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Wayfinding with a GPS-based mobile navigation system: A comparison with maps and direct experience
Abstract
This study examined the effectiveness of a Global Positioning System (GPS)-based mobile navigation system in comparison to paper maps and direct experience of routes, by focusing on the user's wayfinding behavior and acquired spatial knowledge. Based on information received from one of these three media, participants walked six routes finding the way to goals. Results showed that GPS users traveled longer distances and made more stops during the walk than map users and direct-experience participants. Also, GPS users traveled more slowly, made larger direction errors, drew sketch maps with poorer topological accuracy, and rated wayfinding tasks as more difficult than direct-experience participants. Characteristics of navigation with these three learning media and possible reasons for the ineffectiveness of the GPS-based navigation system are discussed.
... In the field of wayfinding, numerous studies have investigated spatial-visual cognition by comparing wayfinding in familiar and unfamiliar environments (Huang et al., 2012;2013). Additionally, research has examined the effectiveness of different navigation aids in the wayfinding process (Ahmadpoor & Heath, 2018;Ben-Elia, 2021;Ishikawa et al., 2008;Wang & Worboys, 2016). ...
... Map sketching also indicated that participants had a better understanding after completing the sessions. Ishikawa et al. (2008) conducted a study in which participants were required to navigate an unfamiliar residential area in Kashiwa, Japan. Their performance was analyzed to investigate the effectiveness of using the Global Positioning System (GPS) versus paper maps and direct experience. ...
... Questions with text answers (Lynch, 1960;Vaez et al., 2021) Map Sketching (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Evans et al., 1984;Lynch, 1960) Interviews (Appleyard, 1969) Verbal route descriptions (record) (Lynch, 1960;Appleyard, 1969) Objects or Scenes Recognition Task (Lynch, 1960;Ahmadpoor et al., 2020;Ahmadpoor, 2018; Ben-Elia, 2021) Identify cues task (Lynch, 1960) Scene ordering task (Lynch, 1960;Evans et al., 1984;Burnett & Lee, 2005) Replacement recall task (Lynch, 1960;Evans et al., 1984;Münzer et al.2006 ...
Investigating visual cognition is essential for understanding how individuals consciously view and respond to urban environments, facilitating the desired outcomes in urban design. This literature review explores various methods for studying spatial-visual cognition to uncover how individuals navigate, perceive, and engage with their surroundings. A systematic search was conducted across three databases-Egyptian Knowledge Bank, Google Scholar, and ResearchGate-to identify 31 relevant papers that met the inclusion criteria from an initial set of 1,000 articles. Drawing from these scholarly sources, the review analyzes different approaches to studying visual cognition, focusing on methods such as free recall, cued recall, and estimation tasks, each offering unique insights into cognitive processing. Additionally, the review examines mobile eye-tracking, a more recent and advanced method that provides real-time data on visual attention during navigation. By comparing these methods, the review emphasizes the value of employing multiple techniques simultaneously to gain a comprehensive understanding of spatial-visual cognition, which is vital for effective urban design and planning.
... The increasing reliance on navigation technology makes it important to understand how GPS affect people's navigation ability (McKinlay, 2016), but the current literature is characterized by mixed results. Several studies, indeed, have shown negative effects of actual GPS use when people learn an environment and of self-reported GPS use on subsequent tasks measuring environmental knowledge, wayfinding performance (e.g., Hejtmánek et al., 2018;Ishikawa, 2019;Ishikawa et al., 2008), and sense of direction (e.g., Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;He & Hegarty, 2020;Ishikawa, 2019;. Other studies have, in contrast, shown that actual GPS use during environmental learning increases accuracy in subsequent map drawing tasks (such as considering the number of paths reported; Sönmez &Önder, 2019) or when GPS was used during ongoing wayfinding tasks (e.g., Cochran & Dickerson, 2019). ...
... Among the included studies, 11 were classified as experimental studies because they compared the performance of groups using a GPS tool during navigation (GPS group) with groups that used other aids or no aids during the learning phase. Specifically, five studies included a control group with no aids Ishikawa et al., 2008;* Johansson et al., 2013;Vaez, Burke, & Yu, 2020;Wang et al., 2020), and 12 studies included one or more control groups using other navigation aids (i.e., six studies used maps or printed directions [Cochran & Dickerson, [Münzer et al., 2012;Young et al., 2008]; and two studies included asking other people for directions [Li et al., 2019;Sönmez &Önder, 2019]). The 12 studies were classified as cross-sectional and correlational studies. ...
... Of these eleven studies measuring environmental knowledge, six studies compared a group using a GPS tool (i.e., GPS used during navigation) with control groups using no aids, a map, or asking for directions and then assessing spatial recall tasks Ishikawa, 2019;Ishikawa et al., 2008;* Johansson et al., 2013;Münzer et al., 2012;Sönmez &Önder, 2019). ...
... We investigated the extent to which a static landmark-based wayfinding system may facilitate pedestrian wayfinding and the acquisition of landmark, route, and survey knowledge compared with a static map-based system based on Google Maps and a conventional static paper map. The length of the chosen route that participants were asked to take was similar to that reported in another relevant research [2,9,10]. The route was located in a landmark-rich region that included several turns comparable to those of those other studies. ...
... A high interaction cost complicates the task [13]. It is possible that contemporary mobile maps may have a lower interaction cost than earlier versions, such as what was used in earlier studies (e.g., [9,11]). Before route directions zoomed-in to upcoming turns in turn-by-turn mode, users needed to zoom in and out of the map much more frequently to increase the details of the maps. ...
... However, the amount of visualization provided via a mobile map is probably less than what occurs with a paper map. The small size of the map on mobile phones reduces one's ability effectively to match the map to the surroundings [9,11], which can result in the so-called keyhole problem. ...
Featured Application
Using photographs of conspicuous landmarks in mobile maps can enhance the spatial information presented to pedestrians when wayfinding.
Abstract
When wayfinding with mobile maps, the acquisition of spatial knowledge can be limited by relying on automated route instructions and the small map on the screen. Repeating a route without support from navigation aids may be challenging as the user has been focused on their mobile phone and not the surroundings. According to theories of spatial knowledge acquisition, landmarks are environmental elements important in the development of such knowledge. This study examines how different navigation aids impact spatial knowledge, with a particular focus on landmarks. Participants navigated a route using one of three aids: a booklet of sequential landmarks, a booklet of Google Maps screenshots, or a paper map. The landmarks were selected based on their conspicuity and strategic placement along the route. Thirty participants completed tasks assessing their spatial knowledge of the route and surrounding area after walking it. This study, divided into three phases, compared the effectiveness of each navigation aid, highlighting the effectiveness of landmarks in wayfinding. Results indicate that landmarks significantly enhance wayfinding, especially for pedestrians navigating short, pre-set routes without a map. This suggests that incorporating landmarks into mobile maps could improve on-screen spatial information.
... GPS systems, interactive maps, audio guides, and 3D visualization tools provide unparalleled support for location and direction (Chang, 2015). These systems offer real-time feedback and detailed environmental information, giving users a rst-person perspective in nding routes, evolving from the third-person perspective of paper maps (Ishikawa et al., 2008). Additionally, the integration of navigation technologies with travel apps like Yelp, Expedia, and Airbnb promotes a comprehensive travel planning approach, merging location-based services with accommodations and tourism facilities (Zeng et al., 2020). ...
... Among these options, the signi cant role of PEOU highlights the competitive advantage of navigation apps among various way nding methods. Researchers have found that individuals making route choices with navigation apps tend to make more errors compared to those using paper maps or relying on direct way nding experience (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Münzer et al., 2006), suggesting that tourists need to accumulate experience in using navigation apps. This also explains why respondents place greater emphasis on the PEOU concerning reading, recognizing, and operating the navigation app. ...
... Navigation apps facilitate this by providing extensive environmental information and suggesting optimal routes, simplifying the identi cation of environmental cues. Ishikawa et al. (2008) and Liao et al. (2019) break down navigation-assisted way nding into stages or tasks that effectively streamline the traditional way nding process, emphasizing the brain's role in recognizing, interpreting, and memorizing the environment and encoding spatial information (Golledge, 1999), which also underscores the signi cance of PEOU for users in navigating complex environments. ...
Geo-based technology has become an integral tool in tourism activities, offering vital assistance to travelers in making spatial transit decisions at unfamiliar destinations. The widespread adoption raises the issue of whether technology diminishes or augments the role of environmental cues in wayfinding behavior. To address this gap, we incorporated environmental factors and constructing a Geo-based Technology Acceptance Model (GTAM) that integrates Perceived Environmental Complexity (PEC) and Perceived Map-Alignment (PMA) as external variables. Through an onsite survey conducted in the historic Lijiang Ancient Town with 636 participants, we developed a model to understand the adoption of navigation apps by tourist pedestrians. The significant influence of PEC and PMA on Perceived Usefulness (PU) and Perceived Ease of Use (PEOU) demonstrates how navigation apps, as an extension of traditional maps, systematically and abstractly consolidate human spatial cognition and thinking. By visually presenting geographic information, these apps enhance users’ environmental perception and provide guided pathways in wayfinding decisions, offering a nuanced understanding of the interplay between technology and natural orientation instincts of travelers. This study underscores the pivotal role of geo-based technology in reshaping tourists’ interaction with unfamiliar environments, highlighting its potential to enrich the travel experience through enhanced spatial awareness and decision-making support.
