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Electric vehicles: The role and importance of standards in an emerging market

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Abstract

After nearly a century with the internal combustion engine dominating the personal transportation sector, it now appears that the electric vehicle is on the verge of experiencing rapid growth in both developed and developing vehicle markets. The broad-scale adoption of the electric vehicle could bring significant changes for society in terms of not only the technologies we use for personal transportation, but also moving our economies away from petroleum and lessoning the environmental footprint of transportation. This article investigates the role of standards, related training and certification for the electric vehicle. It is argued that the potential for the electric vehicle will be stunted without adequate attention being paid to standards, not only in terms of the speed of its uptake and smoothness of this transition, but also in terms of maintaining compatibility between jurisdictions, safety of the public, and helping to ensure environmental sustainability. We highlight a number of areas where new or adaptations of current standards, training and certification may be needed, notably in terms of batteries and charging infrastructures, electricity distribution and accounting for the environmental characteristics of this electricity, and different aspects of vehicle-to-grid and smart grid technologies.

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... The second category of EV studies was directed at mechanisms executed by multiple layers of government. These kernels included setting EV sales targets (including phasing out new ICE vehicle sales) (IEA, 2017(IEA, , 2021a(IEA, , 2022Zhang and Bai, 2017), establishing national standards for EV and EVSE infrastructure (Brown et al., 2010;Das et al., 2020), government EV fleets procurement (Silvia and Krause, 2016), personal carbon trading and tradable driving credits (Li et al., 2022), and EV education programs (Liu et al., 2020;Haustein et al., 2021) and test drive experiences (Schmalfuβ et al., 2017;Kester et al., 2018). Studies have shown that EV sales-supply, maintenance and logistics will require different skillsets to ICE vehicles, thus requiring changes to government regulated trade training (Brown et al., 2010;IEA, 2017;Zarazua de Rubens et al., 2020). ...
... These kernels included setting EV sales targets (including phasing out new ICE vehicle sales) (IEA, 2017(IEA, , 2021a(IEA, , 2022Zhang and Bai, 2017), establishing national standards for EV and EVSE infrastructure (Brown et al., 2010;Das et al., 2020), government EV fleets procurement (Silvia and Krause, 2016), personal carbon trading and tradable driving credits (Li et al., 2022), and EV education programs (Liu et al., 2020;Haustein et al., 2021) and test drive experiences (Schmalfuβ et al., 2017;Kester et al., 2018). Studies have shown that EV sales-supply, maintenance and logistics will require different skillsets to ICE vehicles, thus requiring changes to government regulated trade training (Brown et al., 2010;IEA, 2017;Zarazua de Rubens et al., 2020). Innovatively, researchers have expanded 'EV fleet' concepts to enfold private, taxi and share-ride, heavy haulage, and commercial fleets, noting that higher volume EV applications can provide enhanced uptake impacts, albeit with regulatory changes to vehicle engineering and design (Green et al., 2014;Shi et al., 2019). ...
... The studies provided impetus for programmatic change and cited that increased EV model availability, expanded regional public charging networks (dampened range anxiety), and reducing EV purchase prices would positively impact EV uptake (Energeia, 2018;Electric Vehicle Council, 2017. However, the research cautioned that incohesive federal EV policy, variability in state and territory EV program measures (public EV fleet procurement) (Victoria State Government, 2017;Dowling, 2021), and the lack of federal vehicle emissions and fuel efficiency standards are barriers to EV transition (Brown et al., 2010;Energeia, 2018;Electric Vehicle Council, 2021;. The summary of domestic EV annual sales and small vehicle fleet modelling under studies dating back to 2011 provides evidence that program amalgams can have significant EV transition benefits (Electric Vehicle Council, 2020Council, , 2022. ...
... On roads, the primary approach will involve promoting electric vehicles and encouraging active transport [65,79]. This includes the promotion of EVs with financial support, the construction of charging infrastructure, the development of electric public transport, R&D in EV technologies, and the establishment of relevant technical standards for EVs [80,81]. However, due to carbon uncertainty, the transition to cleaner power systems must be ensured to realise and maximise the carbon reduction effects of EV adoption [70]. ...
... Concerning electricity generation, prioritizing a cleaner energy mix is essential. By further reducing the share of power generated from coal-fired stations and enhancing the efficiency of electricity for EVs, the CO 2 emission intensity of EVs could improve from being 38% lower than traditional fuel vehicles in 2020 to 69% lower by 2030 [81]. Nonetheless, it is important to reiterate that, given the scarcity of key minerals and other effects, there remains a need to limit the total transport volumes. ...
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Background The processes of transport decarbonisation are complicated. In this paper, we adopt the Activity-Modal Share-Energy Intensity-Carbon Intensity of Fuel (ASIF) approach and propose a conceptual framework on the direct and indirect impact of COVID-19 on transport CO2 emissions. In the Chinese context, changes of carbon emissions associated with passenger and freight transport (including urban, rural, and inter-city transport) across different transport modes are estimated. Scenario analysis is then used to estimate the impact of COVID-19 on total transport carbon emissions up to 2030. Four scenarios, from minimal to significant behavioural changes and global recession associated with COVID-19, are generated. Results Under the pandemic, the transport system in China was estimated to have produced 28% less CO2 emissions (1044.2 Mt) in 2020, when compared to 2019. Compared with the business-as-usual scenario, the estimated total transport carbon emissions in 2030 would drop by 6%, 15%, and 21% and 23% under the minimal-impact, low-impact, moderate-impact, and severe-impact scenarios, respectively. Conclusions The results suggest that the processes triggered by COVID-19 alone will not be sufficient to meet the ambitious transport decarbonisation targets. To meet China’s pledge under the United Nations Framework on Climate Change, the medium-term effects of COVID-19 must be combined with strong transport decarbonisation measures of modal shift and new energy applications. With these additional measures, it may be possible to advance the transport carbon peak before 2030. Lessons are relevant to other developing countries.
