction. Thinking-aloud protocols of 20 students learning factorization by this method are analyzed to determine the kinds and depth of understanding students attained. Students did not simply memorize procedures but were able to recognize when the procedures were applicable and to apply them. Most students were also able to use their understanding of the concept of factorization to help learn the procedures and to check their results. The method of learning from examples has now been tested successfully with a class covering the entire 3-year curriculum in algebra and geometry in a Chinese middle school.
The knowledge required to solve algebra manipulation problems and procedures designed to hasten knowledge acquisition were studied in a series of five experiments. It was hypothesized that, as occurs in other domains, algebra problem-solving skill requires a large number of schemas and that schema acquisition is retarded by conventional problem-solving search techniques. Experiment 1, using Year 9, Year 11, and university mathematics students, found that the more experienced students had a better cognitive representation of algebraic equations than less experienced students as measured by their ability to (a) recall equations, and (b) distinguish between perceptually similar equations on the basis of solution mode. Experiments 2 through 5 studied the use of worked examples as a means of facilitating the acquisition of knowledge needed for effective problem solving. It was found that not only did worked examples, as expected, require considerably less time to process than conventional problems, but that subsequent problems similar to the initial ones also were solved more rapidly. Furthermore, decreased solution time was accompanied by a decrease in the number of mathematical errors. Both of these findings were specific to problems identical in structure to the initial ones. It was concluded that for novice problem solvers, general algebra rules are reflected in only a limited number of schemas. Abstraction of general rules from schemas may occur only with considerable practice and exposure to a wider range of schemas.
Under some conditions, substituting worked examples for problems or exercises enhances learning and subsequent problem solving. Under other conditions, worked examples are no more effective, and possibly less effective, than solving problems. Using cognitive load theory, we hypothesize that the critical factors for enhanced learning are whether the worked examples can direct attention appropriately and reduce cognitive load. It is suggested that worked examples requiring students to mentally integrate multiple sources of information are not effective because they fail with respect to both of these factors. The results of five experiments using geometric optics and kinematics under classroom conditions provided evidence for these hypotheses. Worked examples, formatted to reduce the need for students to mentally integrate multiple sources of information, resulted in test performance superior to either conventional problems or to worked examples requiring students to split their attention between, for example, text and equations or text and diagrams. We conclude that because traditional worked example formats frequently are random with respect to cognitive factors, they may be ineffective in some areas and require restructuring.
Investigated the causes for large differences in difficulty of various isomorphic versions of the Tower of Hanoi problem in 6 experiments with 191 undergraduates. Since isomorphism rules out size of task domain as a determinant of relative difficulty, the present experiments identified causes for the differences in problem representation. Results show that (1) the solution process depended on Ss' expertise in utilizing problem rules to make moves, (2) the automation of the rule-using behavior was a necessary precursor to planning behavior, and (3) a small amount of planning capability enabled a rapid solution. (38 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The effects on cognitive resources of splitting attention between technical illustrations and their descriptors were examined in four experiments with high school students of good to very good reading ability. Experiment 1 looked at the effect of having descriptors incorporated within technical illustrations and found that there was an observable advantage for combined formats over split formats. In Experiments 2, 3 and 4 the combined form of presenting a technical illustration was superior to having the descriptors for the technical illustration in an adjacent key. Attempts to obtain increases in the advantage for the combined format with reinforcement failed to demonstrate any reliable result. These data suggested that the format of technical illustrations which required students to integrate mentally disparate sources of information imposes a heavy cognitive load. It was concluded that the format of technical illustrations was superior when descriptors were contained within the diagram as cognitive resources were not required to integrate the descriptors and the diagram.