... During navigation and wayfinding, people need to match the physical space they are in with the symbolic space shown on a map to locate their position in space in real-time (Meilinger et al., 2006). Therefore, navigation can improve the efficiency of human wayfinding (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Münzer et al., 2012) and is crucial to people's way-finding behavior. In contrast to traditional maps, YAH (You Are Here) is a widely used navigation map for various public places. ...
... Earlier studies have shown that navigation modes affect the development of human cognitive maps and way-finding performance. For example, (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Münzer et al., 2012) indicates that both traditional mobile navigation in real-world and virtual reality environments can improve human way-finding efficiency. However, some studies suggest that mobile navigation may be detrimental to the development of cognitive maps, mainly because mobile navigation may distract users from their surroundings (Münzer et al., 2006;Willis et al., 2009). ...
... Therefore, using static environmental maps for way-finding decisions is problematic, especially in emergencies such as indoor evacuation (Zhao and Winter 2016). The use of navigation aids is not conducive to acquiring spatial knowledge about the environment (Münzer et al., 2006;Ishikawa et al., 2008), and technology-assisted wayfinding is not conducive to spatial knowledge acquisition compared to more traditional way-finding methods such as using YAH maps (Münzer et al., 2020). Ben-Elia (2021) The idea was addressed by comparing the spatial learning performance of YAH maps and turn-by-turn audiovisual route guides (TBT), noting that YAH maps facilitated the formation of cognitive maps encoded with holistic knowledge of the environment. ...
... Although GPS devices aid navigation and help users reach destinations (e.g., Vaez et al., 2020), they appear to have long-term detrimental effects on individuals' navigation abilities (e.g., Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Javadi et al., 2017;McKinlay, 2016). Studies have shown a negative relationship between GPS use while learning an environment and subsequent recall of environmental knowledge (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Ishikawa, 2019;Ishikawa et al., 2008;Münzer et al., 2012) On the other hand, it should be noted that in some cases participants using GPS were able to remember landmarks better than the group that did not use GPS tools, suggesting that spatial acquisition is still possible during GPS use for orientation (Sönmez & Önder, 2019). ...
... To sum up, the literature to date has focused on the use of GPS for reaching destinations (e.g., Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Ishikawa, 2019;Ishikawa et al., 2008); however, other types of GPS use can be undertaken before, while, and after navigating a route. GPS tools can be used not only to find a destination but also for planning a route regarding stops or timing, looking for nearby rest areas, gas stations, or bus stops (Topete et al., 2024), reviewing the journey made, and exploring the environment. ...
The widely utilized Global Positioning System (GPS) plays a crucial role in everyday navigation. The literature has predominantly focused on GPS use for reaching destinations rather than exploring its various strategic applications and relations with individual factors. The current paper is intended to develop a GPS Uses Scale assessing a variety of GPS uses for wayfinding and other GPS uses (Study 1). We also examine whether GPS uses are related to gender, age, self-efficacy and pleasure in exploring, dependence on GPS devices, and environment knowledge (Study 2). In Study 1, 365 participants completed the new GPS Uses Scale and the McGill GPS questionnaire, for assessing validity. Results from the confirmatory factor analysis confirmed a structure as five-level factors, good reliability, and validity. In Study 2, 200 participants completed the GPS Uses Scale, self-efficacy and pleasure in exploring scale, GPS dependence scale, and a sketch map task after learning a virtual city from a video. Results from the linear model showed that those who use GPS for strategic purposes reported higher self-efficacy and pleasure in exploring as well as dependence on GPS. Moreover, those who use GPS for orientation purposes reported higher dependency on GPS and had higher scores on the map task (environment knowledge). Men were less likely to use GPS for orientation. The present paper outlines the importance of assessing the various uses of GPS, suggesting self-efficacy and dependence on GPS, and contributes to its strategic use.
... Moreover, these errors may have far-reaching consequences, particularly in contexts, such as emergency response situations, where precise spatial understanding is crucial. Although current navigation aids such as GNSS, digital maps, and instructional visualizations can facilitate the performance of spatial tasks (Krukar et al., 2020;Schwering et al., 2017), they have detrimental effects on the acquisition of survey knowledge (Chrastil & Warren, 2012;Hejtmánek et al., 2018;Ishikawa et al., 2008;Münzer et al., 2006;Ruginski et al., 2019). An overreliance on such aids may also impair human spatial ability in the long run (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Gramann et al., 2017;McKinlay, 2016). ...
... However, maps as assistance for spatial learning in real-world navigation may not be significantly beneficial (Richardson et al., 1999). Rather than enhancing wayfinding performances, map use requires additional time (Ishikawa et al., 2008) because users have to interpret map-based knowledge and transform it into environment-based knowledge (Münzer et al., 2020). Without good mapreading skills and spatial ability, these processes can impose extra cognitive loads and result in inaccuracies in users' survey knowledge (Stites et al., 2020). ...
... This concern is not unfounded-an early study found that when asked to navigate with GPS navigation devices rather than traditional navigation aids, such as paper maps or verbal instructions, people performed more poorly on measures of spatial knowledge acquisition (drawing sketch maps and pointing to landmarks learned), and also reported greater wayfinding difficulty (Ishikawa et al., 2008). Similarly, people who learned the layout of an environment via a mobile map performed worse on a distance estimation task than those who learned via a paper map (Willis et al., 2009). ...
... This prediction is consistent with both the possibility that people who are less confident in their own sense of direction abilities, rely more on a navigation aid and also with the possibility that greater use of GPS leads to the decline of navigation abilities over time (e.g., Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;He & Hegarty, 2020;Ishikawa, 2019;Ruginski et al., 2019). Inversely, we predicted that more reported use of the route planning function would be positively associated with SOD, as this function is most similar to reading a map or atlas, which is associated with a good SOD and assists spatial knowledge acquisition (e.g., Ishikawa et al., 2008;Willis et al., 2009). We expected no significant association between SOD and reported time and traffic estimate use or finding a specific service, as these functions are assumed as being supplemental to spatial knowledge of an environment. ...
Given how commonly GPS is now used in everyday navigation, it is surprising how little research has been dedicated to investigating variations in its use and how such variations may relate to navigation ability. The present study investigated general GPS dependence, how people report using GPS in various navigational scenarios, and the relationship between these measures and spatial abilities (assessed by self-report measures and the ability to learn the layout of a novel environment). GPS dependence is an individual’s perceived need to use GPS in navigation, and GPS usage is the frequency with which they report using different functions of GPS. The study also assessed whether people modulate reported use of GPS as a function of their familiarity with the location in which they are navigating. In 249 participants over two preregistered studies, reported GPS dependence was negatively correlated with objective navigation performance and self-reported sense of direction, and positively correlated with spatial anxiety. Greater reported use of GPS for turn-by-turn directions was associated with a poorer sense of direction and higher spatial anxiety. People reported using GPS most frequently for time and traffic estimation, regardless of ability. Finally, people reported using GPS less, regardless of ability, when they were more familiar with an environment. Collectively these findings suggest that people moderate their use of GPS, depending on their knowledge, ability, and confidence in their own abilities, and often report using GPS to augment rather than replace spatial environmental knowledge.
Supplementary Information
The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s41235-024-00545-x.
... Whereas participants who could manipulate the graphical representations performed better in the practice phase than participants who were not allowed to manipulate the representation, they dropped to the performance of an untrained baseline control group in the delayed test phase, implying that they were not able to maintain their superior performance levels. Similarly, several studies suggest that navigational aid is detrimental to the development of spatial representations, but the underlying effects are still in discussion (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Gardony et al., 2015;Hejtmánek et al., 2018;Ishikawa et al., 2008). For example, Ishikawa et al. (2008) compared the orientation and spatial representation of participants in three groups who navigated a route using either GPS, a map, or their own experience (i.e., they were first guided by the study leader). ...
... Similarly, several studies suggest that navigational aid is detrimental to the development of spatial representations, but the underlying effects are still in discussion (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Gardony et al., 2015;Hejtmánek et al., 2018;Ishikawa et al., 2008). For example, Ishikawa et al. (2008) compared the orientation and spatial representation of participants in three groups who navigated a route using either GPS, a map, or their own experience (i.e., they were first guided by the study leader). The participants had to walk from a starting point to a destination in an unfamiliar city. ...
Background
Virtual reality (VR) offers much potential for learning, but it challenges learners' orientation.
Objectives
This paper investigates whether it is possible to use light or movement cues to facilitate orientation in a search task in a desktop‐VR environment so that participants can better attend to the learning content presented simultaneously.
Methods
In two pre‐registered online experiments, we investigated the effects of cueing (light and movement) on search time, learning, and several evaluation variables. Participants were asked to find tools in a virtual workshop, while information about the respective tool was narrated. Experiment 1 (N = 60) used a within‐subject design, that is, the objects were alternately highlighted by light, movement or not. For Experiment 2 (N = 159) the narration was substantially shortened, and a between‐subject design was used. Cognitive load and presence were measured additionally.
Results and conclusions
In Experiment 1, only the movement cue decreased search time, indicating automatic guidance of learners' attention. There was no effect of cueing on learning, which may be due to the average search time being substantially shorter than the narration, leaving sufficient time to attend to the narration exclusively. In Experiment 2 search times were significantly faster for both cueing methods, but only the light cue resulted in better learning outcomes, which could be explained by the slightly lower presence in the movement cue condition.
Implications
Results imply that it is important to develop cues that automatically guide attention without reducing presence.