... This is due to the natural delay of new products entering the market, especially in middle-and low-income countries, because EVs usually come with higher prices compared with conventional vehicles. Moreover, the transition to electric transport creates significant issues for society with the adoption of a new technology and for the economy with the move from fossil fuels to electricity [4]. It is considered that EV deployment varies per country depending on vehicle cost and energy system configuration; however, objective reasons are often not the same. ...
... In agreement with the data provided by the ACEA, EV manufacturing in Europe is approaching 15% (14.6% in consonance with the data collected for the period from January to July) of the market in 2023 [4]. In the first half of 2023, EVs sold in North America (together with PHEVs) accounted for 12% (growth of 50% compared to 2022), and in China, 5.2% (growth of 37%) [37]. ...
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... The growth of transport infrastructure and the rolling stock of trolleybuses and electric buses in cities with high population densities and heavy traffic have led to acute urban planning, socio-economic, and environmental problems [1,2]. The main concepts of sustainable development in urban transportation assume sustainable development and improvement of the transport fleets of cities [3]. This requires the development of reliable, uninterrupted, and comfortable vehicle operation [4][5][6]. ...
... 2. Estimation of the characteristic of electric equipment reliability through indicators that characterize the number of equipment failures per unit of mileage, i.e., through the flow of failures and through the probability of no-failure operation. 3. As a result of the analysis of existing methods for modeling the state of electrical equipment, on the basis of the maximum likelihood method, proposing a modeling method based on the selection of a universal equalizing function for most types of electrical equipment in the trolleybus electrical complex. ...
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The urban transport network involves complex processes, operating 24 h a day and 365 days a year. The sustainable development of the urban transport network using electric buses and trolleybuses that run autonomously is an urgent task since the transport network performs integral social functions and is the transport artery of any urban center. The social and economic life of a city as a whole depends on the reliability of the transportation network. A theory is proposed for the technical and economic evaluation of reliability improvement in electric buses and trolleybuses running autonomously, which enables the determination of the reliability parameters of electric buses and forecasts for the future from the point of view of optimal economic costs for the operation of electric equipment in electric buses. As a result of the application of the proposed theory, it was found that increasing the reliability of the transportation fleet can lead to a decrease in both specific operating costs and capital investments in the development of the fleet. This is achieved as a result of increasing the annual productivity of vehicles by reducing the time they are out of service to eliminate the consequences of failures and carry out maintenance and repair. The conducted experiments confirmed that the theory and methodology of optimal reliability level selection not only enable the rational use of the material resources of the urban transport network but also the release of funds for its scientific and technical development by reducing the number of failures in the electrical equipment of transport systems by 14%.
... New energy vehicles are promoted globally as a green means of transportation to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and are cost-effective [8][9][10]. Many countries have accelerated the transition to electric vehicles to reduce the dependence on fossil fuels, mitigate pollution, and address the energy crisis [4,11,12]. This plays a crucial role for enterprises to carry out efficient and reasonable green development strategies and form sustainable competitive advantages. ...
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... In Europe, the sale of internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEV) is projected to end in 2030 [3]. Globally, the transition to electromobility is anticipated to begin with the sale of hybrid cars (HEV), followed by plug-in hybrids (PHEV), and finally, full electric vehicles (EVs) [4]. The third decade of the 21st century is critical for migrating from ICEV to electric technologies [5][6][7]. ...
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This article presents a comprehensive review of lithium as a strategic resource, specifically in the production of batteries for electric vehicles. This study examines global lithium reserves, extraction sources, purification processes, and emerging technologies such as direct lithium extraction methods. This paper also explores the environmental and social impacts of lithium extraction, emphasizing the need for sustainable and ethical practices within the supply chain. As electric vehicles are projected to account for over 60% of new car sales by 2030, the demand for high-performance batteries will persist, with lithium playing a key role in this transition, even with the development of alternatives to lithium-ion batteries, such as sodium and ammonium-based technologies. However, there is an urgent need for technological advancements to reduce the environmental impact of lithium production and lithium-ion battery manufacturing. Additionally, ensuring the safety of LiBs during both use and recycling stages is critical to sustainable EV adoption. This study concludes that advancements in battery recycling and the development of new technologies are essential to improving safety, reducing costs, and minimizing environmental impacts, thereby securing a sustainable lithium supply and supporting the future of electric mobility.
... To ensure consistency and safety, governments need to establish standards for EV charging devices. As there are currently no universally accepted specifications for EV charging devices [54], a standardized framework is vital for the design and configuration of EVs and their charging networks. Standards by Sustainable En such as SAE: J177229 and IEC: 6,219,630 have been proposed for implementing charging policies for EV charging facilities in various countries. ...
... On account of global warming, there is a global impetus towards the use of electric vehicles, which depend on lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) in place of gasoline-powered vehicles. [1] The electric vehicle (EV) industry demands high-power and energy density LIBs, where graphite is a commonly used, commercially available and accepted anode material, [2,3] which provides the practical specific capacity of 350 mAh g −1 . [4] But the low potential plateau of graphite at around 0.1 V (vs. ...