We present a new model of skilled performance in geometry proof problem solving called the Diagram Configuration model (DC). While previous models plan proofs in a step-by-step fashion, we observed that experts plan at a more abstract level: They focus on the key steps and skip the less important ones. DC models this abstract planning behavior by parsing geometry problem diagrams into perceptual chunks, called diagram configurations, which cue relevant schematic knowledge. We provide verbal protocol evidence that DC's schemas correspond with the step-skipping inferences experts make in their initial planning. We compare DC with other models of geometry expertise and then, in the final section, we discuss more general implications of our research. DC's reasoning has important similarities with Larkin's (1988) display-based reasoning approach and Johnson-Laird's (1983) mental model approach. DC's perceptually based schemas are a step towards a unified explanation of (1) experts' superior problem-solving effectiveness, (2) experts' superior problem-state memory, and (3) experts' ability, in certain domains, to solve relatively simple problems by pure forward inferencing. We also argue that the particular and efficient knowledge organization of DC challenges current theories of skill acquisition as it presents an end-state of learning that is difficult to explain within such theories. Finally, we discuss the implications of DC for geometry instruction.
Considerable evidence indicates that domain specific knowledge in the form of schemas is the primary factor distinguishing experts from novices in problem-solving skill. Evidence that conventional problem-solving activity is not effective in schema acquisition is also accumulating. It is suggested that a major reason for the ineffectiveness of problem solving as a learning device, is that the cognitive processes required by the two activities overlap insufficiently, and that conventional problem solving in the form of means-ends analysis requires a relatively large amount of cognitive processing capacity which is consequently unavailable for schema acquisition. A computational model and experimental evidence provide support for this contention. Theoretical and practical implications are discussed.
We describe a set of two computer-implemented models that solve physics problems in ways characteristic of more and less competent human solvers. The main features accounting for different competences are differences in strategy for selecting physics principles, and differences in the degree of automation in the process of applying a single principle. The models provide a good account of the order in which principles are applied by human solvers working problems in kinematics and dynamics. They also are sufficiently flexible to allow easy extension to several related domains of physics problems.
This paper describes an information-processing model, MAPP, implemented as a computer program, that simulates the processes subjects use to remember and reproduce chess positions they have seen briefly. The model incorporates processes adapted from PERCEIVER, an information-processsing theory of eye movements in chess perception, and EPAM, a theory of rote verbal learning. The data from MAPP show good agreement with the performance of strong chess players in identical tasks.
. Cognitive load theory suggests that many conventional instructional formats are ineffective as they involve extraneous cognitive activities, which interfere with learning. The split-attention effect provides one example of the consequences of inappropriate cognitive activities caused by poor instructional design. Learners are often forced to split their attention between and mentally integrate disparate sources of information (e.g., text and diagrams) before the instructional material can be rendered intelligible. This preliminary process of mental integration, while an essential precursor to learning, is likely to impose a heavy extraneous cognitive load. Physical integration (e.g., combining text and diagrams) may reduce cognitive load and so facilitate learning. This study reports findings from two experiments investigating the split-attention effect. Using an engineering programming language (Numerical Control programming), the first experiment investigated the possible advantage of physically integrating text and diagrams. In a normal training environment, the integrated instructions group outperformed the conventional group. Experiment 2 was designed to see if the split-attention effect would generalise to an area where mutually referring segments of text are conventionally separated, namely, empirical reports in psychology and education. In a laboratory study, Experiment 2 showed that students in an integrated group spent less time processing instructions yet still outperformed students in a conventional group on test questions. The consequences of these results for cognitive load theory and for instruction design are discussed.
Several cognitive concepts can provide hypotheses concerning appropriate structures for instructional material in mathematics, science, and technology: (a) Schema acquisition is the primary component of skilled problem-solving performance; (b) learning through schema acquisition is interfered with if instructional material misdirects attention and imposes a heavy cognitive load; (c) for these reasons, conventional problem solving can sometimes interfere with learning; and (d) instructional material that requires learners to mentally integrate disparate sources of mutually referring information (e.g., text and diagrams) also interferes with learning by misdirecting attention and imposing a heavy cognitive load. Using mathematics and engineering materials, we found evidence for both the relevant cognitive concepts and the efficacy of alternative instructional materials generated by the concepts. Radical recasting of current instructional formats in most technical areas is called for. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Three experiments explored memory for symbolic circuit drawings using skilled electronics technicians and novice subjects.
