Article

Preparation of biodiesel from waste cooking oil via two-step catalyzed process

Authors:
To read the full-text of this research, you can request a copy directly from the authors.

Abstract

Waste cooking oils (WCO), which contain large amounts of free fatty acids produced in restaurants, are collected by the environmental protection agency in the main cities of China and should be disposed in a suitable way. In this research, a two step catalyzed process was adopted to prepare biodiesel from waste cooking oil whose acid value was 75.92 ± 0.036 mgKOH/g. The free fatty acids of WCO were esterified with methanol catalyzed by ferric sulfate in the first step, and the triglycerides (TGs) in WCO were transesterified with methanol catalyzed by potassium hydroxide in the second step. The results showed that ferric sulfate had high activity to catalyze the esterification of free fatty acids (FFA) with methanol, The conversion rate of FFA reached 97.22% when 2 wt% of ferric sulfate was added to the reaction system containing methanol to TG in10:1 (mole ratio) composition and reacted at 95 °C for 4 h. The methanol was vacuum evaporated, and transesterification of the remained triglycerides was performed at 65 °C for 1 h in a reaction system containing 1 wt% of potassium hydroxide and 6:1 mole ratio of methanol to TG. The final product with 97.02% of biodiesel, obtained after the two step catalyzed process, was analyzed by gas chromatography. This new process has many advantages compared with the old processes, such as no acidic waste water, high efficiency, low equipment cost and easy recovery of the catalyst.

No full-text available

Request Full-text Paper PDF

To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.

... product become more complicated due to the formation of soaps resulting from the reaction between the FFA and the catalyst [84,85]. ...
... Varma and Madras [84] identified the peak conversion of linseed oil methyl esters at a molar ratio 40:1, exploring ratios ranging from 10:1 to 70:1 [84]. Another study used CaO as a catalyst for transesterifying soybean oil with methanol-spanned ratios from 12:1 to 18:1 [91]. ...
... Varma and Madras [84] identified the peak conversion of linseed oil methyl esters at a molar ratio 40:1, exploring ratios ranging from 10:1 to 70:1 [84]. Another study used CaO as a catalyst for transesterifying soybean oil with methanol-spanned ratios from 12:1 to 18:1 [91]. ...
Article
Full-text available
An environmentally responsible and sustainable replacement for finite fossil fuels is biodiesel. Because of its amazing qualities, biodiesel is becoming more and more popular as a renewable fuel around the globe. The many approaches, feedstocks, catalysts, comparison standards, reaction kinetics, final product analysis, and final product characterization of biodiesel are covered in this review article. Researchers have used a variety of techniques to produce biodiesel throughout history, with transesterification emerging as the most effective approach in more recent times. Numerous studies on biodiesel feedstock and catalysts to produce high biodiesel yields have been published; nevertheless, it should be highlighted that the type of feedstock must be considered while choosing a catalyst. The review paper highlights the significance of several parameters that are crucial to the manufacture of biodiesel, without which achieving a high yield would be challenging. The literature has also discussed the limitations and advantages of different catalysts, and scientists are currently working to identify the ideal catalyst within certain optimal parameters for the manufacture of biodiesel. Homogeneous reaction‐based biodiesel synthesis has a number of drawbacks, though, such as water content, a laborious purification procedure, and a low tolerance for free fatty acids. To address these issues, scientists have started investigating heterogeneous reactions involving solid catalysts. A large pore network, a moderate‐to‐high density of strong acid sites, a hydrophobic surface, and the ability to control surface hydrophobicity to avoid deactivation are all desirable characteristics of an ideal solid catalyst. Ion exchange resins, sulfated oxides, heterogeneous base catalysts, boron group‐based heterogeneous catalysts, alkaline earth metal oxides, mixed metal oxides, alkali metal oxides, heterogeneous catalysts derived from waste materials, and different approaches to biodiesel synthesis that employ enzymes, carbon‐based heterogeneous catalysts, and ionic liquids as catalysts are among the categories of catalysts that can be used in the production of biodiesel. The finest benchmarks to compare the quality of biodiesel with European and American Society for Testing Material standards. For detailed characterization of the finished product, gas chromatography and nuclear magnetic resonance are the most effective methods.
... A major consideration for biodiesel production is feedstock selection, which influences fuel cost, land use and food security (notably for edible oil crops and/or animal fats in developing countries [19]). Many recent studies, therefore, focus on biomass waste and used cooking oils [15,[20][21][22] or inedible plant and microalgal species [23][24][25][26]. The cost implications of different bio-oil and waste cooking oil feedstocks are summarised in Table 1. ...
... Nevertheless, contamination of the esterified bio-oil by soluble metal ions is unavoidable, with metal impurities carrying over to the subsequent transesterification stage where triglycerides react with, e.g., methanol and KOH to form FAME. The reaction mixture again separates into two layers, the denser layer containing glycerol (and impurities) and the lighter containing FAME and unreacted methanol (which can be removed by vacuum distillation). FAME is subsequently washed with hot water to remove residual glycerol and dried [21,117]. Such a two-step process can be performed in a single reactor by first adding an acid catalyst and then adding an excess of the base catalyst to neutralise the acid catalyst and transesterify the unreacted triglycerides [118]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Biodiesel is a non-toxic, drop-in liquid transportation fuel that is amenable to continuous production from sustainable biomass resources using catalytic technologies. A diverse range of catalysts and reactor technologies have been experimentally investigated and computationally modelled, for producing biodiesel (fatty acid methyl esters) from oil feedstocks by their esterification or transesterification with short-chain alcohols. Solid-acid and base catalysts are attractive for biodiesel production from renewable oil feedstocks due to their ease of separation from the desired biodiesel and glycerol by-product, use of Earth’s abundant elements, and suitability in continuous processes. Here, we review the technical challenges and opportunities in designing catalytic reactor systems for biodiesel production.
... This short-chain alcohol immediately starts to attack the carbon proton at the active site, which forms the reactive center and produces a tetrahedral intermediate. Ultimately, it is the protonation that migrates, and then bond breaking takes place through intermediate steps, producing the final ester product (Figure 9 (a)) [72]. When the transesterification reaction is catalyzed by the Lewis acid, the oxygen atoms of the carbonyl group of ester compounds combination with Lewis's acid, result in the formation of strong electrophilic compounds. ...
... The electrophilic compounds are subsequently united with alcohols creating nucleophilic bonds. At last ester compounds formed with a new generation and the Lewis acid was separated from carbonyl oxygen (Figure 8 (b)) [72]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
This comprehensive review has systematically examined the use of heterogeneous solid acid catalysts in the production of biodiesel from wastewater-derived sludge by using the PRISMA methodology. The manuscript highlighted the composition and characteristics of wastewater-derived sludge, presenting both the opportunities and challenges associated with its use as a feedstock for biodiesel production. Various types of catalysts were dis-cussed, with a detailed exploration of heterogeneous solid acid catalysts, including zeolites, hetero-polyacid (HPA), mixed metal oxides, and sulphonic acid group catalysts. The advantages and limitations of these catalysts were critically analyzed, providing a balanced view of their potential in industrial applications. The application section delved into the catalytic transesterification reaction, mechanisms of biodiesel production, and the effects of catalyst loading on yield. Performance metrics such as catalytic activity, stability, recyclability, cost-effectiveness, and environ-mental impact were thoroughly evaluated, offering a clear understanding of the efficacy of these catalysts. Synthesis and characterization techniques were also reviewed, shedding light on the latest preparation methods and characterization techniques. Recent advances in catalyst development were presented, showcasing the innovative strides made in enhancing catalyst performance. The environmental and economic implications of using solid acid catalysts for bio-diesel production were assessed, emphasizing the importance of sustainability and economic viability.
... Biodiesel shares similar characteristics with fossil fuel diesel but releases fewer harmful emissions and is capable of biodegradation. Table 1 lists some of the essential qualities and drawbacks of using biodiesel as an alternative fuel (Yaakob et al. 2013;Mahmudul et al. 2017;Atabani et al. 2012;Wang, Pengzhan Liu, and Zhang 2007). ...