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Currently, developing materials with high power capability is crucial to the rapid deployment of electric vehicles. The Li4Ti5O12 (LTO) anode material with zero strain rate upon lithium insertion and extraction. The successful implementation of this anode material depends on strategies to overcome the low electronic and ionic conductivity. In this study, Li4Ti5O12 was synthesized using solid‐state approach in which different phases (anatase and rutile) of TiO2 as precursors were used. X‐ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and Raman analysis confirmed the formation of oxygen vacancies with the existence of Ti³⁺ ions, which is believed to greatly enhance the electronic conductivity of Li4Ti5O12. The electrochemical performance revealed that the rutile TiO2 precursor concentration significantly affects the resultant Li4Ti5O12 capacity and power capability. The Li4Ti5O12 synthesized using 80% anatase and 20% rutile TiO² (N2‐LTO) exhibits a specific capacity of 169, 145, 140, 133, 122, 101, and 84 mAh g⁻¹ at 1C, 3C, 5C, 7C, 10C, 20C, and 30C. In addition, LFP||N2‐LTO pouch‐cell was fabricated which showed promising results with 95% capacity retention after 1000 cycles at 1C rate. The oxygen vacancies created due to the presence of Ti³⁺/Ti⁴⁺ mixed valances and reduced particle size for faster lithium‐ion diffusion significantly enhanced the overall electrochemical performance.
... Reports of several aspects of the battery raising questions abound. Concerns about the design, packaging, and even the materials utilized in the battery have been voiced by people [49,50]. People are worried since every EV needs a particular charger and all of the vehicles lack a common charger [49,51]. ...
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This comprehensive review paper goes substantially into the environment of Electric Vehicles (EVs), starting with a complete advent to what EVs are and the way they paintings. It follows the evolution of these cars from their early beginnings to their modern situation, noting predominant milestones alongside the direction. The article covers the numerous types of EVs which can be to be had now and provides a top-level view of the marketplace as it's far presently. A considerable attention is targeted on the environmental outcomes of EVs, thinking about each their benefits and capability drawbacks. Looking ahead, the report speculates on future trends, along with anticipated technical upgrades and market situations. Additionally, it covers one-of-a-kind troubles that the EV business has, which includes those linked to infrastructure, technology, and economics. The motive of this observe is to give a well-rounded evaluation of the EV quarter, giving essential insights for academics, enterprise professionals, and policymakers alike.
... This is called 'economies of scale' and would require larger initial investment. In the case of EVs, as it is a relatively new technology accepted by customers, standardization has not yet become very common to enable mass production is challenging factor (Brown et al., 2010;Clarke, 2005). As technology is still evolving, standardization requires technological maturity. ...
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1. Abstract: Electric Vehicle (EV) manufacturing is an emerging and evolving industry. Gaining competitive advantage (CA) through apt strategies is of importance to existing as well as new entrants in the EV automobile industry. This paper aims to find various factors that may affect gaining Competitive Advantage (CA) in EV industry and to help strategy makers to weigh and prioritize them to gain competitive advantage in the EV industry. Extensive literature search and review is done as a method to find various factors influencing EV sector CA. The paper also evaluates Porter's Three Generic Strategies for competitiveness and Five Forces Framework to gain competitive advantage. The case study has helped to find various external and internal factors that affect the CA of emerging EV industry. The study also finds that Porter's generic strategies and five force frameworks are still widely used and useful for strategists in the EV industry but there could be additional drivers pertaining to current digital, technological and globalization environment currently prevailing in the industry. The findings are based on Desktop literature and data review without having done any field surveys or data collection.
... Historically, Tesla invented some different wireless power transmission components at the beginning of 1900 [12]. After one century, the wireless power transmission gets much interest due to the raising importance of electricity in all sectors from mobile to electric vehicles [13]. For instance, wireless chargers are nothing else than the application of wireless power transfer. ...
... The automotive sector has given importance to the lifespan of communities and plays a significant role in most countries. Traditional automobiles are usually disastrous to the environment because they require a large amount of fossil fuels to develop kinetic energy [1]. Concerns about environmental change and the security of the petro energy supply are paving the way for renewable energy systems (RESs) to replace traditional transportation energy types. ...
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... Electric mobility is an important aspect of the energy transition. Electric vehicles (EVs), even with lower maintenance, higher well-to-wheel efficiency, and the obvious environmental and economic benefits, still have the biggest challenge of low range, low efficiency, longer charging times, limited infrastructure, and high capital cost of batteries [11,12]. For an electric vehicle to be resourceful, the main characteristics to be focused on are that it should run entirely on cheap, small, and efficient electric motors, requires low maintenance, has a large battery for long range, and has a fast-charging capability. ...
Article
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... Electric transportation has emerged as a promising solution to address these concerns. The integration of the Electric Vehicle (EV) industry into the automotive sector, along with its far-reaching effects and intricate system interactions spanning production, transmission, and distribution, has presented substantial opportunities for job creation and increased profitability among car companies (Brown, Pyke, & Steenhof, 2010). At the same time, this integration plays a vital role in environmental preservation. ...
Article
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... BLDC motor has more durability, high efficiency, and less weight and dimensions compared to other species of motor. [6] The fully electric-based vehicles are used current domination of EVs for an alternate selection rather than the fossil fuel-based vehicles, for charging these EVs power adopted is employed in-house and in other public places to charge the vehicle power sources. [7] The two ways powerdriving EVs are commercial nowadays due to their high efficiency and low cost-effective manner compared to the fuel-based vehicles which are used traditionally, in both the solar and batteries act as a power source for the vehicle. ...