... Σχετικά με το χωρικό λεξιλόγιο προέκυψε πως τα παιδιά αναπτύσσουν βαθμιαία χωρικό λεξιλόγιο ανάλογα με την ηλικία τους ξεκινώντας από τη χρήση απλών χωρικών προσδιορισμών σε ηλικία 2 ετών και φτάνουν μέχρι σύνθετες χωρικές περιγραφές σε ηλικία 8 ετών. Τέλος, οι ψηφιακές τεχνολογίες παρόλο που φαίνεται γενικά να έχουν θετική επίδραση στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής σκέψης και στην επιτυχή χρήση του χάρτη (Fessakis et al., 2016) υπάρχουν και αρκετές περιπτώσεις που δεν επιβεβαιώνουν αυτή την άποψη (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Hergan & Umek, 2017). Ιδιαίτερα στην περίπτωση της χρήσης του GPS δεν είναι βέβαιη η θετική επίδραση στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής ικανότητας, γιατί θεωρείται πως απλουστεύει το πρόβλημα και δεν ενεργοποιεί το χωρικό λογισμό όσο ο συμβατικός χάρτης (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Markouzis & Fessakis 2016). ...
... Τέλος, οι ψηφιακές τεχνολογίες παρόλο που φαίνεται γενικά να έχουν θετική επίδραση στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής σκέψης και στην επιτυχή χρήση του χάρτη (Fessakis et al., 2016) υπάρχουν και αρκετές περιπτώσεις που δεν επιβεβαιώνουν αυτή την άποψη (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Hergan & Umek, 2017). Ιδιαίτερα στην περίπτωση της χρήσης του GPS δεν είναι βέβαιη η θετική επίδραση στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής ικανότητας, γιατί θεωρείται πως απλουστεύει το πρόβλημα και δεν ενεργοποιεί το χωρικό λογισμό όσο ο συμβατικός χάρτης (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Markouzis & Fessakis 2016). ...
Ο προσανατολισμός και η μετακίνηση στο χώρο έχουν καθοριστική σημασία για τον άνθρωπο. O άνθρωπος, μετακινείται καθημερινά σε γνωστές και άγνωστες διαδρομές στις οποίες χρησιμοποιεί χωρικές πληροφορίες. Η ανάπτυξη της χωρικής ικανότητας των νηπίων έχει σημαντικές θετικές συνέπειες για την γνωστική τους ανάπτυξη γενικότερα και τις μελλοντικές επιδόσεις τους στα πεδία STEAM. Επίσης, μια από τις τεχνολογίες αιχμής που χρησιμοποιούν οι ηλεκτρονικές φορητές συσκευές (ταμπλέτες και κινητά τηλέφωνα) είναι η επαυξημένη πραγματικότητα (Augmented Reality - AR), η οποία αξιοποιεί την αυτόματη εύρεση της τοποθεσίας του χρήστη προβάλλοντας του εξατομικευμένες πληροφορίες στην οθόνη της συσκευής του ανάλογα με το συγκείμενο και τις πληροφορίες κατάστασης του χρήστη. Στην παρούσα μελέτη παρουσιάζονται δυο ερευνητικές διδακτικές παρεμβάσεις με βάση το χάρτη και την AR για φορητές συσκευές στις οποίες μελετήθηκε επίδραση της χρήσης τους στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής ικανότητας προσανατολισμού των νήπιων. Τα αποτελέσματα είναι ενθαρρυντικά και δείχνουν πως τέτοιες εφαρμογές όταν είναι κατάλληλα σχεδιασμένες μπορούν να βοηθήσουν στην ανάπτυξη της χωρικής σκέψης καθώς επίσης και την ανάγνωση και χρήση του χάρτη από τα νήπια.
Abstract: Orientation is crucial for humans, since they move around every day using spatial information. The development of infants’ spatial ability has important positive consequences for their cognitive development and future performance in STEAM fields. In recent years several researchers have been using augmented reality (AR) on mobile devices (tablets and mobile phones) to develop spatial ability. This article presents two research teaching interventions based on the map and AR for mobile devices. The effect of their use on the development of the spatial orientation ability of infants was studied. The results show that such applications when properly designed can help the development of spatial thinking as well as the reading and use of the map by infants.
... Participants from the second group developed a fairly good route knowledge, but a poor survey knowledge. Similarly, Ishikawa et al. (2008) compared navigation performance and the quality of spatial knowledge acquired during explorations of the city of Kashiwa using six different routes. Three groups were created according to the navigation type: (1) GPSassisted using a basemap along with turn-by-turn instructions; (2) map-supported; and (3) direct, without any support or assistance. ...
... However, it is important to clarify that unlike the map learners of the study by Thorndyke and Hayes-Roth, our participants did not familiarise themselves with the environment's configuration prior to the in situ phase, but rather, they did so during the exploration itself. In addition, this first reading (i.e., participants in Group 1 individually acquired less precise metric knowledge) is not in line with the work of Ishikawa et al. (2008), which reports no difference in distance estimation between these two categories of learners, and better sketch map accuracy for the direct experiencers. Nor does it agree with Montello's spatiogenesis framework (1998), which assumes that exposure to a new environment, even minimal, leads to the development of metric knowledge. ...
ABSTRACT
Research on spatial mental representations focuses on individual mental maps and spatial
knowledge. This exploratory study investigates instead collective interactions, collaborative
memory, and the sharing of spatial knowledge. Based on the principle of collaborative
inhibition (i.e., people recall information less effectively in groups), we posed the following
research question: How do collective interactions, occurring during environmental exploration
and group drawing sessions, affect collaborative inhibition, and the quality of sketch maps
designed collectively? We conducted in situ explorations in Plaine St-Denis (France) with realtime
tracking, followed by individual and group drawing sessions. This experiment involved
118 participants divided into three groups: (1) solo explorations without devices; (2) solo
explorations with a mobile mapping application; (3) collective explorations using the same
application enhanced with interaction features (viewing collective routes and photos of
visited places). The comparison of the total number of entities found on individual mental
maps with those included in collective sketch maps reveals that collaborative inhibition
applies to spatial memory. Additional findings indicate that the use of a map, combined
with collective interactions, mitigates collaborative inhibition and increases the accuracy of
the sketch maps. However, the effect of such interactions on group dynamics remains
unclear as of now
... Along with the recent digital transformation, however, increasing reliance on assistive, location-aware, mobile geographic information displays (mGIDs) to support mobility in various movement modalities have already shown to negatively influencing our daily space-time behavior, i.e., 'death-by-GPS' (Aporta & Higgs, 2005;Lin et al., 2017), and cognitive resources (Ruginski et al., 2019). Relying more and more on digital GNSS-enabled navigation assistance and off-loading spatial abilities to its self-localization capacity is impacting our attentional resources away from the traversed environment towards the abused geographic information technology (Gardony et al., 2015) and is thus limiting our innate cognitive spatial abilities and perceptional resources (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Ruginski et al., 2019;Sugimoto et al., 2022). This is worrisome, because humans' navigation abilities influenced by long-term acquired, and repeatedly trained spatial abilities is a significant indicator for and have respective consequences on the success of human life courses. ...
... Some even warn about technological infantilizing and de-skilling of society because of over-reliance of location-aware mGIDs for navigation . Smart assistive devices are attractive to use during cognitively challenging navigation and wayfinding tasks, e.g., specifically when navigating in unfamiliar environments, because they allow us to off-load strenuous perceptual and cognitive resources, innate abilities, and skills to easy-to-use technology (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Thrash et al., 2019). This happens often in parallel to for various other activities. ...
Mobility, including navigation and wayfinding, is a basic human requirement for survival. For thousands of years maps have played a significant role for human mobility and survival. Increasing reliance on digital GNSS-enabled navigation assistance, however, is impacting human attentional resources and is limiting our innate cognitive spatial abilities. To mitigate human de-skilling, a neuroadaptive (mobile) cartographic research frontier is proposed and first steps towards creating well-designed mobile geographic information displays (mGIDs) that not only respond to navigators’ cognitive load and visuo-spatial attentional resources during navigation in real-time but are also able to scaffold spatial learning while still maintaining navigation efficiency. This in turn, will help humans to remain as independent from geoinformation technology, as desired.
... Self-localization and navigation depend completely on the matching of objects in the game world to their representations in the map (area: Riverwood, developer: Bethesda Game Studios) game world compared to the navigation system-like information provided by minimaps or interactive compasses (cf. Ishikawa et al., 2008;Parush et al., 2007). ...
Similar to other scientific disciplines, the development of new ideas and approaches in Cartography can be impeded by scientific conventions, approaches that have proven to be effective and have been established as the standard “way to do things”. In order to overcome restrictive conventions, it can be reasonable to search for inspiration from outside groups that aim to resolve similar technical challenges. In the context of Cartography, we define map design in video games as a functionally deviant subculture. Video game designers are not embedded in the scientific cartographic community and its conventions. Due to the specific gaming context, they may develop innovative approaches for map design, which could be taken up and adapted by cartographers. Based on exemplary maps in video games, we want to demonstrate that differences of requirements, aims and means between traditional Cartography and video games result in different approaches of maps design. Potential applications and limitations of map design approaches in video games for representing real-world environments are discussed. Based on the provided examples, we want to inspire cartographers to use map design approaches of functionally deviant map creators to develop innovative approaches for representing spatial information.
... Current smartphones are also able to visualize the orienteering map. Some years ago, the use of digital devices to display maps was considered counter-productive for learning spatial skills [27,28], but the current capabilities of mobile devices, with their large, tactile and high resolution screens enables the use of high-quality digitalized maps, overcoming previous limitations and complementing the traditional paper-based maps [29]. ...