... The reaction temperature depends on the specific WCO used and the available time, as higher temperatures generally lead to faster reaction rates. The specific reaction properties for the current study are outlined and the yield obtained was about 95% under the experimental conditions in Table 2. (Wang, Pengzhan Liu, and Zhang 2007). ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
This study presents the design and analysis of a device for converting waste cooking oil into biodiesel to reduce pollution and increase waste treatment. Transesterification is employed to transform waste cooking oil into biodiesel, which occurs in a reactor tank with controlled temperature and uniform mixing. The device is created for residential purposes, where a single unit caters to a group of ten households within an apartment complex. This study analyzes fluid mechanics and chemical processes and tests various impeller designs to ensure proper mixing between chemicals. In addition, the static stability of the tank supports is also examined.
... Similarly, a lower esterification rate of 81.2% was obtained when using NH 4 Fe(SO 4 ) 2 to catalyze the esterification of palm fatty acid distillates, possibly due to reduced activity of NH 4 Fe(SO 4 ) 2 by the water produced during esterification (Ganesan et al., 2019). Similar with our work, the superior catalytic activity of Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 is also demonstrated by Wang et al. (2007), who achieved a 97.22% esterification rate when using Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 to catalyze the esterification reaction of free fatty acids. Since H 2 SO 4 is corrosive and environmentally unfriendly as a catalyst (Pan et al., 2020), Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 was chosen as a catalyst instead of traditional H 2 SO 4 for the esterification reaction. ...
... This was close to the model prediction, indicating that Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 could replace H 2 SO 4 as a catalyst for the methyl esterification reaction of rice bran oil deodorized distillates. Similar to our results, Wang et al. (2007) used Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 to catalyze the esterification reaction of free fatty acids and obtained an esterification rate of 97.22%. The use of H 2 SO 4 as a catalyst, on the other hand, can lead to the corrosion of stainless steel production equipment and generate significant amounts of product recovery and cleaning wastewater, making it unsuitable for industrial production. ...
Article
Full-text available
This study aimed to improve the comprehensive utilization value of rice bran by investigating catalysts for the methyl esterification reaction of rice bran oil deodorized distillates and preparing phytosterol nanoparticles for addition to yogurt. Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 was found to be an effective catalyst, achieving a methyl esterification rate of 98.07 ± 0.23% under optimal conditions. Then, phytosterol nanoparticles were prepared and added to yogurt, resulting in stable addition with the pH decreased from 4.23 ± 0.01 to 4.02 ± 0.01 and the titratable acidity increased from 106.48 ± 0.85 °T to 117.07 ± 0.82 °T during storage. The addition of phytosterol nanoparticles increased the apparent viscosity from 0.68 ± 0.01 Pa s to 0.72 ± 0.02 Pa s and the G * from 80.01 ± 5.50 Pa to 91.80 ± 1.99 Pa, resulting in thicker and more elastic texture. Phytosterol nanoparticle improves the dispersion and stability of phytosterols in yogurt, thus making it stable to be added to yogurt. Fe 2 (SO 4 ) 3 is a suitable catalyst for the methyl esterification reaction of rice bran oil deodorized distillates, and the addition of rice bran phytosterol nanoparticles to yogurt can enhance its texture and nutritional value, offering a promising strategy for producing high value‐added products from rice bran.
... Chuẩn bị methyl ester (ME) cho pha dầu (OP) ME được tổng hợp bằng phương pháp chuyển đổi ester nhóm glycerol của dầu thực vật và methyl của methanol có sự điều chỉnh theo quy trình đã được công bố bởi Wang et al. (2007). Dầu thực vật đã qua sử dụng (WSBO) được thu thập và kiểm tra hàm lượng acid béo tự do nhỏ hơn 75,9 mg KOH/g (Wang et al., 2007). ...
... Chuẩn bị methyl ester (ME) cho pha dầu (OP) ME được tổng hợp bằng phương pháp chuyển đổi ester nhóm glycerol của dầu thực vật và methyl của methanol có sự điều chỉnh theo quy trình đã được công bố bởi Wang et al. (2007). Dầu thực vật đã qua sử dụng (WSBO) được thu thập và kiểm tra hàm lượng acid béo tự do nhỏ hơn 75,9 mg KOH/g (Wang et al., 2007). Hỗn hợp gồm 262,2 g WSBO, 86,4 g MeOH và 4,18 g KOH được khuấy trộn trong 3 giờ ở 60 o C bằng máy khuấy cơ với tốc độ 1000 rpm. ...
Article
Trong nghiên cứu này, nanodifenoconazole (NDifen) được tổng hợp bằng phương pháp nhũ hóa năng lượng thấp sử dụng hỗn hợp methyl ester tổng hợp từ dầu thực vật thải làm pha phân tán trong môi trường nước. NDifen tổng hợp có kích thước hạt trung bình nhỏ hơn 100 nm, được xác định bằng các phương pháp phân tích hiện đại bao gồm: tán xạ ánh sáng động (DLS) và kính hiển vi điện tử truyền qua (TEM). Độ bền nhũ được đánh giá trong 3 tháng, với hàm lượng hoạt chất duy trì trên 95%, được xác định bằng kĩ thuật sắc ký khí đầu dò ion hóa ngọn lửa (GC-FID). Các thử nghiệm in vitro trên các chủng nấm gây bệnh hại cây trồng cho thấy hiệu quả ức chế sự phát triển của nấm rất tốt vượt trội hơn từ 2 – 3 lần so với dạng thương mại. Hiệu quả ức chế khoảng 80% đối với Sclerotium rolfsii, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium ambrosium tại nồng độ 500 ppm trong khi dạng thương mại chỉ khoảng 60%. Do đó, NDifen sẽ là một ứng cử viên tiềm năng trong ngành nông dược hiện đại trong tương lai.
... (1) (GUEMOU, 2021;Chen et al., 2016;Ngueabouo et al., 2022;Wang et al., 2007) below: ...
... The conversion of PFO to methyl ester was calculated using the approach of Wang et al., (2007), and Marchetti and Errazu (2008) given by Eq. ...
... In the second one, the rate of methanolysis was slowed down from 1 to 3 h, but the conversion of FFA into FAME was over 90%. In the third one, the reaction of methanolysis approved to equilibrium after 3 h, prolonging the reaction time did not efficiently increase conversion of FFA [3,4]. ...
... When 1% of ferric sulfate was added, 85% of FFA was converted into FAME in 3 h. However, when the amount of catalyst exceeded 2%, the rate of reaction increased little [3,4]. The parameter of alkali catalyzed transesterification of WFO that was pretreated by the ferric sulfate catalysis was selected from the reference. ...
Conference Paper
Full-text available
Waste frying oil (WFO), which contains large amounts of free fatty acids produced in restaurants, are collected by the environmental protection agency and should be disposed in a suitable way. In this research, a two-step catalyzed process was adopted to prepare biodiesel from WFO whose acid value was 34.20 mg KOH/g. The free fatty acids of WFO were esterified with methanol catalyzed by ferric sulfate in the first step, and the triglycerides (TGs) in WFO were transesterified with methanol catalyzed by potassium hydroxide in the second step. The results showed that ferric sulfate had high activity to catalyze the esterification of free fatty acids (FFA) with methanol, The conversion rate of FFA reached 91.00% when 2 wt% of ferric sulfate was added to the reaction system containing methanol to TG in 12:1 (mole ratio) composition and reacted at 95 oC for 3 h. The methanol was vacuum evaporated, and transesterification of the remained triglycerides was performed at 65 oC for 1 h in a reaction system containing 1 wt% of potassium hydroxide and 6:1 mole ratio of methanol to TG. The final product with 95.25% of biodiesel, obtained after the two step catalyzed process, was analyzed by gas chromatography. This process has many advantages compared with the one-step catalyzed processes, such as no acidic waste water, high efficiency, low equipment cost and easy recovery of the catalyst.
... Untuk bahan baku dengan kadar asam lemak bebas tinggi maka dilakukan dengan dua tahap proses yaitu esterifikasi berkatalis asam diikuti dengan transesterifikasi berkatalis basa. Proses-proses tersebut dilakukan terhadap minyak yang telah diekstrak dari bahan asalnya dari alam (Canakci & Van Gerpen 2001;Zhang et al. 2003;Wang et al. 2007). ...