Article
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... Electric cars are a potential technology for drastically reducing emissions from road transportation [82]. Simultaneously, electric passenger vehicles in development are not yet competitive with conventional vehicle technology [83]. EVs, together with shared mobility and public transportation, will play a critical role in smart cities in the next years [84]. ...
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Climate change necessitates urgent action to decarbonize the transport sector. Sustainable vehicles represent crucial alternatives to traditional combustion engines. This study comprehensively compares four prominent sustainable vehicle technologies: biofuel-powered vehicles (BPVs), fuel cell vehicles (FCVs), electric vehicles (EVs), and solar vehicles. We examine each technology’s history, development, classification, key components, and operational principles. Furthermore, we assess their sustainability through technical factors, environmental impacts, cost considerations, and policy dimensions. Moreover, the discussion section addresses the challenges and opportunities associated with each technology and assesses their social impact, including public perception and adoption. Each technology offers promise for sustainable transportation but faces unique challenges. Policymakers, industry stakeholders, and researchers must collaborate to address these challenges and accelerate the transition toward a decarbonized transport future. Potential future research areas are identified to guide advancements in sustainable vehicle technologies.
... Considering the role of standards in the EV market, Brown et al. (2010) have conducted a research study. Their study examined the function of standards, associated learning, and certification for electric vehicles. ...
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Electric vehicles (EVs) are a new emerging technological advancement that has apprehended the interest of researchers as well as regulators, primarily due to their connection with sustainability in the broadest sense. EVs are recognized by academics as a viable and potentially game-changing type of transportation due to their ability to improve overall energy efficiency and lower emissions of greenhouse gases. Studies on either the technological or environmental aspects of electric vehicles abound in the literature, but a comprehensive sustainability assessment taking all three into account is the subject of relatively little investigation. This research study has performed a bibliometric analysis, cluster analysis, and morphology analysis on ‘EV adoption and Sustainability’ to gain insights into the research field. In total, 291 articles were found suitable from 2003 to Jan 2023. Our assessment only considers review papers, articles, and journals from the Scopus database. After going through this procedure, we found 191 articles worthy of bibliometric study, and 73 were chosen for the cluster analysis and morphology analysis. Vosviewer software has been used to generate two-dimensional bibliographic maps for visualization. This study has used cluster analysis to determine which themes predominate and a morphological analysis of author-supplied keywords to determine which sets of words appear most frequently and how often they appear. Six theme-based clusters have been found from the cluster analysis. We have read all the papers within the clusters, and we have discussed and devised the theme for each cluster as per the content covered in the clusters. The findings of this study have provided a research proposition for future researchers working in this area. This study has also suggested policy, societal, and managerial implications of EV adoption. The proposed study will aid engineers, academics, researchers, and policymakers involved in promoting electric vehicle adoption.
... A prospective solution for significantly lowering emissions from road transportation is the electric car. This is a crucial component in lowering air pollution, noise pollution, and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions from passenger automobiles and light commercial vehicles [5]. Thus, a broad adoption of electric cars might save most of the total energy consumption in the EU-27's transportation sector by 2050, according to the German Advisory Council on Global Change [6]. ...
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Today, the transportation industry contributes significantly to greenhouse gas emissions-roughly 23% of worldwide emissions. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are a viable technical option since they have the ability to drastically cut emissions (e.g., up to 70% compared to gasoline automobiles). Lithium-ion batteries, the fundamental component of BEVs, are essential to the efficiency and performance of the vehicle. Nevertheless, it might be difficult to make the best decision given the wide range of battery producers. In order to close this gap, eleven of the top producers of lithium batteries (e.g., Tesla, Ford and Toyota) were assessed for their 2019-2021 performance. We evaluate battery performance using both the Ordinal Priority Approach (OPA) and Malmquist productivity index (MPI). According to the results, Ford, BMW, and Tesla had the greatest average MPI efficiency. Conversely, Toyota, Hyundai, and Mercedes-Benz secured the highest positions among lithium-battery manufacturers in the OPA rankings. Through the use of these methodologies, we aim to provide comparative rankings that will eventually help promote sustainable mobility by giving decision-makers, investors, consumers and other stakeholders an overview for well-informed battery selections.
... The advantage of the IEC 62196 Type 2 ("Mennekes") over the US/Japan standard IEC 62196 Type 1 ("SAE J1772"), is that it supports single phase as well as three phase power, which the US/Japanese standard does not. Although Standards Australia has recommended that IEC 62196 be adopted as a whole, it has so far not made a recommendation on connector Type 1 or 2. Standard and regulations are important for electric vehicles and charging stations to ensure safety and to increase consumer confidence (Brown et al. 2010) and research aimed at informing new policies for introduction of EVs into Australia has been commissioned by the CSIRO (Dunstan 2011). ...
... Sustainable transportation encompasses a spectrum of alternatives, ranging from advancements in public transit systems to the widespread adoption of electric vehicles (EVs) and the exploration of alternative fuels (Mehar et al., 2014). The transition towards sustainable transportation is not merely an option but a necessity for creating a future where mobility aligns with environmental responsibility (Brown, Pyke, and Steenhof, 2010). This paper aims to provide a comprehensive exploration of sustainable transportation solutions, delving into various facets of innovation, challenges, and future directions. ...