Orienteering has long been used in physical education due to its recognized benefits for perceptual-motor capacity, as a tool for safe and efficient movement and as a recreational activity. It also helps in the acquisition of skills in multiple domains besides physical education, such as geography, mathematics, or biology. Many teachers use this interdisciplinary nature of orienteering, complementing it with educational tasks at each control point, and using geolocation and mobile devices to avoid the cumbersome tasks related to the setting up and dismantling of physical circuits. However, the systems that allow this kind of geolocated educational orienteering activities have some limitations in their implementation of the elements of orienteering or in the educational possibilities for teachers to configure and monitor learning situations that can adapt to their learning goals. To address these challenges, this paper proposes a set of design requirements to create geolocated educational orienteering systems and a mobile tool, OrientaTree, created following the said requirements. A prototype of OrientaTree has been evaluated by means of a feature analysis and a pilot study involving 5 teachers and 115 students. The results of the evaluation provide evidence that OrientaTree overcomes the limitations of alternative reviewed approaches to conduct geolocated educational orienteering activities. However, it could be improved to allow more configuration capabilities to permit teachers to better adapt activities to their learning goals.
... Recent studies underscore the limitations of relying solely on traditional navigation aids. Research by Ishikawa [16] found that while GPS-based systems offer convenience, they can negatively impact spatial awareness compared to traditional maps, resulting in less accurate mental maps and longer travel distances. Meanwhile, the integration of digital tools such as interactive maps, augmented reality (AR), and mobile applications has shown promise in enhancing user experience by offering real-time, context-specific information. ...
Wayfinding, as conceptualized by Lynch, has transformed from traditional navigation methods reliant on visual cues and landmarks to modern systems that integrate digital technologies and neuroscience. This study addresses the need for accessible and consistent wayfinding systems that accommodate diverse user abilities, particularly in complex environments such as public transit, hospitals, and large institutions. Current systems often lack coordination, clear signage, and comprehensive coverage, leading to navigation challenges. Through a multi-method approach, including literature review and case study analysis, this research evaluates best practices for inclusive wayfinding. Key findings emphasize the importance of consistent visual design, strategic sign placement, and integrating technologies like interactive maps and augmented reality (AR). The study highlights the role of multi-sensory engagement and neuroscience in improving spatial orientation and reducing user anxiety. By adopting a user-centered approach, the research proposes a framework for future wayfinding strategies that prioritize inclusivity and accessibility, ensuring environments are navigable for all. This work offers valuable insights for urban planners, architects, and policymakers focused on enhancing user experience, advancing inclusivity, and promoting well-being in public spaces.
... We conducted the study in a well-lit indoor environment. We used one floor in one of our academic buildings as our study environment and planned four similar routes with similar lengths and equal number of decision points [33,50]. All routes were approximately 65 meters long and included three decision points, consisting of two turns and one additional decision point, as shown in Figure 5. ...
Landmarks are critical in navigation, supporting self-orientation and mental model development. Similar to sighted people, people with low vision (PLV) frequently look for landmarks via visual cues but face difficulties identifying some important landmarks due to vision loss. We first conducted a formative study with six PLV to characterize their challenges and strategies in landmark selection, identifying their unique landmark categories (e.g., area silhouettes, accessibility-related objects) and preferred landmark augmentations. We then designed VisiMark, an AR interface that supports landmark perception for PLV by providing both overviews of space structures and in-situ landmark augmentations. We evaluated VisiMark with 16 PLV and found that VisiMark enabled PLV to perceive landmarks they preferred but could not easily perceive before, and changed PLV's landmark selection from only visually-salient objects to cognitive landmarks that are more important and meaningful. We further derive design considerations for AR-based landmark augmentation systems for PLV.
... With our experimental variants, we achieved identical designs -mobile app, a paper 2D map and direct experience. The research confirmed that the directional errors of the participants in the different groups did not show significant differences from each other [42]. A similar study is designed to assess the AR experience in comparison to the map-based experience. ...
In the context of Industry 4.0, augmented reality (AR) is becoming a key element for innovations in the field of lifetime usability of products and optimisation of production processes. Its integrated use outdoors via GPS and Simultaneous Location and Mapping (SLAM) indoors with a focus on inertial technologies enables precise positioning and efficient navigation in industrial environments. The aim of this study is to test the user-friendliness of the proposed indoor navigation system using inertial sensors. The AR application provides indoor navigation between defined points of interest representing key locations. ARCore and ARFoundation were used for development. Participants are tested using three different approaches to orientation in the environment. Their task is to evaluate the user-friendliness and compare the use of a smartphone with an ARNAV app, 2DMAP with visual elements, and variants without wayfinding support "BLIND". User acceptance is validated using a standardized SUS questionnaire. The evaluation results show similar perceptions of the system among most respondents, except for the need for technical support and the presence of inconsistencies, where the ARNAV group showed different opinions, indicating the need for optimisation in these specific areas to improve the user experience. In line with other studies the results suggest that despite advances in augmented reality, there is still a lack of added value, especially for inexperienced users. Despite the number of studies available, user testing of the proposed systems remains poorly carried out, with the emphasis more on functional verification. The results of the study suggest that the low variety and simplicity of tasks in the studied environment limits significant differences in the perception of AR navigation. Future research should focus on the use of augmented reality in complex environments and in solving more complex tasks.
... Cartographic literacy can be understood as a way to cultivate "more thoughtful, critical readings of maps," which includes the "recognition of geographic features and an ability to read, use, and interpret maps" (Santee, 2022) to understand how they mediate experiences with places (Ishikawa et al., 2008;McCullough & Collins, 2019). Cartographic literacy can be expanded to critical cartographic literacy, which is "an ability to recognize the social influences on any given map, question the sources of the mapped information, and create maps for specific audiences and purposes" (Santee, 2022). ...
This article reports on lessons learned from the first phase of an ongoing multimodal project aimed at promoting digital and environmental literacy in concert with access and accessibility on our university's main campus. We discuss an emerging, student-led locative media project, built to increase engagement with the North Woods, an approximately 300 acre parcel of unmanaged forests and wetlands on the north part of our campus. By layering together deep mapping and accessibility, this project intervenes in the binaries between art and science and nature and technology, with a strong focus on how digital, environmental, and community literacy can contribute to more accessible experiences.
... For instance, among residents living in war-torn areas, the ravages of war are localized and immediately salient, whereas for those fortunate enough to live further away from conflict zones, their experiences of warfare are more remote and less direct-they may be exposed to media reports and online images of those relatively distant war zones and thereby experience them more remotely and vicariously. Similarly, among inhabitants of low-lying Pacific Islands, the threats of residential and community flooding due to climate change are much more proximal and immediate than for residents of less climate-sensitive regions, who are more likely to experience those events as remote and non-threatening (cf., Alvarez & Robles, 2016;Davenport, 2015). 1 Since the early 2000s, several new research topics have emerged such as the behavioral impacts of climate change anxiety and individuals' worries about global crises (Clayton & Karazsia, 2020;Ojala et al., 2021;Swim et al., 2009;Verplanken et al., 2020); and ways that people use digital wayfinding tools like GPS (rather than cartographic maps) to navigate their spatial surroundings (Ishikawa et al., 2008;Park & Evans, 2018). At the same time, foundational theories of environment and behavior such as Lewin's concept of the psychological life space, Barker's theory of behavior settings, and Bronfenbrenner's ecology of human development were broadened to address not only the behavioral impacts of people's immediate physical settings, but also the growing influence of virtual behavior settings and the global cybersphere on their well-being (Aunger et al., 2024;Barankevich & Stokols, 2023;Barker, 1968;Blanchard & Horan, 1998;Bronfenbrenner, 1979;Lewin, 1936;Stokols, 2018). ...
... Ongoing reliance on assistive navigation technology has already been shown to negatively influence humans' daily space-time behavior (i.e., "death-by-GPS phenomenon," Lin et al. 2017). This is because navigation assistance on location-based smart devices is impacting our attentional resources, and consistently off-loading demanding tasks to technology is beginning to limit our innate (neuro) cognitive (spatial) abilities (Aporta and Higgs 2005;Dahmani and Bohbot 2020;Ishikawa et al. 2008;Ruginski et al. 2022;Sugimoto et al. 2022). This should worry us because innate and long-term acquired and trained spatial abilities have shown to be early indicators for human life courses and this can have significant personal consequences. ...
Maps have been invaluable navigation aids for millennia and thus have been critical for human survival. The increasing popularity of and high dependence on digital, location-aware assistive navigation technology, however, has been shown to divert our attention from the environment and to negatively influence innate spatial abilities. To mitigate this, neuroadaptive mobile geographic information displays (namGIDs) are proposed that respond in real-time to navigators’ cognitive task demands and wayfinder’s situated visuo-spatial attention needs. In doing so, namGIDs may not only help navigators maintain navigation efficiency but more importantly, also continuously scaffold spatial learning. To do this, the proposed navigation assistance must strike the appropriate balance between welcomed mobility efficiency gains while limiting human spatial deskilling. Leveraging neuroadaptive cartography, we can ensure to remain effective navigators, empowered to explore the world with confidence.
... Traffic and congestion also prompt en-route changes to plans [101]. Finally, the role of navigation support devices (for instance, satellite navigation devices and maps) influences both behaviour and spatial learning [102,103]. ...