... Karakterisasi tanah pemucat bekas yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini ditampilkan dalam Tabel 1. Kadar lemak dari penelitian ini berimbang dengan yang dilaporkan Chanrai dan Burde (2003) B. Esterifikasi in situ Esterifikasi adalah tahap konversi dari asam lemak bebas menjadi alkil ester. Asam lemak bebas yang tinggi dalam minyak nabati akan mengkonsumsi katalis basa pada proses transesterifikasi sehingga akan membentuk emulsi sabun yang sulit dipisahkan dan dapat menurunkan perolehan biodiesel (Wang et al, 2007;Sharma et al, 2008). Yield produk dan kadar asam lemak bebas hasil esterifikasi insitu ditampilkan dalam Tabel 2. Yield Produk esterifikasi in situ Yield produk adalah campuran trigliserida, metil ester dan asam lemak bebas. ...
Article
Full-text available
Produksi biodiesel dari sisa minyak di spent bleaching earth dengan proses in situ dua langkah diteliti dalam penelitian ini. Metode ini terdiri dari esterifikasi yang dikatalisis asam diikuti oleh transesterifikasi yang dikatalisis basa. Reaksi esterifikasi dilakukan dengan adanya asam sulfat sebagai katalis asam umum untuk mengurangi jumlah asam lemak bebas (FFA) menjadi kurang dari 2%. Bumi pemutihan yang dihabiskan diesterifikasi dengan rasio massa hexsane:metanol 1.5:1 dan 1:1, 48 suhu 0C, asam sulfat 1% (b/b) hingga fase padat dan waktu reaksi 2, 3, 4 jam. FFA level 1,04% dengan yield 75,0% dari produk esterifikasi diperoleh pada rasio hexane:methanol 1:1 dan waktu reaksi 1 jam min. Oleh karena itu, dipilih sebagai sasaran proses transesterifikasi dengan menambahkan kataliyst alkali 1% (NaOH dan KOH) dan dibiarkan bereaksi selama 1, 2, 3 jam. Hasil biodiesel yang dihasilkan dalam proses ini bervariasi antara 10,43 hingga 79,96%. Hasil optimum yang diperoleh adalah 79,967% pada waktu reaksi 1 jam.
... (Çaylı and Küsefoğlu, 2008 Ramadhas et al., 2005;Felizardo et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2007) Ramadhas et al., 2005;Felizardo et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2007) เมื ...
... (Çaylı and Küsefoğlu, 2008 Ramadhas et al., 2005;Felizardo et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2007) Ramadhas et al., 2005;Felizardo et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2007) เมื ...
Article
Full-text available
Nowadays, the industrial and transportation sector in Thailand is rapidly developing and growing continuously, therefore, its energy demand increases similarly. Due to the increase in crude oil prices and environmental concerns, a search for alternative fuels has gained recent significant attention. Biodiesel, as an alternative diesel fuel, has many merits. It is biodegradable and nontoxic. The objective of this study was to optimize the parameters that affect transesterification of crude palm oil (CPO) to its corresponding fatty acid ethyl ester (FAEE). This work presents the one-step catalyzed process (ethanolysis) for the production of biodiesel from the crude palm oil. Sulfuric acid was introduced to catalyze the transesterification reaction in which the triglycerides (TG) reacted with ethanol. The physical properties of biodiesel were determined, viscosity was 4.95 cSt, specific gravity 0.885, flash point 185 oC, cloud point 18 oC, water content 0.105% and acid value was 0.3275 mg KOH/g Oil.
... Process) ‚¥¬¢-È πμÕπ∑' Ë 1 ‡ªì πªØ'°' √' ¬" ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√'øî ‡ §™-π (Esterification) ·≈-¢-È πμÕπ∑' Ë 2 ‡ªì π ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑√"π å ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π "¡"√∂"™â ‰¥â°-∫ πÈ "¡-π∑' Ë ¡' §à "°√¥‰¢¡-πÕ' √-Ÿ ß "π¢≥- ‡¥' ¬«°-π°Á ¡'°" √"™â ae≈-ßß"πμË " ‚¥¬À≈-°°"√ §◊ Õ "™â°√¥ ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" ‡ae◊ Ë Õ ‡ª≈' Ë ¬π°√¥‰¢¡-πÕ' √-∑' Ë Õ¬Ÿ à "π πÈ "¡-π"Àâ ‡ªì π "√ ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√å°à Õπ´÷ Ë ß ‡ªì πªØ'°' √' ¬" ‡Õ - ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π ®"°π-È π"™â ‡∫ ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬""π°√ -∫«π°"√∑√"π å ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π Crabbe ·≈- §≥- [5] · ¥ß §«"¡ ‡ÀÁ π«à " πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡¥' ∫ ‡ªì ππÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë " §-≠ 1 "π 4 ¢Õß μ≈"¥‚≈° ¡' √" §"∂Ÿ°°«à "πÈ "¡-π Canola, Rapeseed ¿"ae∑' Ë 2 ·ºπº-ß°"√º≈' μ‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈ ·≈-∂-Ë « ‡À≈◊ Õß ´÷ Ë ß ‡À¡"-¡"π°"√"™â ∑¥·∑ππÈ "¡-π ¥' ‡´≈ ∑"°"√º≈' μ ‡¡∑' ≈ ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√å ‚¥¬"™â°√¥´-≈øî «-√'° ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" °"√∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑√"π å ‡Õ - ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π∑' Ë ‡À¡"-¡ §«√"™â Õ-μ√" à «π‚¥¬‚¡≈ ¢Õß ‡¡∑"πÕ≈μà ÕπÈ "¡-π ‡∑à "°-∫ 40:1 °√¥´-≈øî «√'°5 vol/wt% ∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑' Ë Õÿ ≥À¿Ÿ ¡' 95 Ì C ‡ªì 𠇫≈" 9 ™-Ë «‚¡ß Pedro ·≈- §≥- [7] ‰¥â »÷°…"°"√ ‡μ√' ¬¡ ‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈®"°πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë "™â ·≈â « ‚¥¬∑"°"√»÷°…" ªí ®®-¬μà "ß Ê "π°"√º≈' μ‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈ ‰¥â ·°à Õ-μ√" à «π √-À«à "ßπÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë "™â ·≈â «°-∫ ‡¡∑"πÕ≈ ª√' ¡"≥μ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" "À√-∫ß"π«' ®-¬π' È ®-"™â ‡∫ ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ß ªØ'°' √' ¬" ‡π◊ Ë Õß®"°πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™ (πÈ "¡-π¥Õ°∑"πμ-«-π) ∑' Ë π"¡""™â ‡ªì π«-μ∂ÿ ¥' ∫π-È π¡' §à " §«"¡ ‡ªì π°√¥ (Acid Value) μË " ®"°º≈°"√«' ®-¬∑""Àâ ∑√"∫Õ-μ√" à «π∑' Ë ‡À¡"-¡√-À«à "ßπÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë "™â ·≈â «°-∫ ‡¡∑"πÕ≈ ∂â ""™â Õ-μ√" à «π∑' Ë πâ Õ¬‰ª®-∑""Àâ ‡°' ¥ªØ'°' √' ¬"‰¡à ¡∫Ÿ √≥å ·μà ∂â ""™â Õ-μ√" à «π∑' Ë ¡"°‰ª°Á ®-∑""Àâ ' È π ‡ª≈◊ Õß«-μ∂ÿ ¥' ∫ à «πª√' ¡"≥¢Õß ‡∫ ´÷ Ë ß ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ß ªØ'°' √' ¬"π-È π°Á μâ Õß"™â "πª√' ¡"≥∑' Ë ‡À¡"-¡ ∂â ""™â πâ Õ¬ ‡°' π‰ª®- ‡°' ¥ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑' Ë ‰¡à ¡∫Ÿ √≥å ·μà ∂â ""™â ¡"° ‡°' π‰ªÕ"® ‡°' ¥ªØ'°' √' ¬"¢â "ß ‡ §' ¬ß∑""Àâ º≈º≈' μ ≈¥≈߉¥â Õ'°∑-È ßªí ®®-¬ ‡À≈à "π' È ¬-ß à ߺ≈μà Õ ¡∫-μ' ¢Õß ‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈¥â «¬ ‡™à π §à " §«"¡Àπ◊ ¥ Yong ·≈- §≥- [8] ∑"°"√ ‡μ√' ¬¡‰∫‚Õ-¥' ‡´≈®"°πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë "™â ·≈â «‚¥¬·∫à ß°"√∑¥≈Õß ÕÕ° ‡ªì π 2 à «π ¥-ßπ' È à «π·√°®-π"°√¥‰¢¡-π Õ' √-¢ÕßπÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë "™â ·≈â «¡"ºà "πªØ'°' √' ¬" ‡Õ - ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π°-∫ ‡¡∑"πÕ≈ ‚¥¬¡' ‡øÕ√å √' §´-≈ ‡øμ (Ferric Sulfate) ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" à «π∑' Ë Õß ®- ‡ªì π°"√π"‰μ√°≈' ‡´Õ‰√¥å ®"° à «π·√°¡"ºà "π ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑√"π å ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√' øî ‡ §™-π°-∫ ‡¡∑"πÕ≈‚¥¬ ¡' ‚ae·∑ ‡´' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°‰´¥å ‡ªì πμ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" ®"°°" √∑¥≈Õßae∫«à ""π à «π·√°®-¡' §à " §«"¡«à Õ߉« (Activity) ∑' Ë Ÿ ß‚¥¬¥Ÿ ‰¥â ®"° §à "°"√ ‡ª≈' Ë ¬π·ª≈ß (Conversion) ¢Õß°√¥‰¢¡-πÕ' √-´÷ Ë ß¡' §à " Ÿ ß∂÷ ß 97.22% ‡¡◊ Ë Õ"™â ‡øÕ√å √' §´-≈ ‡øμ 2 wt% Õ-μ√" à «π ‚¥¬‚¡≈√-À«à "ß ‡¡∑"πÕ≈°-∫πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™ §◊ Õ 10: ...