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The paper explores the need for sustainable transportation alternatives that minimize environmental repercussions, focusing on advancements in public transit systems, electric vehicles (EVs), alternative fuels, and innovative mobility concepts. It provides a comprehensive analysis of the strengths and limitations inherent in sustainable transportation solutions, highlighting the efficiency gains of well-designed public transit systems and the monumental leap represented by electric vehicles powered by rechargeable batteries. However, the journey towards sustainable transportation is not without challenges, such as infrastructure limitations, cost considerations, and the imperative for behavioral shifts. The paper dissects these challenges, shedding light on the intricacies that demand attention from researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders alike. Infrastructure development is a critical linchpin, demanding strategic investment and collaboration to overcome hurdles of building and maintaining extensive public transportation networks, EV charging infrastructure, and alternative fuel production facilities. Cost considerations are a formidable barrier, particularly with the initial costs of EVs and alternative fuel vehicles surpassing those of traditional counterparts. The paper advocates for government incentives and research funding to bridge the financial gap, making sustainable transportation options accessible to a broader demographic. Technological advancements, ranging from battery technology to autonomous vehicle capabilities, serve as the engine driving the evolution of sustainable transportation. The paper underscores the need for continuous research and development initiatives to refine these technologies, enhancing efficiency, affordability, and range. Behavioral shifts pose a unique challenge, necessitating effective public awareness campaigns and policy interventions. The paper explores the opportunities presented by education, advocacy, and policy innovation in instigating this cultural shift. The paper also emphasizes the importance of social equity and accessibility in the pursuit of sustainable transportation. It advocates for inclusive policies that ensure the benefits of sustainable transportation are accessible to all demographics. Community engagement and impact assessments are proposed as indispensable tools to identify and address gaps in accessibility.
... Internal combustion engine (ICE) (Leach et al., 2020) driven vehicles consume diesel/gasoline and produce tailpipe carbon emission, which is not environment friendly. To address this problem, battery electric vehicles (EVs) and fuel cell vehicles (FCVs) (Brown et al., 2010;Wu and Williamson, 2000) have been introduced. However, these types of vehicles have their own drawbacks. ...
... With increasing global environmental problems [1], people's awareness of environmental protection [2] is strengthened, and battery technology continues to advance. The new energy electric vehicles (EVs) have occupied part of the automotive industry market [3]. Compared with traditional fuel vehicles, EVs have the advantages of zero emissions, low noise, low maintenance costs, and intelligent functions [4]. ...
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With the continuous development of electric vehicle (EV) technology, there is an increasing need to analyze the factors influencing customers' purchase intentions. According to the data of customers' vehicle experience evaluation and personal information, this paper develops the analysis models of influencing factors using the analysis of variance algorithm (ANOVA) and Kruskal-Wallis algorithm. Then, the purchase intention model for EVs is proposed using the random forest method. Finally, the optimization model for the EV sales plan was built. The results show that the main factors influencing customers' purchases are different for different vehicle brands. However, the cus-tomer's evaluation of the vehicle experience has a greater influence on the customer's purchase. Compared to other prediction models, the random forest model has the highest accuracy. For 3 EV brands, the prediction accuracies are 97.8%, 98.9%, and 97.6%. In addition, this paper predicts the purchase intentions of 15 customers. By optimizing the sales plans for 3 EV brands, the predicted purchase rate of 15 customers increased from 40% to 53%. The research work contributes to the sales of electric vehicles , the accurate positioning of customers, and the identification of more potential customers.
... Regenerative brake technology is an energy retrieval method that dips a vehicle moving by transforming its energy from motion (K.E) into something that may be utilized instantly or saved until it is required again. In the proposed system, a solar photovoltaic array will be interlinked to a BLDC motor via an inverter and DC-DC converter [13,14]. Maximum power point techniques maximize the output power obtained at SPV terminals. ...
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Electricity networks are extensive and well established. They form a key part of the infrastructure that supports industrialised society. These networks are moving from a period of stability to a time of potentially major transition, driven by a need for old equipment to be replaced, by government policy commitments to cleaner and renewable sources of electricity generation, and by change in the power industry. This paper looks at moves towards active distribution networks. The novel transmission and distribution systems of the future will challenge today's system designs. They will cope with variable voltages and frequencies, and will offer more flexible, sustainable options. Intelligent power networks will need innovation in several key areas of information technology. Active control of flexible, large-scale electrical power systems is required. Protection and control systems will have to react to faults and unusual transient behaviour and ensure recovery after such events. Real-time network simulation and performance analysis will be needed to provide decision support for system operators, and the inputs to energy and distribution management systems. Advanced sensors and measurement will be used to achieve higher degrees of network automation and better system control, while pervasive communications will allow networks to be reconfigured by intelligent systems.
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Electrochemical capacitors, also called supercapacitors, store energy using either ion adsorption (electrochemical double layer capacitors) or fast surface redox reactions (pseudo-capacitors). They can complement or replace batteries in electrical energy storage and harvesting applications, when high power delivery or uptake is needed. A notable improvement in performance has been achieved through recent advances in understanding charge storage mechanisms and the development of advanced nanostructured materials. The discovery that ion desolvation occurs in pores smaller than the solvated ions has led to higher capacitance for electrochemical double layer capacitors using carbon electrodes with subnanometre pores, and opened the door to designing high-energy density devices using a variety of electrolytes. Combination of pseudo-capacitive nanomaterials, including oxides, nitrides and polymers, with the latest generation of nanostructured lithium electrodes has brought the energy density of electrochemical capacitors closer to that of batteries. The use of carbon nanotubes has further advanced micro-electrochemical capacitors, enabling flexible and adaptable devices to be made. Mathematical modelling and simulation will be the key to success in designing tomorrow's high-energy and high-power devices.