We provide a brief review of human mobility science and present three key areas where we expect to see substantial advancements. We start from the mind and discuss the need to better understand how spatial cognition shapes mobility patterns. We then move to societies and argue the importance of better understanding new forms of transportation. We conclude by discussing how algorithms shape mobility behaviour and provide useful tools for modellers. Finally, we discuss how progress in these research directions may help us address some of the challenges our society faces today.
... Previous empirical map-assisted navigation studies have suggested that navigation aids negatively affect wayfinding performance and spatial knowledge acquisition (i.e., short-term effects). For example, pedestrian navigation studies have shown that mobile map-assisted navigators make more navigation errors and show lower navigation efficiency during wayfinding than when assisted with paper maps or when exploring the environment without any navigation aids (Ishikawa et al. 2008;Kuo, Chang, and Chu 2022). Other studies have shown that assisted navigators form less accurate cognitive maps (M€ unzer et al. 2006;Parush, Ahuvia, and Erev 2007;Willis et al. 2009) because they have worse spatial memory of the traversed environment (Brishtel et al. 2021;Sugimoto et al. 2022). ...
Reliance on digital navigation aids has already shown negative impacts on navigators’ innate spatial abilities. How this happens is still an open research question. We report on an empirical study with twenty-four experienced (male) taxi drivers to evaluate the long-term impacts of in-car navigation system use on the spatial learning ability of these navigation experts. Specifically, we measured cognitive load by means of electroencephalography (EEG) coupled with eye tracking to assess their visuospatial attention allocation during a video-based route-following task while driving through an unknown urban environment. We found that long-term reliance on in-car navigation aids did not affect participants’ visual attention allocation during spatial learning but rather limited their ability to encode viewed geographic information into memory, which, in turn, led to greater cognitive load, especially along route segments between intersections. Participants with greater dependence on in-car navigation aids performed worse on the spatial knowledge tests. Our combined behavioral and neuropsychological findings provide evidence for the impairment of expert navigators’ spatial learning ability when exposed to long-term use of digital in-car navigation aids.
... Instead of exercising cognitive abilities, relying on GPS is offloading cognitive processes to the devices. Numerous studies have suggested that using GPS-based systems may be detrimental to human navigation performance, as assessed using self-report questionnaires, computerised and real-world tests (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020;Fenech et al., 2010;Gardony, Brunyé, & Taylor, 2015;He & Hegarty, 2020;Hejtmanek et al., 2018;Ishikawa et al., 2008;Ishikawa, 2018;Kippel et al., 2010;Parush et al., 2007;Ruginski et al., 2019;Schwering et al., 2017;Willis, Hölscher, Wilbertz, & Li, 2009). For example, the negative effect of spatial anxiety on one's self-reported sense of direction was mediated by a greater self-reported reliance on GPS (He & Hegarty, 2020), and greater reliance on GPS was significantly associated with poorer spatial memory when participants were required to find the location of target paths in an environment they had learnt without using GPS (Dahmani & Bohbot, 2020). ...
... For instance, some studies have investigated devices that improve body performance, such as a robotic hands (Raspopovic et al., 2014), or that improve body experience by tracking body movements with wearable technologies (Boldi et al., 2024). Technologies such as smart phones can extend an individual's cognitive performance (Gallagher, 2013;Ishikawa, Fujiwara, Imai, & Okabe, 2008), for instance when performing navigational tasks or when accessing large amounts of information. Technology embodiment has also been shown to invoke connections to a person's sense of identity through customized looks or personalized preferences (Kang, Shin, & Tam, 2016;Swan, 2009). ...
... The in-situ, real-world assessment of mobile-map-aided pedestrian navigation can contribute ecologically valid new insights into how different landmark visualization styles can influence wayfinders' landmark, route, and survey knowledge acquisition Ishikawa et al., 2008;Kiefer et al., 2014;Münzer et al., 2006). ...
Depicting landmarks on mobile maps is an increasingly popular countermeasure to the negative effect that navigation aids have on spatial learning – landmarks guide visual attention and facilitate map-to-environment information matching. However, the most effective method to visualize landmarks on mobile map aids remains an open question. We conducted a real-world navigation study outdoors to evaluate the influence of realistic vs. abstract 3D landmark visualization styles on wayfinders’ navigation performance, visual attention, and spatial learning. While navigating with realistic landmarks, low-spatial-ability wayfinders focused more on the landmarks in the environment and demonstrated improved knowledge of directions between landmarks. Our findings emphasize the importance of visual realism when enriching navigation aids with landmarks to guide attention and enhance spatial learning for low-spatial-ability wayfinders.
... It is unknown if and how scenes (and maps) engage visual attention, considering that maps of route perspective (first-person views) and survey perspective (overhead views) displays are widely used for effective transit in the real world (Dai, Thomas, & Taylor, 2018) and that spatial navigation depends on other cognitive (i.e., attention and memory) and perceptual processes (Epstein, Patai, Julian, & Spiers, 2017). Despite this knowledge gap, previous work has shown that spatial navigation is more efficient with external aids like maps and verbal directions than without these aids (Ishikawa, Fujiwara, Imai, & Okabe, 2008;Krukar, Anacta, & Schwering, 2020), and that maps depicting overhead views of an environment were equally effective in enhancing spatial knowledge as route-based verbal directions (Jaeger, Weisberg, Nazareth, & Newcombe, 2023). However, in line with the findings from Weisberg and colleagues (2018), we hypothesize that, due to their visual complexity, scenes as cues for spatial directions may have weaker pre-existing associations with target locations than more simple schemas or to a lesser extent words. ...
Spatial navigation is supported by visual cues (e.g., scenes, schemas like arrows, and words) that must be comprehended quickly to facilitate effective transit. People comprehend spatial directions faster from schemas and words than scenes. We hypothesize that this occurs because schemas and words efficiently engage space-based attention, allowing for less costly computations. Here, participants completed a spatial cueing paradigm, and we calculated cue validity effects – how much faster participants responded to validly than invalidly cued locations – for each cue format. We pre-registered Experiment 1 and found significant cue validity effects with schemas and words, but not scenes, suggesting space-based attention was allocated more efficiently with schemas and words than scenes. In Experiment 2, we explicitly instructed participants to interpret the scenes from an egocentric perspective and found that this instruction manipulation still did not result in a significant cue validity effect with scenes. In Experiment 3, we investigated whether the differential effects between conditions were due to costly computations to extract spatial direction and found that increasing cue duration had no influence. In Experiment 4, significant cue validity effects were observed for orthogonal but not non-orthogonal spatial directions, suggesting space-based attention was allocated more efficiently when the spatial direction precisely matched the target location. These findings confirm our hypothesis that efficient allocation of space-based attention is guided by faster spatial direction comprehension. Altogether, this work suggests that schemas and words may be more effective supports than scenes for navigation performance in the real-world.
... While finding one's way, one's mental representation of the environment (cognitive map) is developed and refined as new spatial information arrives, resulting in a continuously updated model of spatial features, called spatial knowledge acquisition (Lynch 1960;Vanclooster, de Weghe, & Maeyer 2016). As wayfinding is a complex task and users do not always have existing or accurate knowledge about the environment (e.g. when in a new neighborhood), users often rely on mobile navigation applications like Google Maps, Apple Maps, or Baidu Maps (Ishikawa, Fujiwara, Imai, & Okabe 2008;Löwen, Krukar, & Schwering 2019;Vanclooster et al. 2016). Routing information in mobile navigation applications is usually presented in the form of a mobile map, accompanied by verbal navigation instructions (text or audio). ...
From oral histories to mnemonic devices, humans have an excellent ability to remember object sequences and their relationships inside of narratives (Baddeley 1999). In pedestrian wayfinding, remembering landmarks and their relationships is considered key to learning routes (Denis, Mores, Gras, Gyselinck, & Daniel 2014). This research explores whether augmenting verbal route instructions with a narrative increases the memorability of a route. Narrative theory is applied as a framework to develop narrative-based navigation instructions, which were tested in a field study (N = 18). After learning a route, participants recalled the route verbally, completed a photo-based landmark sequencing task and discussed their answers. One week later, a route recognition task and a second photo-based landmark sequencing task was completed online. Results show few significant differences between the two groups when compared quantitatively. However, during interviews, the narrative group repeatedly cited the narrative when remembering the route. The results suggest that incorporating narratives into route directions can be further explored, and that some novel direction types may not be well-measured using quantitative methods. This research confirms the prowess of landmark-based instructions to facilitate route memory, contributes to the growing body of work augmenting landmark-based route directions with detailed information, and further encourages designers to consider alternate route communication methods.
... Since its public spread, satellite navigation has attracted attention in academia, and has predominantly been approached through cognitivist experimental research. Studies have examined the effects of digital navigation on spatial cognitive skills, the ability to orient in space, wayfinding behavior, spatial learning, spatial memory, and the formation of users' cognitive maps (M€ unzer et al. 2006;Ben-Elia 2021;Ishikawa et al. 2008;Ishikawa 2016;Ruginski et al. 2019;G. E. Burnett and Lee 2005). ...