... Õß∑¥ Õ∫ §à "®ÿ ¥¢ÿ à π (ISL: CPP 5Gs Cloud Point Tester) 6. ‡ §√◊ Ë Õß∑¥ Õ∫À" §à "ª√' ¡"≥¢ÕßπÈ "∑' Ë Õ¬Ÿ à "ππÈ "¡-π (Seta: Oil Centrifuge) 2.3 «' ∏'°"√∑¥≈Õß 1. °"√∑¥ Õ∫À" §à " §«"¡ ‡ªì π°√¥¢Õß πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡∫√' ÿ ∑∏' Ï π"πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡∫√' ÿ ∑∏' Ï ¡"∑¥ Õ∫À" §à " §«"¡ ‡ªì π°√¥¢ÕßπÈ "¡-π ‡ae◊ Ë ÕÀ"ª√' ¡"≥¢Õß°√¥ ‰¢¡-πÕ' √-"ππÈ "¡-πμ"¡¡"μ√∞"π ASTM 974 ¥-ßπ' È ™-Ë ßπÈ "¡-πae◊ ™∑' Ë ¡' ≈-°…≥- ‡ªì π ‡π◊ È Õ ‡¥' ¬«·≈â « ‡∑" à "π ¢«¥√Ÿ ª™¡aeŸ à ‡μ' ¡ "√º ¡√-À«à "ß‚ae√ae"πÕ≈°-∫∑Ÿ -‚≈Õ' πª√' ¡"μ√ 125 ¡' ≈≈' ≈' μ√ ∑"°"√ ‡¢¬à ""Àâ πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™≈-≈"¬ ("π°√≥' ∑' Ë πÈ "¡-πae◊ ™‰¡à ≈-≈"¬"π "√≈-≈"¬Õ"®"™â §«"¡√â Õπ™à «¬) μà Õ¡" ‡μ' ¡ "√≈-≈"¬øï πÕ≈å ø∑"≈' πª√' ¡"μ√ 2 ¡' ≈≈' ≈' μ√ ∑"°"√‰μ ‡μ√μ¥â «¬ "√≈-≈"¬¡"μ√∞"π‚ae·∑ - ‡´' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°‰´¥å ®π "√≈-≈"¬ ‡√' Ë ¡ ‡ª≈' Ë ¬π ' ‡ªì π ' ™¡aeŸ Õà Õπ·≈- §ßμ-«Õ¬Ÿ à 30 «' π"∑' ∫-π∑÷°ª√' ¡"μ√ ¢Õß "√≈-≈"¬¡"μ√∞"π‚ae·∑ ‡´' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°‰´¥å ∑' Ë "™â ®"°π-È π §"π«≥À" §à " §«"¡ ‡ªì π°√¥¢ÕßπÈ "¡-π ‰¥â ®"° Ÿ μ√μà Õ‰ªπ' È ‚¥¬∑' Ë AV §◊ Õ §à " §«"¡ ‡ªì π°√¥ (¡' ≈≈'°√-¡ ‚ae·∑ ‡´' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°‰´¥å /°√-¡ πÈ "¡-π) N §◊ Õ §«"¡ ‡¢â ¡¢â π¢Õß "√≈-≈"¬ ¡"μ√∞"π‚ae·∑ ‡´' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°-‰´¥å (πÕ√å ¡-≈) V §◊ Õ ª√' ¡"μ√¢Õß "√≈-≈"¬¡"μ√-∞"π∑' Ë "™â "π°"√‰μ ‡μ√μ (¡' ≈≈' -≈' μ√) M §◊ Õ πÈ "Àπ-°¢ÕßπÈ "¡-πae◊ ™ (°√-¡) 2. °"√ ‡μ√' ¬¡πÈ "¡-π‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈ ∑"°"√ ‡μ√' ¬¡‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈‚¥¬°"√μ«ß ‡¡∑"πÕ≈μ"¡Õ-μ√" à «π∑' Ë §"π«≥‰«â ®"°ª√' ¡"≥ "√ -¡ae-π∏å ¢Õß°"√∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬"∑√"π å ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√'øî ‡ §™-π°-∫πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡ ®"°π-È ππ"¡"º ¡°-∫ ‚´ ‡¥' ¬¡‰OE¥√Õ°‰´¥å ®-‰¥â "√≈-≈"¬¢Õß ‡¡∑Õ°‰´¥å (Methoxide) π"πÈ "¡-πª√' ¡"μ√ 150 ¡' ≈≈' ≈' μ√ ¡" "Àâ §«"¡√â Õπ ‡ae◊ Ë Õ°"®-¥πÈ "∑' Ë ¡' Õ¬Ÿ à "ππÈ "¡-πÕÕ°‰ª"Àâ À¡¥ ‚¥¬"™â Õÿ ≥À¿Ÿ ¡' 120-140 Õß»" ‡´≈ ‡´' ¬ ·≈- ‡«≈" 30-40 π"∑' ª≈à Õ¬"Àâ πÈ "¡-𠇬Á πμ-«≈ß¡"¬-ß Õÿ ≥À¿Ÿ ¡' ∑' Ë "™â "π°"√∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬" (65 Õß»" ‡´≈ ‡´' ¬ ) ∑"°"√º ¡πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡°-∫ "√≈-≈"¬ ‡¡∑Õ°‰´¥å ae√â Õ¡°-∫°«πμ≈Õ¥ ‡«≈" ‡¡◊ Ë Õ∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬" §√∫μ"¡ ‡«≈"∑' Ë°"Àπ¥"Àâ π" "√∑' Ë ‰¥â ‡∑≈ß"π°√«¬·¬° ª≈à Õ¬ ∑' È ß‰«â 30 π"∑' ®--ß ‡°μ ‡ÀÁ π°"√·¬°™-È π ‡ªì π 2 à «π ‚¥¬™-È π∫𠇪ì π à «π¢Õ߉∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈À√◊ Õ ‡¡∑' ≈ ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√å à «π™-È π≈à "ß ‡ªì π à «π¢Õß°≈' ‡´Õ√Õ≈ ∫"ß §√-È ßÕ"® ·¬°™-È π ‡ªì π 3 à «π ∂â "¡' ∫Ÿ à ‡°' ¥¢÷ È π‚¥¬®-Õ¬Ÿ à √-À«à "ß™-È π¢Õß ‡¡∑' ≈ ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√å°-∫°≈' ‡´Õ√Õ≈ ·¬°°≈ ' ‡´Õ√Õ≈ÕÕ°®"° ‡¡∑' ≈ ‡Õ ‡∑Õ√å π"‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈ ¡"∑"°"√≈â "ߥ⠫¬πÈ "°≈-Ë π ‡ae◊ Ë Õ°"®-¥ ' Ë ß ‡®◊ ÕªπÕÕ°‰ª (∑"°"√≈â "ßπÈ "ª√-¡"≥ 2-3 §√-È ß) ®"°π-È ππ" ‡¢â " Ÿ à ‡ §√◊ Ë ÕßÀ¡ÿ π ‡À«' Ë ¬ß∑' Ë §«"¡ ‡√Á «¢Õß°"√À¡ÿ π ‡∑à "°-∫ 2,500 √Õ∫μà Õπ"∑' ‡ae◊ Ë Õ·¬°πÈ "ÕÕ°®"°πÈ "¡-π Õ¬à "ß ¡∫Ÿ √≥å ·≈â «∑"°"√ §"π«≥À"ª√' ¡"≥√â Õ¬-≈-¢Õߺ≈‰¥â "π°"√∑¥≈Õß®-∑"°"√»÷°…" ‡°' Ë ¬«-°-∫ ¿"«-∑' Ë ‡À¡"-¡ "À√-∫°"√ ‡μ√' ¬¡‰∫‚Õ¥' ‡´≈ 3 ªí ®®-¬ §◊ Õ ‡«≈""π°"√∑"ªØ'°' √' ¬" ª√' ¡"≥¢Õß μ-« ‡√à ߪØ'°' √' ¬" ·≈-Õ-μ√" à «π‚¥¬‚¡≈√-À«à "ß πÈ "¡-πª"≈å ¡°-∫ ‡¡∑"πÕ≈ ´÷ Ë ß®-»÷°…"·μà ≈-ªí ®®-¬ ‚¥¬∑"°"√∑¥≈Õß∑' Ë 5 √-¥-∫ ·≈- §ß∑' Ë 2 ªí ®®-¬∑' Ë ‡À≈◊ Õ‰«â π" §à "∑' Ë ‡À¡"-¡¢Õß·μà ≈-ªí ®®-¬ 3 §à " ®"° ¿"«-°"√∑¥≈Õß∑-È ßÀ¡¥ 15 ·∫∫ ¥-ß· ¥ß‰«â "π μ"√"ß∑' Ë 1 ¡""™â "À√-∫∑"°"√∑¥≈Õß·∫∫ÕÕ√å ‚∑-‚°πÕ≈μ"¡«' ∏'°"√¢Õß∑"°Ÿ ™' [8] μà Õ‰ª ...