Chapter
Battery efficiency, η, is the ratio of the energy output of a battery to the input energy required to restore the initial state of charge under specified conditions of temperature, current rate, and final voltage. This chapter discusses various factors affecting the efficiency of electric vehicle (EV) battery. Formation time, discharge rate, frequency of the charge/discharge of batteries, temperature of charging and discharging are some factors that affect the battery efficiency. Regenerative braking systems increase the driving range of electric vehicles (EVs) by 10 to 15%. With rising currents and falling temperature, the capacity of the battery decreases. In valve regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA), grid corrosion is the leading cause of battery failure. It is the corrosion of the positive grid that limits the life expectancy of the VRLA battery. The chapter also discusses battery storage and traction battery pack design. Before commencing battery pack design for EV applications, one needs to determine the maximum discharge rate of the battery and the operating and storage temperature ranges.
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Zero-emission mandates are opening commercial markets for battery-powered electric vehicles. Although these vehicles do not produce tailpipe emissions, recent assessments have raised concerns that emissions generated by recycling lead-acid batteries used in electric vehicles may create a major environmental impact. We used an abridged life-cycle assessment, which produces easily comprehended information about each life stage of a product, to analyze environmental impacts associated with recycling and waste management of four battery technologies likely to be used in electric vehicles over the next 5-10 years. We ranked recycling and waste management impacts and emphasized environmental consequences associated with design factors. Our results suggest that nickel-metal hydride batteries are the most environmentally benign; however, an infrastructure for recycling these batteries does not exist. Although its toxicity is relatively low, the sodium-sulfur battery received the poorest ranking, because it is not recyclable. Lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries are highly recyclable, but the question of significant toxicity remains.
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Recent legislative mandates have been enacted at state and federal levels with the purpose of reducing life cycle greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions from transportation fuels. This legislation encourages the substitution of fossil fuels with ‘low-carbon’ fuels. The burden is put on regulatory agencies to determine the GHG-intensity of various fuels, and those agencies naturally look to science for guidance. Even though much progress has been made in determining the direct life cycle emissions from the production of biofuels, the science underpinning the estimation of potentially signifi cant emissions from indirect land use change (ILUC) is in its infancy. As legislation requires inclusion of ILUC emissions in the biofuel life cycle, regulators are in a quandary over accurate implementation. In this article, we review these circumstances and offer some suggestions for how to proceed with the science of indirect effects and regulation in the face of uncertain science. Besides investigating indirect deforestation and grassland conversion alone, a more comprehensive assessment of the total GHG emissions implications of substituting biofuels for petroleum needs to be completed before indirect effects can be accurately determined. This review fi nds that indirect emissions from livestock and military security are particularly important, and deserve further research. © 2009 Society of Chemical Industry and John Wiley & Sons, Ltd
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The objective of this study is to produce and test the hybrid valve-regulated Ultrabattery designed specifically for hybrid-electric vehicle duty, i.e., high-rate partial-state-of-charge operation. The Ultrabattery developed by CSIRO Energy Technology is a hybrid energy-storage device, which combines an asymmetric supercapacitor, and a lead-acid battery in one unit cells, taking the best from both technologies without the need for extra, expensive electronic controls. The capacitor will enhance the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer during high-rate discharging and charging. Consequently, this hybrid technology is able to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking. The work programme of this study is divided into two main parts, namely, field trial of prototype Ultrabatteries in a Honda Insight HEV and laboratory tests of prototype batteries. In this paper, the performance of prototype Ultrabatteries under different laboratory tests is reported.
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The UltraBattery has been invented by the CSIRO Energy Technology in Australia and has been developed and produced by the Furukawa Battery Co., Ltd., Japan. This battery is a hybrid energy storage device which combines a super capacitor and a lead-acid battery in single unit cells, taking the best from both technologies without the need of extra, expensive electronic controls. The capacitor enhances the power and lifespan of the lead-acid battery as it acts as a buffer during high-rate discharging and charging, thus enabling it to provide and absorb charge rapidly during vehicle acceleration and braking.
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Carbon nanosheets are comprised of 1–7 graphene layers that are predominantly vertically oriented with respect to a substrate. The thickness and morphology of the nanosheets can vary depending on the growth precursor and the substrate temperature. They have an ultra-low in-plane resistivity. The capacitance of carbon nanosheets was measured by cyclic voltammetry in a standard electrochemical three-electrode cell, which contains a platinum counter electrode and a standard mercury/mercurous sulfate reference electrode in 6 M H2SO4 electrolyte. As a working electrode, the capacitance of carbon nanosheets per area was found to be 0.076 F cm−2. A mathematical model was used to simulate the total possible capacitance of a virtual supercapacitor cell that contains carbon nanosheets as the electrode material and found to be 1.49 × 104 F.
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Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs) are hybrid electric vehicles that can draw and store energy from an electric grid to supply propulsive energy for the vehicle. This simple functional change to the conventional hybrid electric vehicle allows a plug-in hybrid to displace petroleum energy with multi-source electrical energy. This has important and generally beneficial impacts on transportation energy sector petroleum consumption, criteria emissions output, and carbon dioxide emissions, as well as on the performance and makeup of the electrical grid. PHEVs are seen as one of the most promising means to improve the near-term sustainability of the transportation and stationary energy sectors. This review presents the basic design considerations for PHEVs including vehicle architecture, energy management systems, drivetrain component function, energy storage tradeoffs and grid connections. The general design characteristics of PHEVs are derived from a summary of recent PHEV design studies and vehicle demonstrations. The sustainability impact of PHEVs is assessed from a review of recent studies and current research and development needs for PHEVs are proposed.