This paper aims to develop a theoretical interpretation of how satellite navigation transforms drivers’ experience of automotive spaces. The use of satellite navigation has, so far, been predominantly studied from a cognitivist perspective based on the computer model of cognition and the theory of spatial disengagement. Experimental studies have concluded that over-reliance on digital navigation tools diminishes spatial orientation and spatial memory. According to the dominant interpretation, satellite navigation causes disengagement from space. After addressing these approaches, the paper introduces an embodied perspective of satellite navigation. This is accomplished by applying the phenomenology of perception of Maurice Merleau-Ponty, whose notions, such as perception, body schema, motor habit, and virtual body, illuminate otherwise undertheorized dimensions of drivers’ spaces. By using digital tools for wayfinding, drivers’ body schema, virtual body, and perception of space are modified, thereby enabling an engagement with convoluted ‘mesh spaces.’ This new term is integral to the interpretation of drivers’ spaces, as well as being distinct from that of ‘hybrid space,’ although both aim to conceptualize spaces, including physical objects and their visual representations. Conclusions will be drawn against the broader context of the mediatization of everyday life.
... Navigation with a traditional map required maintaining a constant contact with the surrounding area, however smartphone navigation only reduces human interaction to following the path displayed on the smartphone screen. Several studies conducted over the last two decades have shown that prolonged exposure to digital navigation services may impair the natural process of acquiring spatial knowledge during travel [39][40][41][42][43] . Moreover, according to Acedo et al. 44 , human emotions and behaviours associated with a geographical area (sense of place) define (to a certain extent) the way in which people understand space, in particular urban space. ...
Spatial orientation is the effectiveness with which one is able to assess the mutual location of objects relative to a point of reference or a system of coordinates. Traditionally, this ability has been evaluated through field navigation tests, which do not take into account the prevailing influence of free online maps and virtual walks on a person’s interpretation of space. In this context, this study presents a Web-GIS tool designed and developed to examine spatial orientation skills in the context of the used map type. The tool, named Geo-Survey, enables combination of survey questions with customized maps, providing users with a set of possible answer types. Moreover, using the unique concept of predefined answers, the tool attempts to automate the process of analysing research results. The tools’ performance is evaluated via assessing the spatial orientation skills of a group of young adults.
... Owing to such behaviour, most everyday tasks have been shifted from physical paradigms to the virtual ones, especially wayfinding [19]. Wayfinding applications on mobile devices are built on digital platforms to efficiently deliver the requisite information on the go and can enhance wayfinding performance [15,20]. Most of the wayfinding applications have been developed on the Android and IOS platforms to facilitate the target audience. ...
Wayfinding applications on mobile devices are gradually becoming efficient in delivering environmental information. These applications provide a variety of wayfinding information such as location, orientation, route planning, spatial layout and provided facilities. The information is presented in multiple layers which requires a thoughtful design to effectively deliver the information, especially in complex environments. The objective of the present study is to explore the user preferences for information content and design in wayfinding applications. A wayfinding experiment has been conducted in a complex university setting by using the wayfinding application with a multi-layered information design. Thirty-one participants performed four wayfinding tasks using the purpose-built wayfinding application. Data has been collected by mobile screen recording, pre-and post-experiment interviews. Significant behavioural patterns have been observed for accessing the information content and user preferences have also been explored for the information design. Accurate location pointer, written directions and five to six-layered information design have been preferred for mobile wayfinding information. Information for validation in the real environment has been a significant factor during wayfinding tasks. Significant gender differences have also been recorded. A synthesis of wayfinding information from digital and real-world sources has been suggested to improve the existing wayfinding systems in complex institutional environments.
... Traditional mobile navigation methods retrieve the position of the device either by cellular network [16] or via satellite using GPS [7]. While these methods perform good giving driving, cycling or walking directions, they lose precision when indoors. ...
Indoor localization and navigation is a common problem mostly in large buildings where multiple floors, rooms and corridors may generate a struggling experience for the visitor. The complex internal environment, the composite architectural designs and the interference of objects and people in crowded areas, make the adoption of generic solutions hard to implement and apply, while their performance and the provided user experience do not meet the typical operational requirements. Different ways to achieve indoor localization are examined, but all require either static interventions (QR codes) or installing IoT sensors. In this work we present an AR Navigation System solution which utilizes a mobile device’s ability to exploit Augmented Reality (AR) for indoor localization and mapping. At the core of the system is a hybrid platform (cloud/edge), which enables the generate immersive AR navigation experiences. Key contribution of this work is the use of the aforementioned platform for introducing an AR “checkpoint” navigation system which integrates our algorithms for indoor localization, path planning, point of interest visualization and device interoperability. A prototype of the overall solution has already been implemented and it is deployed at the University of Piraeus for evaluation from students, personnel and visitors.
... With respect to navigational interfaces, GPS navigation systems make spatial learning more difficult compared to learning with maps or through direct experience (Ishikawa et al., 2008). It is argued that this can be improved by emphasising orientation information rather than turn-by-turn information (Schwering et al., 2017). ...
A fundamental problem in geospatial interface designs is how aspects of user cognition may be incorporated into their design structures for improved reasoning, decision making, and comprehension in geographic spaces. Narrative environments are one such example of geographic spaces, where stories are told and visually displayed. Recently, geospatial narrative environments have become a popular medium for visualising information about space and time in the Earth sciences. Consequently, effective ways of enhancing user cognition in these environments through visual narrative comprehension is becoming increasingly important, particularly for the development of interactive learning environments for geo-education. It was hoped that subtle visualisations of future tasks (environmental precues) could be incorporated into an ambient narrative interface that would improve user cognition and decision making in an immersive 3D virtual narrative environment, which acted as an experimental analogue for how the interface could operate in extended reality (XR) environments. To address this, a hybrid navigational interface called Future Vision was developed. In addition to controller-based locomotion, the interface provides subliminal environmental precues in the form of simulated future thoughts by teleporting the user to a future location, where the outcome of a two-alternative forced-choice (2AFC) decision making task could be briefly seen. The navigational effectiveness of the interface was analysed using the Steering Law: a geographic analysis technique for trajectory-based human-computer interactions. The results showed that Future Vision enhanced participants’ navigational abilities through statistically significant improvements in average task completion times and movement speed. When comparing the experimental interface (Future Vision) with the control interface (an HTC Vive controller), the results showed that the experimental interface was 2.9 times as effective for navigation. Improvements were also seen in the 2AFC decision making task when compared to participants in the control group (who were unguided in their decision making). These were close to significance, and provided weak evidence that Future Vision improved participants’ 2AFC decision making. Improvements in decision making occurred even when participants reported being unaware of the precues. In addition, Future Vision produced a similar information transfer rate to brain-computer interfaces in virtual reality, where participants move virtual objects via motor imagery and the imagined performance of actions through thought. This suggests that visualisations of future thoughts operate in a motor imagery paradigm that is associated with the generation and execution of a user’s goals and intentions. The results also suggest that Future Vision behaves as an optimally designed cognitive user interface for ambient narrative communication during navigation and decision making. Overall, these findings demonstrate how XR narrative-style GIS digital representations may be incorporated into cognitively inspired geospatial interfaces. When employed in real or virtual geographic narrative environments, these interfaces may allow for new types of quantitative GIS analysis techniques to be carried out in the cognitive sciences, leading to insights that may result in improved geospatial interface designs in the future.
Navigating unfamiliar environments poses significant challenges, especially for individuals with cognitive impairments. These individuals often struggle with maintaining orientation, recalling routines, and traveling through new environments due to their limited cognitive capacity. The current state of research on visual environmental attributes of wayfinding reveals a gap, particularly regarding individuals with mild cognitive impairment (MCI), compared to healthy older adults. Few studies have objectively identified the visual cues and environmental factors that influence wayfinding in those with cognitive impairments. This study addresses this research gap by objectively identifying the visual environmental attributes influencing wayfinding among MCI subjects in a memory care facility compared to healthy older adults. Using eye-tracking technology, we investigated which visual environmental attributes attract eye fixation during wayfinding in care facilities. Forty-eight subjects, categorized into MCI and non-MCI groups, navigated through unfamiliar indoor environments while their eye movements were tracked. The results, in agreement with previous research, showed that MCI group exhibit significant reduced success rates and longer navigation times compared to non-MCI group. Findings of the eye-fixation rank-order analysis showed that MCI subjects prioritized directional signs and architectural features, while non-MCI subjects focused on identifying signs and informative elements. These findings emphasize the importance of tailored design practices for care facilities, highlighting specific visual cues crucial for guiding navigation in individuals with MCI. The study provides insight to guide architects and healthcare professionals in creating inclusive environments that support independence and well-being for older adults with cognitive impairments, advocating for interventions to enhance wayfinding in care facilities.
This article reports on lessons learned from the first phase of an ongoing multimodal project aimed at promoting digital and environmental literacy in concert with access and accessibility on our university's main campus. We discuss an emerging, student-led locative media project, built to increase engagement with the North Woods, an approximately 300 acre parcel of unmanaged forests and wetlands on the north part of our campus. By layering together deep mapping and accessibility, this project intervenes in the binaries between art and science and nature and technology, with a strong focus on how digital, environmental, and community literacy can contribute to more accessible experiences.
The way a map scale is represented plays a key role in comprehending it. In this research, we examined the influence of the form of representation of the map's scale (numerical scale, linear graphic scale and circular graphic scale), as well as the user's gender, on user estimates of the distance between two objects on the map (i.e., a 5, 10, 15 and 20-minute walk). We gave 183 college students 84 maps of three types: 28 numerical scale, 28 linear graphic scale, and 28 circular graphic scale. Each map presented varied distances to be estimated. We assessed the participants' accurate hits, errors, and their hits minus errors in these distance estimations. Participants had both more hits and more errors on circular scale maps than on linear or numerical scale maps. The distances between objects and gender also significantly influenced results, as errors were influenced by the distance between objects. Thus, both the type of scale and the distance between objects influenced the number of hits minus the number of errors.