Article
Full-text available
This research studied the different factors for preparing and investigating the properties of biodiesel by using the result of transesterification reaction. The raw materials were purified palm oil, methanol without water and anhydrous sodium hydroxide as a catalyst. This experiment was divided in two parts; the first part was for investigation of the suitable conditions in preparing biodiesel. The result indicated that the suitable reaction time was 1.5-2.5 hr, the suitable quantities of catalyst was 1-3 by wt% and the suitable mole ratios between palm oil and methanol were 1:5, 1:7 and 1:9. The second part was for investigation of the suitable conditions by using orthogonal experiment. It was shown that the suitable conditions in preparing biodiesel were as following: reaction time was 2.5 hr, a quantity of the catalyst was 3 wt% and the ratio between palm oil and methanol was 1:9. The yield of the latter condition was 81.67%. Then the physical properties of biodiesel were determined: kinematic viscosity at 40 OC was 5.5 cSt, specific gravity at 15.6/15.6 OC was 0.882, flash point was 133 OC, cloud point was 19 OC, water content was 0.161% and acid value was 0.2272 mg KOH/g oil.
... Un reactor químico es un dispositivo complejo en el cual la transferencia de calor y masa, la difusión y la fricción pueden ocurrir junto con la reacción química bajo dispositivos de control y seguridad. Existen diferentes tipos de reactores según la forma de obtención, el tipo de flujo interno y las fases que albergan [6][7][8][9]. En general, se busca conocer el tamaño y el tipo de reactor, así como el método de operación necesario para satisfacer la obtención del producto final [10]. ...
... En los últimos años, la atención se ha centrado en la búsqueda de materias primas diferentes de los aceites vegetales como la soja, la palma, etc. Esto se debe principalmente al costo de obtener la materia prima, que es aproximadamente el 70 % del costo total de obtener biodiésel. [6][7][8]. El aceite de fritura es otra fuente de materia prima, su ventaja sobre otras materias primas es que tiene la categoría de residuos. Esta característica le da una gran viabilidad porque contribuye a la reducción de la contaminación ambiental. ...
Article
Full-text available
A batch reactor was designed and built to obtain biodiesel from frying oil under sub-critical conditions, with the purpose of reducing the reaction time to the minimum possible. The design process is focused on the selection of the material and the verification of its resistance by means of a FEM analysis from a Design of Experiments (DOE). Three levels of pressure, temperature and wall thickness, respectively, and a material categorical factor at two levels were considered. The results obtained were that the appropriate material for manufacturing the reactor is 304 stainless steel with a design safety factor of 1. For constructing the system it was also necessary to select all the complementary components. The final operation tests showed that it is possible to safely obtain the biofuel in the batch reactor with a degree of conversion 88%, in a range of 5 to 8 minutes.
... Proses pembuatan metil ester dapat dilakukan melalui reaksi esterifikasi atau transesterifikasi. Proses transesterifikasi memerlukan bahan baku dengan kemurnian tinggi yaitu kadar air dan asam lemak bebas masing-masing maksimal 1.9% dan 2% (Wang et al. 2007;Sharma et al. 2008;Qian et al. 2008). Adanya air dalam bahan baku dapat menyebabkan terjadinya proses hidrolisis trigliserida menjadi asam-asam lemak bebas, sedangkan adanya asam lemak bebas akan mengurangi keefektifan katalis basa dalam reaksi transesterifikasi. ...
Article
Full-text available
Surfactants are surface active ingredients that function to reduce the surface tension of a liquid. In general, surfactants are synthesized from petroleum and natural gas derivatives, but they can cause environmental pollution and are not renewable, so an alternative raw material is needed, namely palm oil. One type of surfactant that can be produced from palm oil is methyl ester sulfonate (MES). This study aims to obtain the optimum process conditions and the characteristics of the MES surfactant produced from palm oil methyl ester with the sulfonating agent Na2S2O5. The preparation of methyl esters was carried out in two stages of esterification and transesterification reactions using methanol as a source of alcohol with H2SO4 as an acid catalyst and NaOH as a base catalyst. Sulfonation was carried out at temperatures of 80, 90 and 100 0C, the ratio of methyl ester to Na2S2O5 was 1:0.5; 1:0.75; 1:1 and 5 hours reaction time.
... However, researchers mention the low emission values of biodiesel. Although this is considered to be a significant disadvantage, the improvement in exhaust emissions can compensate for the amount of fuel consumption [11]. ...
Article
Full-text available
There have been many research and development studies on the use of biodiesel fuels in compression ignition engines. In recent years, studies with ternary fuel blends formed with different additives to improve the performance characteristics of diesel/biodiesel fuel blends have gained importance. In this study, D80B20, D50B50, D30B50S20, and D30B50G20 fuel blends were formed by mixing biodiesel obtained from canola oil with pure diesel, solketal and butyl diglycol at different ratios. These fuel blends were tested in a compression ignition direct injection diesel engine at a constant engine speed of 3000 rpm and different engine load conditions and their engine performance, exhaust emission and combustion characteristics were investigated. In addition, the thermal and exergy efficiencies of these fuels were calculated as a result of thermodynamic analyses using the results obtained in experimental studies. Improvements in combustion performance (in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, rate of pressure rise and cumulative heat release) and exhaust emissions (CO, HC and smoke) were observed with the addition of solketal and butyl diglycol to diesel-biodiesel binary fuel blends. Exhaust gas temperatures increased with the addition of solketal and butyl diglycol to the binary fuel blends. In the thermodynamic analysis, the lowest exergy destruction and total exergy losses were calculated for D30B50S20 fuel. Therefore, the highest thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency were realised in D30B50S20 fuel.
... %. In general, methyl esters increased with increasing temperature up to 65 o C (Yong W,, 2007) at which maximum Biodiesel concentration was obtained 94 vol. %. ...
Article
Full-text available
Used vegetable oil was introduced to transesterfication reaction to produce Biodiesel fuel suitable for diesel engines. Method of production was consisted of filtration, transesterfication, separation and washing. Transesterfication was studied extensively with different operating conditions, temperature range (35-80oC), catalyst concentration (0.5-2 wt. % based on oil), mixing time (30-120 min.) with constant oil/methanol weight ratio 5:1 and mixing speed 1300 rpm. The concentration of Fatty acid methyl esters (Biodiesel) was determined for the transesterficated oil samples, besides of some important physical properties such as specific gravity, viscosity, pour point and flash point. The behavior of methyl esters production and the physical properties of Biodiesel were studied with the different operating conditions. The results show that increasing methyl esters concentration with increasing temperature and catalyst concentration and the transesterfication is a second order reaction The research aiming to recycle spent cooking oils to prevent pollution of soil and water, and converting them to Biodiesel fuel with low emissions
... However, researchers mention the low emission values of biodiesel. Although this is considered to be a signi cant disadvantage, the improvement in exhaust emissions can compensate for the amount of fuel consumption [11]. ...