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The concept of intelligent electricity grids, which primarily involves the integration of new information and communication technologies with power transmission lines and distribution cables, is being actively explored in the European Union and the United States. Both developments share common technological developmental goals but also differ distinctly towards the role of distributed generation for their future electrical energy security. This paper looks at options that could find relevance to New Zealand (NZ), in the context of its aspiration of achieving 90% renewable energy electricity generation portfolio by 2025. It also identifies developments in technical standardization and industry investments that facilitate a pathway towards an intelligent or smart grid development for NZ. Some areas where policy can support research in NZ being a “fast adapter” to future grid development are also listed.This paper will help policy makers quickly review developments surrounding SmartGrid and also identify its potential to support NZ Energy Strategy in the electricity infrastructure. This paper will also help researchers and power system stakeholders for identifying international standardization, projects and potential partners in the area of future grid technologies.
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Nickel/metal hydride (Ni/MH) batteries have emerged as the battery technology of choice for electric vehicles. GM Ovonic L.L.C., a joint venture between General Motors and Ovonic Battery was established in 1994 to manufacture and commercialize Ovonic's proprietary Ni/MH batteries for electric and hybrid vehicle applications. GM Ovonic is developing a `family of batteries' aimed at product improvement and cost reduction. Current performance of these new battery designs is described, as well as projections for future improvements. In addition, advances in cell and battery power have allowed further product diversification into cells and batteries specifically designed for a range of hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs).
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Electric vehicles (EVs) are a new load for the electricity companies. They are different from other electrical loads in that they are, by their nature, highly mobile and unpredictable. This paper reviews the infrastructure requirements in order to show how the possible expansion of electric vehicle ownership and use will impact on the electricity industry. There are four key factors which will influence the effect of EVs on the network: namely the battery charger itself, the user profile, the electric vehicle; and the existing distribution network and plant. These areas will be discussed in turn within the paper.
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This paper explores both the promise and the possible pitfalls of the plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEV) and vehicle-to-grid (V2G) concept, focusing first on its definition and then on its technical state-of-the-art. More originally, the paper assesses significant, though often overlooked, social barriers to the wider use of PHEVs (a likely precursor to V2G) and implementation of a V2G transition. The article disputes the idea that the only important barriers facing the greater use of PHEVs and V2G systems are technical. Instead, it provides a broader assessment situating such “technical” barriers alongside more subtle impediments relating to social and cultural values, business practices, and political interests. The history of other energy transitions, and more specifically the history of renewable energy technologies, implies that these “socio-technical” obstacles may be just as important to any V2G transition—and perhaps even more difficult to overcome. Analogously, the article illuminates the policy implications of such barriers, emphasizing what policymakers need to achieve a transition to a V2G and PHEV world.
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Most guidance for carbon footprinting, and most published carbon footprints or LCAs, presume that biomass heating fuels are carbon neutral. However, it is recognised increasingly that this is incorrect: biomass fuels are not always carbon neutral. Indeed, they can in some cases be far more carbon positive than fossil fuels.This flaw in carbon footprinting guidance and practice can be remedied. In carbon footprints (not just of biomass or heating fuels, but all carbon footprints), rather than applying sequestration credits and combustion debits, a ‘carbon-stock change’ line item could be applied instead. Not only would this make carbon footprints more accurate, it would make them consistent with UNFCCC reporting requirements and national reporting practice.There is a strong precedent for this change. This same flaw has already been recognised and partly remedied in standards for and studies of liquid biofuels (e.g. biodiesel and bioethanol), which now account for land-use change, i.e. deforestation. But it is partially or completely missing from other studies and from standards for footprinting and LCA of solid fuels.Carbon-stock changes can be estimated from currently available data. Accuracy of estimates will increase as Kyoto compliant countries report more land use, land use change and forestry (LULUCF) data.
Article
Biofuels are of rapidly growing interest for reasons of energy security, diversity, and sustainability – as well as for greenhouse gas mitigation. In recent years, the U.S. has enacted regulations – and adopted aggressive goals – to encourage increased usage of biofuels. Individual States (especially California) have taken even stronger positions with respect to biofuels. Initial efforts have focused mainly on ethanol, produced via fermentation of sugars from grains (especially corn). Today's R&D focus is on “2nd Generation Biofuels” that are produced from a variety of biomass feedstocks utilizing a wide range of conversion technologies. This paper summarizes policy and regulatory drivers for biofuels in the U.S., describes usage trends and projections, and highlights major R&D efforts to promote development and commercialization of 2nd Generation Biofuels. R&D is being conducted in many areas, including biomass resource assessment, development of new biomass feedstocks, improved conversion technologies, and integration of systems. Other important considerations include fuel quality and specifications, as well as requirements for blending, distribution, and storage. Considerable R&D, policy, and regulatory efforts are also focused on the energy and environmental consequences of biofuels. This includes not only direct emissions associated with vehicular uses, but also the fuels' life-cycle impacts with respect to total energy usage, greenhouse gas emissions, and multi-media effects. Due to the wide diversity of biomass feedstocks, conversion technologies, and systems integration approaches, the life-cycle impacts of biofuels can vary widely.