In the first experiment a skilled technician reconstructed circuit diagrams from memory. Recall showed marked “chunking”,
or grouping, by functional units similar to Chess Masters’ recall of chess positions. In the second experiment skilled technicians
were able to recall more than were novice subjects following a brief exposure of the drawings. This advantage did not hold
for randomly arranged symbols. In the third experiment the size of chunks retrieved systematically increased with additional
study time. Supplementary analyses suggested that the chunking by skilled subjects was not an artifact of spatial proximity
and chunk statistics, and that severe constraints are placed on any explanation of the data based on guessing. It is proposed
that skilled subjects identify the conceptual category for an entire drawing, and retrieve elements using a generate-and-test
process.
A simulation of memory for chess positions Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning
- Siy
- K Gilmartin
Siy;$, & Gilmartin, K. (1973). A simulation of memory for chess positions. Cognitive Psychology, Sw&er, J: (1988). Cognitive load during problem solving: Effects on learning. Cognitive Science, 12, 257-285.
Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search and attention
- R Schank
- R Abelson
Schank, R., & Abelson, R. (1977). Scripts, plans, goals, and understanding. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. Schneider, W., & Shiffrin, R. (1977). Controlled and automatic human information processing: I. Detection, search and attention. Psychological Review, 84, l-66.
Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem solving skill in statistics: A cognitive load aDDroach Journal of Educational Psvchofonv. 84.429434. Paas, F.= 11994) Variabiiiy of worked example~~ Andy transfer of geometrical problem-~lving skills: A cognitive-load approach
- F Paas
Paas, F. (1992). Training strategies for attaining transfer of problem solving skill in statistics: A cognitive load aDDroach. Journal of Educational Psvchofonv. 84.429434. Paas, F.= 11994). Variabiiiy of worked example~~ Andy transfer of geometrical problem-~lving skills: A cognitive-load approach. Journal of educational Psychology, 86, 122-133.
Cognitive load and selective attention as factors in the structuring of technical material The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra
- J Sweller
- P Chandler
- P Tiemey
- M Cooper
Sweller, J., Chandler, P., Tiemey, P., & Cooper, M. (1990). Cognitive load and selective attention as factors in the structuring of technical material. Journal of Experimental Psychology: General, 119, 176192. Sweller, J., & Cooper, G. A. (1985). The use of worked examples as a substitute for problem solving in learning algebra. Cognition and Instruction, 2, 59-89.
Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology The redundancy effect in an elementary school geometry task. Learning and Instruction
- F Bartlett
- J Bobis
- J Sweller
- M Cooper
Bartlett, F. (1932). Remembering: A study in experimental and social psychology. New York & London: Cambridge University Press. Bobis, J., Sweller, J., & Cooper, M. (1993). The redundancy effect in an elementary school geometry task. Learning and Instruction, 3, 1-21.
l&5). bongs and c&ice in chess
- Groot
& Groot, A. (l&5). bongs and c&ice in chess. The Ha&e: Mouton.
Expertise in problem solving Advances in the psychology of human intelligence The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical orobiem-soivine transfer
- M Chi
- R Glaser
- E Rees
Chi, M., Glaser, R., & Rees, E. (1982). Expertise in problem solving. In R. Stemberg (Ed.), Advances in the psychology of human intelligence (pp. 7-75). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum. J. SWELLER Cooper, G., & Sweller, J. (1987). The effects of schema acquisition and rule automation on mathematical orobiem-soivine transfer. Journal of Educational Psvchafo~v, 79.347-362.
Text editing of algebraic word problems I~ormation processing demands of transitive inference The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information
- R Over
- Ea Maykry
- J Bain
- G Halford
Over, R. (1990). Text editing of algebraic word problems. Australian Journal of Psychology, Maykry, EA., Bain, J., & Halford, G. (1986). I~ormation processing demands of transitive inference. Journal of Experimental P~chofogy: Learning Memory and Cognition, 12,60&613. Miller. G. (1956). The magical number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychologi&l Review, 63, 81-97.
The redundancy effect in an elementary school geometry task
- Bobis