Preprint
Full-text available
There have been many research and development studies on the use of biodiesel fuels in compression ignition engines. In recent years, studies with ternary fuel blends formed with different additives to improve the performance characteristics of diesel/biodiesel fuel blends have gained importance. In this study, D80B20, D50B50, D30B50S20, and D30B50G20 fuel blends were formed by mixing biodiesel obtained from canola oil with pure diesel, solketal and butyl diglycol at different ratios. These fuel blends were tested in a compression ignition direct injection diesel engine at a constant engine speed of 3000 rpm and different engine load conditions and their engine performance, exhaust emission and combustion characteristics were investigated. In addition, the thermal and exergy efficiencies of these fuels were calculated as a result of thermodynamic analyses using the results obtained in experimental studies. Improvements in combustion performance (in-cylinder pressure, heat release rate, rate of pressure rise and cumulative heat release) and exhaust emissions (CO, HC and smoke) were observed with the addition of solketal and butyl diglycol to diesel-biodiesel binary fuel blends. Exhaust gas temperatures increased with the addition of solketal and butyl diglycol to the binary fuel blends. In the thermodynamic analysis, the lowest exergy destruction and total exergy losses were calculated for D30B50S20 fuel. Therefore, the highest thermal efficiency and exergy efficiency were realised in D30B50S20 fuel.
... On the other hand, it was revealed that low cost, short reaction time, and ability to perform optimally at low temperature are factors attributed to the broader acceptability of base-catalysed trans-esterification [150,151]. Despite these advantages, regrettably, it was reported that such catalysts could only be used in 0.5 wt % fatty acid limit in pure vegetable oil and thus, not suitable for oils containing fatty acids above 0.5 wt % [152]. Other drawbacks associated with the use of base catalysts include high chance of soap formation, especially in extracted oils with 2 wt% or more FFA concentration [153]. ...
Article
The striking interest in the quest for adopting clean and renewable bioenergy is a proactive step towards limiting the hike of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, global warming, climate change mitigation and push for ensuring the attainment of affordable and sustainable energy for all as campaigned by sustainable development goals (SDGs) 13 and 7, respectively. As an endowed bioresource, biomass is an abundant and renewable energy source derived from huge organic matter content. However, fruit and vegetable waste (FVWs) represents a type of biomass residue that, rather than being left to cause environmental pollution and contamination, can be utilized to generate bioenergy like biogas, biohydrogen, bioethanol, and biodiesel. Conceivably, this can be one solution to multiple problems such as energy deficit, waste management, landfill and incinerated emission of greenhouse gases (GHGs), inflict of unpleasant odour, protecting natural scenery, and other myriad environmental problems. Despite the abundant benefits and potential that come with converting FVWs into bioenergy, the technological progress in utilizing FVWs for bioenergy has been limited. As a result, key stakeholders and other active players in the global energy industry lack adequate information regarding the opportunities therein for scaling up. Hence, this review highlights the opportunities of utilizing FVWs for bioenergy production and outlines certain challenges across the various production processes, techno-economic and policy issues.
... Two approaches were used by Wang [55], [98] to research the generation of biodiesel. The first technique comprised creating FAME from used cooking oil using a solid acid catalyst in two steps. ...
Article
Full-text available
Development of sustainable energy resources is the need of present day in view of the depleting energy resources and increase in the energy demand throughout the world. On the other hand, fossil fuel combustion emits harmful pollutants like oxides of carbon, sulfur, nitrogen and particulate matters, which causes atmospheric pollution. Biodiesel as alternative fuels have various advantages over the fossil fuels such as its renewability, lesser emission of atmospheric pollutants and flexibility to produce from variety of feedstock. Waste cooking oil can be used as a potential feedstock for biodiesel production. Disposal of waste cooking oil itself an environmental challenge due to its adverse environmental impact. Transesterification is the key process for synthesis of biodiesel production with low cost and under mild reaction condition. Intensive studies have been done on optimization of transesterification for improvement of biodiesel yield and reduction of conversion cost. Heterogeneous catalyst can play crucial role in improvement of biodiesel yield as well as cost of biodiesel production due to their repetitive application. The present manuscript is an attempt to provide comprehensive review on characteristics of waste cooking oil, factors affecting the transesterification reaction and application of heterogenous catalyst in biodiesel production to achieve more sustainability in the process.
... Reaksi ini bertujuan untuk menurunkan kadar asam lemak bebas dalam minyak. Asam lemak bebas yang tinggi dalam minyak nabati akan mengkonsumsi katalis basa pada proses transesterifikasi sehingga akan membentuk emulsi sabun yang sulit dipisahkan dan dapat menurunkan perolehan biodiesel (Wang et al, 2007;Sharma et al, 2008). ...
Article
Full-text available
Biodiesel adalah bahan bakar alternatif bagi bahan bakar solar berbasis petroleum yang terbuat dari sumber terbarukan seperti minyak nabati atau lemak hewani. Penelitian ini bertujuan untuk mendapatkan kondisi operasi terbaik proses produksi biodiesel dari sludge palm oil dengan reaksi esterifikasi dan transesterifikasi secara terpisah dan serentak. Reaksi dijalankan pada temperatur refluks larutan yaitu 65oC dengan menggunakan pelarut metanol. Reaksi esterifikasi menggunakan katalis H2SO4, sedangkan reaksi transesterifikasi menggunakan katalis NaOH untuk proses dua tahap dan katalis H2SO4 untuk proses satu tahap. Proses satu tahap menghasilkan biodiesel dengan perolehan 65,67% dalam waktu 1 jam dengan karakteristik biodiesel bilangan asam 0.79 mgKOH/g, Viskositas kenematik 11.35 cSt dan densitas 920.56 kg/m3. Proses dua tahap menghasilkan biodiesel dengan perolehan 92,71 dalam waktu 2 jam dengan karakteristik biodiesel bilangan asam 5.87 mgKOH/g, Viskositas kenematik 5.6 cSt dan densitas 930 kg/m3
... Different methods for WCO pretreatment were proposed, including esterification, neutralization, adsorption, and distillation. Esterification of FFA with methanol produces FAME and usually is performed in the presence of an acid catalyst such as H2SO4 [5] or a solid acid catalyst [6,7]. The lack of this process is the catalyst removal in both stagesesterification and later transesterification. ...
Article
Full-text available
Synthesis of biodiesel from various plant oils is realized by the transesterification of triglycerides with methanol or by a reaction usually defined as methanolysis. The usage of low-quality oils, such as waste cooking oil (WCO), is followed by undesirable side reactions as a result of the increased content of free fatty acids (FFA), and water. The presence of FFA in WCO usually requires a pretreatment stage before subjecting it to methanolysis. In the present work, heterogeneously catalyzed methanolysis of WCO with and without pretreatment was investigated. Removal of FFA from WCO was conducted by using only quicklime or with the addition of a small amount of methanol (FFA to methanol = 1:3 molar ratio). The obtained results showed that pretreatment of WCO with quicklime at 30?C after 1 h reduces the FFA content by 72 %, while the adsorption capacity was determined to be 910 mg g-1. The adsorptive pretreatment, as a simple operation, using low-cost quicklime under mild conditions, had a positive effect on the transesterification rate with CaO?ZnO as a catalyst, enabling the achievement of over 96 % of biodiesel yield in only 15 min, compared to 1 h without the pretreatment. Furthermore, pretreated WCO allows an increase in repeated catalyst use and overall savings in the necessary amount of catalyst. The present study showed that quicklime is an economic, environmental-friendly, and sustainable material for FFA removal from WCO.
... %. In general, methyl esters increased with increasing temperature up to 65 o C (Yong W,, 2007) at which maximum Biodiesel concentration was obtained 94 vol. %. ...