Millions of people move for work yearly, but this labor migration risks social and cultural challenges, hindering migrants' integration into new communities. Software tools could support this transition, but the design space around, and the mechanisms behind, how individuals develop spatial understanding and 'sense of place' is unclear. In our study, we leverage mental maps to explore migrants' 'sense of place'. We conduct a mixed- methods study with 12 participants, spanning two sessions - one before and one after their relocation, totaling 24 data sessions. We discover that post-relocation, mental maps not only widen coverage and generalization but also decrease in cartographic complexity and accuracy, reflecting a nuanced blend of personal narratives and spatial awareness. We also find that strategies for rebuilding and reshaping 'sense of place' span a complex set of dimensions spanning personal, social and environmental challenges, post-move. Our findings lay the groundwork, and underscore the need, for 'platial' (versus spatial) understanding and tools to rebuild sense of place, and foster better community cohesion. We highlight design opportunities for creating tools, especially those capturing personal nuances, to help migrants reestablish themselves and their sense of place.
Spatial navigation is more difficult and effortful for older than younger individuals, a shift which occurs for a variety of neurological, physical, and cognitive reasons associated with aging. Despite a large body of evidence documenting age‐related deficits in spatial navigation, comparatively less research addresses how to facilitate more effective navigation behavior for older adults. Since navigation challenges arise for a variety of reasons in old age, a one‐size‐fits‐all solution is unlikely to work. Here, we introduce a framework for the variety of spatial navigation challenges faced in aging, which we call LOST — Location, Orientation, Spatial mapping, and Transit . The LOST framework builds on evidence from the cognitive neuroscience of spatial navigation, which reveals distinct components underpinning human wayfinding. We evaluate research on navigational aids—devices and depictions—which help people find their way around; and we reflect on how navigation aids solve (or fail to solve) specific wayfinding difficulties faced by older adults. In summary, we emphasize a bespoke approach to improving spatial navigation in aging, which focuses on tailoring navigation solutions to specific navigation challenges. Our hope is that by providing precise support to older navigators, navigation opportunities can facilitate independence and exploration, while minimizing the danger of becoming lost. We conclude by delineating critical knowledge gaps in how to improve older adults' spatial navigation capacities that the novel LOST framework could guide to address.
This article is categorized under: Psychology > Development and Aging
Neuroscience > Cognition
Neuroscience > Behavior
Navigation assistance systems have become integral to our daily routines, helping us to find our way through unfamiliar environments. However, their use may come at a price, as empirical evidence suggests a potentially harmful impact of these systems on our spatial abilities, including the acquisition of spatial knowledge. This could be remedied by giving users more freedom and involving them in the decision-making process. Therefore, we present a navigation system that combines augmented reality and Beeline Navigation (BeeAR). Here, the location of the destination is overlaid with a digital landmark and permanently displayed to the user via a visual, translucent AR display (without a map). Since the digital content is integrated into the real world, no mapping between the device and reality is required, potentially lowering the workload. Making one's own decisions along the route is expected to increase engagement with the environment, leading to increased acquisition of spatial knowledge. We compare BeeAR with findings from a previous study comparing Free Choice Navigation (FCN) and Turn-by-Turn (TBT) navigation conducted along the same routes on the outskirts of Vienna, Austria. Although BeeAR and FCN do not provide users with a map, BeeAR users could better retrace the walked route and remembered more points of interest along the route than FCN users. Participants of all three navigation conditions achieved a high configuration similarity between drawn points of interest and their true locations, albeit only one navigation condition included a map.
Drawing from cognitive-developmental and cartographic theory, the authors tested children's understanding of person–map–space relations. After introducing maps of the classroom, an adult moved to different positions in the room and pointed straight ahead. Five- to 12-yr-old children (
N = 259) placed colored arrow stickers on the map to show the person's location and heading, once when the map was aligned with the room and once when rotated 180°. Performance was better on the aligned condition and when headings were parallel to the nearby wall; most younger children failed to understand point of view; and sex differences favored boys. Data from 168 children given additional spatial tasks were consistent with the hypothesized importance of projective spatial concepts for mapping. Data suggest that it is geometric (spatial) rather than representational (symbolic) space–map correspondences that pose particular difficulty for older children. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This chapter details the current state of research and development on global positioning systems (GPS)-based navigation systems for the visually impaired, most of which are portable, verging on wearable. It begins with a consideration of the need for such systems by the visually impaired, distinguishing between two different aspects of wayfinding, obstacle avoidance and navigation. It then reviews a number of efforts aimed at developing navigation aids for the visually impaired and then focuses first on other projects dealing with GPS-based navigation systems and then on our own project. It then briefly describes some research we have done on the display of information for route guidance and for conveying the spatial layout of important off-route entities (e.g., landmarks) and ends with a consideration of the obstacles to be overcome in implementing effective practical systems. The two experiments (with 9 blind Ss) together indicate that spatialized speech from a virtual acoustic display has promise as part of the user interface of a blind navigation system. Performance was at least as good as with the other display modes investigated, and spatialized speech has the additional advantage of consuming less time than conventional speech. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This paper describes two ontologies of wayfinding with multiple transportation modes in an urban area. One ontology is developed from the perspective of the traveler, which is different from the perspective presented by the public transportation system. Our hypothesis is that the ontology of the traveler is a subset of the ontology of the system, thus leading to the idea of nested ontologies. The ontologies are derived from a case study of wayfinding in the city of Hamburg, Germany. The information on the system's ontology is derived from the material provided to the traveler, e.g., maps, timetables, station layout and signs.
The current study examined the conditions under which cognitive representations of spatial information are stored in orientation-specific ways (like pictures) versus orientation-free ways. College students learned simple paths by viewing a map of them (map condition), by walking them while blindfolded (walk condition), or by directly viewing the route from a single vantage point (look condition). Blindfolded subjects then stood on the route in various orientations and made directional judgments to other locations on the route. When subjects learned the route by indirect, symbolic means (map), judgments were quite easy when aligned with the learned map orientation and were difficult if the judgment was not aligned with the learned map orientation. However, when subjects learned the route by more direct, primary spatial learning (walk or look), there were no alignment effects. Thus, subjects treat information from primary (direct) and secondary (symbolic) spatial learning in distinct ways. Learning from a map results in a figural representation that has great precision but a specific orientation. Learning the route more directly results in a representation that is less precise but one that can be used in more flexible ways.
Previous research on spatial memory indicated that memories of small layouts were orientation dependent (orientation specific) but that memories of large layouts were orientation independent (orientation free). Two experiments investigated the relation between layout size and orientation dependency. Participants learned a small or a large 4-point path (Experiment 1) or a large display of objects (Experiment 2) and then made judgments of relative direction from imagined headings that were either the same as or different from the single studied orientation. Judgments were faster and more accurate when the imagined heading was the same as the studied orientation (i.e., aligned) than when the imagined heading differed from the studied orientation (i.e., misaligned). This alignment effect was present for both small and large layouts. These results indicate that location is encoded in an orientation-dependent manner regardless of layout size.
In this study, the nature of the spatial representations of an environment acquired from maps, navigation, and virtual environments (VEs) was assessed. Participants first learned the layout of a simple desktop VE and then were tested in that environment. Then, participants learned two floors of a complex building in one of three learning conditions: from a map, from direct experience, or by traversing through a virtual rendition of the building. VE learners showed the poorest learning of the complex environment overall, and the results suggest that VE learners are particularly susceptible to disorientation after rotation. However, all the conditions showed similar levels of performance in learning the layout of landmarks on a single floor. Consistent with previous research, an alignment effect was present for map learners, suggesting that they had formed an orientation-specific representation of the environment. VE learners also showed a preferred orientation, as defined by their initial orientation when learning the environment. Learning the initial simple VE was highly predictive of learning a real environment, suggesting that similar cognitive mechanisms are involved in the two learning situations.
This chapter reviews several means of presenting route instructions to a mobile user. It highlights some general considerations for presentations on mobile devices and discusses the process of generating route instructions, presenting route instructions, and technical issues associated with presenting route information in 3D. To produce a presentation that is appropriate for the current situation, it is necessary to adapt it to situational factors such as the currently available resources or the quality of the available positional information. Especially, when generating a presentation on mobile devices, two types of resources are of special importance: (1) Technical resources including factors such as speed, bandwidth and screen resolution and (2) The cognitive resources of the user that impact the way that information should be presented to the user. In addition to cognitive and technical resources, the user's current position is not only a key factor in determining the kind of situation a mobile user is in but also highly relevant in the context of generating and presenting route instructions. For example, knowing the user's current location is vital if the beginning of a route corresponds to his/her current location, which frequently occurs in the case of a mobile user.
How to effectively represent spatial information on handheld mobile devices is a key question given the increasing use of personal digital assistants (PDAs) and cellphones concurrent with the development of location-based services. The mobile use of digital maps on small displays presents new capabilities and challenges that differ from using paper maps in a mobile setting or viewing digital maps on a desktop computer. This research addresses these issues through a pilot study that evaluates maps on a mobile device used for a field-based task. Map representations at two levels of generalization were compared by analyzing subject performance in an on-foot route-fo llowing task with a handheld computer used as a navigation aid. In examining subject time and accuracy as well as interaction with the mobile device during the task, the results carry implications for map design for small, mobile displays and identify factors that affect the use of maps while moving. Maps are and will increasingly be used on small displays in mobile contexts for a variety of purposes and in many different environments. The requirements and preferences of mobile users, as well as how these maps are used in different contexts, must be understood in order to inform effective designs.