Article
Using a full systems model of Canada's economy, six alternative scenarios to de-carbonize the personal passenger vehicle fleet are compared to a business as usual non de-carbonized scenario in terms of greenhouse gas emissions, trade disposition of energy commodities, and the physical resources required for energy production. Three scenarios are analyzed to compare the impacts of increasing either ethanol 85, hydrogen, or electricity powered vehicles into the vehicle fleet, with each starting to penetrate the light vehicle stock in 2010 to reach 100% of the new vehicle market by 2050. For each of these three scenarios, we then construct a variant scenario that considers the additional effects of de-carbonizing electricity production. With a de-carbonized electricity sector, net emission reductions are 29% for ethanol 85, and 31% for both hydrogen and electricity. When considering the transportation sector only, net emission reductions equal 13% for ethanol 85, and 14% for hydrogen and electricity. However, although the ethanol scenario results in the lowest reduction in total emissions, it has significant impacts on other parts of the physical resource base. By the time ethanol reaches 5% of the fuel mix in 2015, domestic consumption of grains increases by 20%, in turn impacting crop trade disposition. At this point, emissions are reduced by less than 0.5%, owing to the fossil fuels required since most ethanol is still grain based. By 2050 it is projected that almost all ethanol will be cellulose based, generating a more significant emission reduction but in turn requiring potentially unsustainable amounts of crop residue.
Article
The paper focuses on presenting a proposed framework to effectively integrate the aggregated battery vehicles into the grid as distributed energy resources to act as controllable loads to levelize the demand on the system during off-peak conditions and as a generation/storage device during the day to provide capacity and energy services to the grid. The paper also presents practical approaches for two key implementation steps – computer/communication/control network and incentive program.
Article
The SUBAT-project evaluates the opportunity to keep nickel–cadmium traction batteries for electric vehicles on the exemption list of European Directive 2000/53 on End-of-Life Vehicles. The aim of the SUBAT-project is to deliver a complete assessment of commercially available and forthcoming battery technologies for battery-electric, hybrid or fuel cell vehicles. This assessment includes a technical, an economical and an environmental study of the different battery technologies, including the nickel–cadmium technology. In a general perspective, the impacts of the different battery technologies should be analysed individually to allow the comparison of the different chemistries (lead–acid, nickel–cadmium, nickel-metal hydride, lithium-ion, sodium–nickel chloride, …) and to enable the definition of the most environmentally friendly battery technology for electrically propelled vehicles.The project officially ran from 2004-01-01 to 2005-03-31. This paper summarizes the outcome of the project at the time of the submission of the paper, i.e. January 2005.
Article
In paving the way for a new electricity-based civilization in the 21st century, we hope to find the key to solving the trilemma of securing energy and resources, maintaining economic growth, and preserving the environment. In these circumstances, secondary batteries are expected to be used on a large scale in a new field—for energy purposes and to positively affect preservation of the global environment, resulting in the advent of a new battery-based society in the 21st century. It is important to develop secondary batteries not only with high specific energy for convenience, but also with large capacity, high energy efficiency and long life cycle for effective use of primary energy resources including natural energy. Lithium secondary batteries are a promising option.
Article
The Japanese software industry has yet to join the ranks of Japan's other industries pre-eminent in global competition. This research offers a perspective on the delay of a significant Japanese presence in global markets that relies on newly developed “network externalities” theory in economics. After summarizing the influence of the hardware industry on the development of the “downstream” software industry, the paper describes the deleterious impact of multiple standards on the emerging microcomputer software industry. The paper outlines public policy efforts to address problems that arise from multiple standards, and notes that public policy has proven less successful in this industry. A comparison of the competitiveness of the US and Japanese microcomputer software industries follows. The discussion on competitiveness suggests that while Japanese firms may lag in the near term, the problems posed by multiple standards may well aid in the long-term adaptability and performance of the Japanese industry. In contrast, the US industry, while benefiting from the existence of a single dominant standard, has evidenced difficulty moving to new standards.
Article
Zero-emission mandates are opening commercial markets for battery- powered electric vehicles. Although these vehicles do not produce tailpipe emissions, recent assessments have raised concerns that emissions generated by recycling lead-acid batteries used in electric vehicles may create a major environmental impact. We used an abridged life-cycle assessment, which produces easily comprehended information about each life stage of a product, to analyze environmental impacts associated with recycling and waste management of four battery technologies likely to be used in electric vehicles over the next 5-10 years. We ranked recycling and waste management impacts and emphasized environmental consequences associated with design factors. Our results suggest that nickel-metal hydride batteries are the most environmentally benign; however, an infrastructure for recycling these batteries does not exist. Although its toxicity is relatively low, the sodium-sulfur battery received the poorest ranking, because it is not recyclable. Lead-acid and nickel-cadmium batteries are highly recyclable, but the question of significant toxicity remains.
Conference Paper
This paper examines the integration of new sources of renewable energy into the power systems in Europe-challenges and possible solutions, application of wind power prediction tools for power system operation, new tasks that create new solutions for communication in distribution systems, wind power in Greece, integration of dispersed generation in Denmark, EdF and distributed energy resources in France, and new renewable sources in Italy, The paper also examines the European Commission Technology Platform's vision paper on Electricity Networks of the Future that was published in January 2006. In this respect, drivers towards smart grids, grids today, and key challenges for smart grids of the future are critically assessed
National Institute for Standards and Technology—Department of Commerce
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Draft). National Institute for Standards and Technology—Department of Commerce, Washington, DC.
Better Place at the Design, demonstrations and sustainability impact assessments for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles
  • Anon
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China Outlines Plans for Making Electric Cars
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A technical assessment of high-energy batteries for light-duty electric vehicles
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Batteries feel the benefit of green car money
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Fragmented standards and the development of Japan's microcomputer software industry
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