Article
Full-text available
Used vegetable oil was introduced to transesterfication reaction to produce Biodiesel fuel suitable for diesel engines. Method of production was consisted of filtration, transesterfication, separation and washing. Transesterfication was studied extensively with different operating conditions, temperature range (35-80 o C), catalyst concentration (0.5-2 wt. % based on oil), mixing time (30-120 min.) with constant oil/methanol weight ratio 5:1 and mixing speed 1300 rpm. The concentration of Fatty acid methyl esters (Biodiesel) was determined for the transesterficated oil samples, besides of some important physical properties such as specific gravity, viscosity, pour point and flash point. The behavior of methyl esters production and the physical properties of Biodiesel were studied with the different operating conditions. The results show that increasing methyl esters concentration with increasing temperature and catalyst concentration and the transesterfication is a second order reaction The research aiming to recycle spent cooking oils to prevent pollution of soil and water, and converting them to Biodiesel fuel with low emissions. ‫‫.
... High yield of approximately 99% could be achieved at both 70 ºC and 80 ºC keeping the stir at rate of 400 rpm, using a feed molar ratio oil: methanol: acid of 1: 245: 3.8. Later, Wang Yong et al. [27] studied a two-step catalyzed processes for synthesis of bio-diesel by using waste cooking oil from Chinese restaurants. Thus, this became a hot area of study as the use of WCO was economical are produced desired quality of biodiesel. ...
... Table 1 showed that the corn oil had a very high acid number (AN). According to literature data [11,12], in order for transesterification to proceed normally, the raw material must have an acid number no higher than 3-4 mg KOH g -1 . The water content was also very high, which further complicates the esterification process and leads to saponification [13]. ...
Article
Full-text available
Biodiesel is a reliable and promising replacement of fossil diesel. It is stable, less toxic and can be produced from sustainable resources, including a variety of raw materials. Currently, the most widely used are vegetable oils (edible and nonedible), due to their availability. The present paper considers the potential of obtaining fatty acid ethyl esters (FAEE) from corn oil, which is a byproduct of bioethanol production process. The ultimate outcome would definitely increase the profitability of the initial bioethanol production process. The biodiesel production process was implemented in two steps, due to the high content of free fatty acids of the obtained corn oil. The first step includes an acid-catalyzed esterification process and the second step comprises an alkali-catalyzed transesterification process to receive FAEE. Two different catalysts (sulfuric acid and p-toluene sulfonic acid) were utilized and compared each other in the esterification process, in order to cope with high acid number of the raw material. A comprehensive qualitative and quantitative analysis of both feedstock and biodiesel was performed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry method. The obtained biodiesel was characterized by a significantly lower cloud point compared to the feedstock and high acid number.
... Biodiesel as fuel is produced from renewable raw materials such as low-grade crude palm oil and possess advantage over other fuels due their biodegradability, non-toxicity and their reduced emission of air pollutants although they are relatively expensive than petroleum diesel fuel. Homogeneous catalysts, [106,107] biocatalysts [108] and ILs have been used in catalyzing the production of biodiesel but they had drawbacks, for instance, ILs have been cost prohibitive in terms of synthesis and complicated procedures. [109] Hayyan and colleagues in 2013 synthesized phosphoniumbased DES (P-DES) catalyst for the production of low-grade crude palm oil (LGCPO) biodiesel as a cheaper and simpler process for the production of biodiesel (Fig. 5); [110] two catalyzed reactions involved are the esterification reactions catalyzed by the P-DES and KOH-catalyzed transesterification reaction. ...
Article
Deep eutectic solvents (DESs) are significant environmentally benign media in the field of green chemistry. They are known not only for their inexpensive nature, biodegradability, non-toxicity, and bioavailability, but also for recyclability and their ease of preparation and purification. DESs are made up of hydrogen bond donor substituents (such as urea, carboxylic acid, glycerol, metals, etc.) and hydrogen bond acceptor substituents such as halide salts; they have a lower melting point than each substituent comprising the mixture. DESs find applications in biotransformation, gas separation, biomass valorization, electrochemistry, extraction, and dissolution process as well as in material chemistry and other assorted fields of chemistry. Interestingly, DESs fulfil a unique dual role as green solvents, promoters and catalysts in organic syntheses. Thus, it is noteworthy that chemical progresses and transformation with external catalysts in cross-coupling reactions, oxidations and reductions are not covered in this overview. This review mostly focuses on leading-edge applications of DES as a reusable catalyst in the expeditious synthesis of assorted small molecules central in the assembly of broad-spectrum pharmaceuticals, and total synthesis of common natural products.
... The restraint of using alkali catalysts is attributed to high sensitivity towards the presence of high free fatty acids (FFA) in low-cost feedstocks [1]. Prior to forming the triglycerides, FFA in high concentration consumes the alkali catalyst, leading to soap formation, which is considered the most challenging, along with the removal of the remaining catalyst in the biodiesel purification process [2]. To resolve this problem, several researchers have suggested the use of an acid catalyzed process. ...
Article
Full-text available
One of the most exciting areas for the development of alternative fuels is the production of biodiesel. To reduce the cost of biodiesel production, in situ trans-esterification has been introduced to simplify the production process by enabling extraction and trans-esterification to occur at a single stage in the presence of a catalyst. In this study, we investigated the feasibility of using non–corrosive and environmentally receptive flying jet plasma as an alternative catalytic route for in situ tran-sesterification of castor bean seeds (CBS). Upon optimizing the reaction conditions, it is elucidated that applying a low ratio of methanol to seeds (≤6:1) has resulted in hindering the in situ trans-esterification and leading to insignificant conversion. The yield of esters has increased from 80.5% to 91.7% as the molar ratio rose from 9:1 to 12:1. Excess alcohol beyond the ratio of 15:1 was shown to have a negative impact on the yield of the produced esters, attributed to an increase in the biodiesel portion prone to dissolving in the co-product (glycerol). An increase in the reaction bulk temperature from 40 to 55 °C led to a higher ester content by 50%. Further increases in the bulk temperature beyond 55 °C did not affect yields. Regarding the reaction period, the results have shown that 3 h of reaction is adequate for a higher biodiesel yield. The quality of the biodiesel obtained has demonstrated that all physicochemical properties meet the ASTM D6751 specifications.
... The main problem for the non-edible oil sources is its high FFA content which limits the use of single step transesterification reaction. To overcome this problem, twostep procedures were used to prepare biodiesel from different oils, which have high content of free fatty acids [8,9]. In these works the first step is the acid catalyzed esterification, which reduces the FFA content of the oil and minimizes the soap formation in the second step (base catalyzed transesterification). ...
Article
Current study reveals the production of biodiesel from non-edible oil such as castor oil (Ricinus Communis L.). Oil was extracted from seed by mechanical press method. Various properties of the raw oil were measured by standard methods. Free Fatty Acid (FFA) content of the oil was found as 13.6% and kinematic viscosity was 253 mm²/s. Base catalyzed transesterification is widely used for biodiesel production than acid catalyzed transesterification due to its faster kinetics. But if the FFA content of the oil is higher than 2wt% then base catalyzed transesterification is not feasible. Hence, a two-step method, acid catalyzed esterification followed by base catalyzed transesterification was applied for the production of biodiesel from castor oil. After the esterification reaction FFA content of the oil was reduced below 2wt% which makes it suitable for base catalyzed transesterification. The reaction parameters for esterification and transesterification were optimized. 1 NMR was studied for both oil and biodiesel. Finally, various properties of produced biodiesel from castor oil, such as specific gravity, viscosity, FFA, cloud point, flash point, saponification value, etc. were measured and compared with standard diesel and biodiesel properties.
... The R-square value is used to assess the fit of the model and the proportion of data variability accounted for by the statistical model. The use of adjusted R 2 is recommended in the literature because it aids in the reduction of statistics when unneeded terms are included in the model [41]. Table 4 shows that the value of Adjusted R 2 is 0.97 while predicted R is 0.94, and both of them are close to 1, demonstrating the accuracy of the predicted polynomial model. ...