Research into human spatial behavior has tended to rely solely on evidence provided by the research subjects themselves. Subjects' accounts of where they were and for how long were logged and integrated into time-space diaries. In the past few years, a number of studies have exploited advanced tracking technologies instead of the traditional diary technique, however these were mostly transport studies focusing on vehicular movement. This article explores the implementation of tracking technologies as a tool for gathering data on pedestrian spatial behavior. The article considers two of the principal tracking technologies available today: satellite navigation systems and land-based navigation systems. The makeup and properties of each technology are detailed, and their potential as data-gathering tools on pedestrian spatial behavior is evaluated.
Human communication on wayfinding makes extensive use of landmarks. With a formal model of salience, route planning services
can include landmarks as well. Such a model was presented considering visual, semantic, and structural properties of spatial
features. This model measures saliency independent from a given route. Our hypothesis is that an additional factor is cognitively
relevant for the selection of appropriate salient features: advance visibility for a person approaching a destination point.
We will propose a computational measure for advance visibility. The new measure is used to identify suited salient features at route decision points: a feature is suited for a wayfinding instruction if it is (a) salient, and (b)
in advance visible. The relevance of advance visibility is tested by a comparison of wayfinding success with instructions
made with and without this additional measure. Computational effort is observed to check feasibility.
To compare the effectiveness of navigational aids, drivers attempted to follow routes in unfamiliar environments using either customized route maps, vocal directions, or both. The customized route maps, which included only information relevant to the particular route, were drawn to scale, used colour, included interturn mileages, and showed landmarks. The route to be driven was traced in red. To obtain vocal directions, drivers operated a tape recorder that permitted them to play the next or the previous instruction. Instructions were generated by a set of rules with roughly one set of instructions per turn. Information that was not on the map was not included in the vocal instructions. Drivers who listened to directions drove to destinations in fewer miles, took less time, and showed about 70% fewer errors than the map drivers. The performance of drivers with route maps and voice directions was between that of the map only and voice only drivers.
Environmental spatial abilities are involved in everyday tasks such as finding one's way in the environment and learning the layout of a new environment. Self-report measures of environmental abilities, e.g., asking people to rate their “sense of direction (SOD),” have been found to predict objective measures of these abilities quite highly. In this study, we developed a standardized self-report scale of environmental spatial ability, the Santa Barbara Sense of Direction Scale (SBSOD). The scale proved to be internally consistent and had good test–retest reliability. A series of four validity studies examined its relation to measures of spatial updating and acquisition of spatial knowledge at different scales and acquired from different learning experiences. These studies suggested that the SBSOD is related to tasks that require one to update location in space as a result of self-motion. It is more highly correlated with tests of spatial knowledge that involve orienting oneself within the environment than with tests that involve estimating distances or drawing maps. Self-report SOD is also somewhat more highly correlated with measures of spatial knowledge acquired from direct experience in the environment than with measures of knowledge acquired from maps, video, or virtual environments (VE).
Maps have real-world utility for activities of daily life and are critical for many disciplines. Here we discuss how educating children to use maps for navigation may enhance not only their wayfinding skills, but also their more general representational and spatial skills. After reviewing relevant developmental and educational research, we document the need for innovative educational curricula to meet the challenges of teaching map navigation within the school setting. We then describe the development and evaluation of one such curriculum—Where Are We? (WAW?; Kastens, 2000)—designed to simulate real-world map-navigation experience. We close by proposing five components that should be included when evaluating any developmentally motivated curriculum for teaching real-world knowledge, illustrating each component by reference to our ongoing WAW? evaluation research.
The emergent interest in ontological and conceptual approaches to modeling route information results from new information technologies as well as from a multidisciplinary interest in spatial cognition. Linguistics investigates verbal route directions; cartography carries out research on route maps and on the information needs of map users; and computer science develops formal representations of routes with the aim to build new wayfinding applications. In concert with geomatics, ontologies of spatial domain knowledge are assembled while sensing technologies for location-aware wayfinding aids are developed simultaneously (e.g. cell phones, GPS-enabled devices or PDAs). These joint multidisciplinary efforts have enhanced cognitive approaches for route directions.In this article, we propose an interdisciplinary approach to modeling route information, the wayfinding choreme theory. Wayfinding choremes are mental conceptualizations of functional wayfinding and route direction elements. With the wayfinding choreme theory, we propose a formal treatment of (mental) conceptual route knowledge that is based on qualitative calculi and refined by behavioral experimental research. This contribution has three parts: First, we introduce the theory of wayfinding choremes. Second, we present term rewriting rules that are grounded in cognitive principles and can tailor route directions to different user requirements. Third, we exemplify various application scenarios for our approach.
Most psychometric tests of spatial ability are paper-and-pencil tasks at the “figural” scale of space, in that they involve inspecting, imagining or mentally transforming small shapes or manipulable objects. Environmental spatial tasks, such as wayfinding or learning the layout of a building or city, are carried out in larger spaces that surround the body and involve integration of the sequence of views that change with one's movement in the environment. In a correlational study, 221 participants were tested on psychometric measures of spatial abilities, spatial updating, verbal abilities and working memory. They also learned the layout of large environments from direct experience walking through a real environment, and via two different media: a desktop virtual environment (VE) and a videotape of a walk through an environment. In an exploratory factor analysis, measures of environmental learning from direct experience defined a separate factor from measures of learning based on VE and video media. In structural-equation models, small-scale spatial abilities predicted performance on the environmental-learning tasks, but were more predictive of learning from media than from direct experience. The results indicate that spatial abilities at different scales of space are partially but not totally dissociated. They specify the degree of overlap between small-scale and large-scale spatial abilities, inform theories of sex differences in these abilities, and provide new insights about what these abilities have in common and how they differ.
Two studies are reported that test the hypothesis that people who report a poor sense of direction (PSOD) are impaired in the ability to use spatial information in an abstract or symbolic way. This hypothesis predicts that PSOD people should be impaired relative to good-sense-of-direction (GSOD) people on tasks requiring the mental manipulation of spatial information. PSOD people performed comparably to GSOD people on psychometric tests of visual-spatial ability and were only found to be less accurate than GSOD people on tasks that required the person to mentally update self-to-environmental-object relations. It was also found that PSOD people took longer to point in the direction of unseen spatial targets. But this difficulty was unrelated to whether direct or symbolic spatial information was used to make the pointing response. The hypothesis that PSOD people have difficulty using spatial information symbolically was not supported. Instead, their difficulty with symbolic spatial relations appears to be restricted to mental egocentric updating.
Relationships among spatial abilities, as assessed by a battery of psychometric tests and experimental tasks, and environmental learning, as assessed by a series of macrospatial tasks, were examined in two studies using confirmatory factor analysis with directional paths. The initial study indicated the utility of a five-factor model, one (general spatial ability) derived from psychometric tests, two (spatial-sequential memory and spatial perspective-taking latency) from experimental tasks, and two (topological knowledge and Euclidean direction knowledge) from measures of environmental learning. The best fitting path model further indicated that the spatial-sequential memory factor mediated the relationship between general spatial ability and topological knowledge, and that perspective-taking latency mediated the relationship between general spatial ability and Euclidean direction knowledge. The second study confirmed the five-factor path model using a different participant sample and environmental setting. The only failure to replicate involved the path between perspective-taking latency in the lab and Euclidean direction knowledge in the environment. Results indicate that the relationship between basic spatial abilities and environmental learning is significantly mediated by cognitive processes that can be assessed using laboratory tasks.
Models of the spatial knowledge people acquire from maps and navigation and the procedures required for spatial judgments using this knowledge are proposed. From a map, people acquire survey knowledge encoding global spatial relations. This knowledge resides in memory in images that can be scanned and measured like a physical map. From navigation, people acquire procedural knowledge of the routes connecting diverse locations. People combine mental simulation of travel through the environment and informal algebra to compute spatial judgments. An experiment in which subjects learned an environment from navigation or from a map evaluates predictions of these models. With moderate exposure, map learning is superior for judgments of relative location and straight-line distances among objects. Learning from navigation is superior for orienting oneself with respect to unseen objects and estimating route distances. With extensive exposure, the performance superiority of maps over navigation vanishes. These and other results are consonant with the proposed mechanisms.
Existing frameworks for explaining spatial knowledge acquisition in a new environment propose either stage-like or continuous development. To examine the spatial microgenesis of individuals, a longitudinal study was conducted. Twenty-four college students were individually driven along two routes in a previously unfamiliar neighborhood over 10 weekly sessions. Starting Session 4, they were also driven along a short connecting route. After each session, participants estimated spatial properties of the routes. Some participants' knowledge improved fairly continuously over the sessions, but most participants either manifested accurate metric knowledge from the first session or never manifested accurate metric knowledge. Results are discussed in light of these large individual differences, particularly with respect to the accuracy and development of integrated configurational knowledge.
The current products and the latest research in the field of location sensing systems for mobile computing applications are discussed. Three major techniques to determine a given location are identified. These include triangulation, which uses multiple distance measurements between known points; proximity measuring nearness to a known set of points; and scene analysis, which examines a view from a particular vintage point. Some of the location sensing systems discussed include: the Active Badge location system that uses diffuse infrared technology; the Active Bat location system, which uses an ultrasound time-of-flight lateration technique to provide physical positioning; and ad hoc location sensing.
Spatial memory of real environments, virtual environments, and maps
- Montello