Article
Full-text available
The most widely used commercial biodiesel production technique, alkali-catalysed transesterification, requires only moderate temperatures and pressures to achieve a more than 98% conversion yield. Unfortunately, oil feedstock's high free fatty acid (FFA) content limits the technology's usefulness. A heterogeneous base catalysed glycerolysis process was investigated in this study to lower the FFA and meet these requirements. The response surface methodology (RSM) based on I-optimal design was used to model and optimize a CaO catalysed glycerolysis reaction under the influence of five reaction variables: temperature (60–180 °C), residence time (30–120 min), FFA concentration (6–50%), catalyst amount (0.4–0.6 wt (g/g)), and Glycerol to Oil ratio (G/O) (1–1.5). The data were fitted in a quadratic model, and R² of 0.986 was observed, signifying that the model well defined the experimental data. The model was validated by running four replicates of the experiment, and a residual standard error of 2.7% was obtained, indicating the model would accurately predict future observations. The 48.584% FFA in oil was reduced to 0.98% under optimal conditions of 170 °C, 39.9 min of residence time, 0.591 wt g catalyst concentration, and 1.026 g/g glycerol/oil (G/O) ratio. CaO catalysed glycerolysis has significantly reduced FFA to less than 3% in less than an hour in biodiesel feedstock for biodiesel production.
... The use of solid catalyst (heterogeneous catalyst) is considered a greener process than the use of homogeneous catalyst. It is noted that wastewater is generated from the washing process that is required to remove salts derived from homogeneous acid/base catalysts [232]. Because solid catalysts can be easily separated from BD reagents and reusable, the generation of wastewater can be avoided. ...
Article
High lipid content and excellent CO 2 fixation capability of microalgae by photosynthesis have made microalgal biodiesel (BD) a promising carbon-neutral fuel. Nonetheless, the commercialization of BD has not yet been realized because of expensive and energy-intensive cultivation, pretreatment, and BD conversion processes in reference to 1 st generation BD production. To resolve the issues, this study comprehensively reviewed the current technical developments of microalgal BD production process and suggested promising future studies. Current microalgal BD production processes highly rely on the processes developed from 1 st generation BD process, namely base-catalyzed transesterifications. However, the base-catalyzed suffers from saponification reaction and low production yield due to high water and free fatty acid contents in microalgae. Vigorous pretreatments such as dewatering, drying, esterification of free fatty acid, and purification are required for high yield of microalgal BD production, making this process economically not attractive. As efforts to construct new transesterification platform, novel approaches tolerant to impurities such as thermally induced non-catalytic transesterifications were suggested. The thermally induced reactions allowed in situ conversion of microalgal lipid into BD (≥ 95 wt. % yield) within 1 min of reaction at ≥ 350 C. This process resists to presence of water and free fatty acids and does not require lipid extraction process. To make this process more promising, it was suggested lowering reaction temperature for thermally induced transesterifications. In addition, pilot study, in-depth life cycle assessment, and economic analysis were suggested to assess economic viability and environmental impacts.
... Mainly, the FFA content directly relates to the volume of biodiesel produced. Agreeing with the literature, the most appropriate FFA threshold of crude oils for efficient conversion into biodiesel was measured up to 3% [35,36] but beyond this limit, proficiency decreases gradually, and indications of the course called saponification (formation of soap), which makes the departure process tougher [37,38]. For maximum conversion of PASO into biodiesel, three heterogeneous catalysts were employed with different concentrations (w/w), i.e., CPC, KPC, and TiO2. ...
Article
Full-text available
We confined the formation and characterization of heterogenous nano‐catalysts and then used them to produce biodiesel from the novel non‐edible seed oil of Prunus aitchisonii. P. aitchisonii seeds’ oil content was extracted at about 52.4 ± 3% with 0.77% FFA. Three different heterogenous nano‐catalysts—calcined (CPC), KPC, and KOH‐activated P. aitchisonii cake Titanium Dioxide (TiO2)—were synthesized using calcination and precipitation methods. The mentioned catalysts were characterized through XRD, SEM, and EDX to inspect their crystallin dimension, shape, and arrangement. Titanium dioxide has morphological dimensions so that the average particle size ranges from 49–60 nm. The result shows that the crystal structure of TiO2 is tetragonal (Anatase). The surface morphology of CPC illustrated that the roughness of the surface was increased after calcination, many macropores and hollow cavities appeared, and the external structure became very porous. These changes in morphology may increase the catalytic efficiency of CPC than non‐calcined Prunus aitchisonii oil cake. The fuel belonging to PAOB stood according to the series suggested by ASTM criteria. All the characterization reports that P. aitchisonii is a novel and efficient potential source of biodiesel as a green energy source.
Article
In this study, the impact of reaction parameters, reaction kinetics, and mechanism on the esterification of oleic acid with methanol using Purolite CT151 as a heterogeneous catalyst was investigated. The effects of molar ratio, reaction time, and catalyst amount were examined. The highest oleic acid conversion of 84 % was achieved under the following conditions: methanol/oleic acid molar ratio of 12:1, 20 wt. % catalyst amounts, a reaction time of 7 h, and a reaction temperature of 67 °C. The surface characterization was performed with FTIR and scanning electron microscope analysis. The proposed reaction model was based on the Eley–Rideal mechanism, where methanol adsorbed onto the catalyst surface reacted with oleic acid before water desorption.
Article
Full-text available
Research on the production and application of cheap and renewable energy sources is one of the most relevant directions in modern science. They are imposed for a number of reasons, mainly due to the limited deposits of oil, natural gas and coal, the protection of the environment and the health of people. Unfortunately, the needs for such alternative energy sources are huge, and the possibilities for obtaining them are limited. On the other hand, low-quality vegetable oils obtained as waste products or as a result of improper storage or processing, as well as oils after use represent a valuable raw material and energy source. However, this necessitates the search for ways to utilize them by turning them into better quality products. The aim of the present work is to investigate the possibility of obtaining methyl esters of fatty acids (biodiesel), from vegetable oils with high acid values, by transesterification with acid catalysts, which includes the selection of suitable catalysts and conditions for optimal process progress.
Article
Full-text available
Palm oil contains fatty acids such as stearic ranges from 3.40 – 5.47% and oleic ranges from 34.85 – 40.78% which can be used as materials for the synthesis of sucrose ester. This study aimed to increase and optimize the potential of palm oil raw materials through the oleochemical synthesis of sucrose ester. The process of sucrose ester synthesis consisted of two stages, i.e., the esterification process of fatty acids into methyl esters and the transesterification process of fatty acid methyl esters with sucrose to become sucrose esters. Esterification of stearic and oleic fatty acids was performed using H2SO4 catalyst and methanol as a solvent. Transesterification of sucrose with stearic and oleic methyl esters was performed using two types of catalysts K2CO3 6% and Na2CO3 6%, without solvents. The results showed that sucrose ester made from stearic acid methyl ester with K2CO3 catalyst tended to achieve better performance and physicochemical properties as follows: pH ranged from 10.29 – 10.45, foam stability ranged from 55.497 – 88.082%, emulsion stability ranged from 40.211 – 78.435%, surface tension ranged from 25.4 – 27.60 dyne/cm, and interfacial tension ranged from 9.69 – 10.91dynes/cm.
Chapter
Biofuels have attracted significant attention in recent years as a result of diminishing fossil fuels and increasing environmental concerns due to greenhouse gas emissions. The concept of using biofuels as energy resources is very ancient since the earlier human history. However, civilizations preferred fossil fuels over plant resources as an energy source due to their ease of availability and economic viability. Biofuels are available in solid, liquid, and gaseous states. Biodiesel, bioethanol, biomethanol, biomethane, and bio-butanol are the commonly used biofuels as a substitute of fossil fuels. Biodiesel, because of its renewable nature and environmental benefits, is a potential and more appealing fuel for diesel engines. Biodiesel accounts for the 20% production of liquid biofuels. The biodiesel feedstocks include edible oils such as sunflower, soybean, and coconut oil, as well as nonedible oils such as Jatropha, jojoba, and spent cooking oil. Acid- and base-catalyzed transesterification reactions are the widely used methods to achieve biodiesel from diverse variety of biomass. Bioethanol accounts for the 80% of worldwide production of liquid biofuels and can be an alternative solution for the current fuel issue. Significant progress in renewable biomass pretreatment, cellulase production, and co-fermentation of sugars (pentose and hexose) as well as bioethanol separation and purification has been seen in recent decades, but bioethanol is still not to the fossil fuels. The biggest challenge remains how to reduce the production cost of bioethanol. Therefore, the biorefinery concept is needed to utilize renewable feedstocks more comprehensively and to manufacture more value-added coproducts that would reduce the cost of bioethanol production. Biomethanol can be manufactured by via a variety of thermochemical processes such as pyrolysis, gasification, and liquefaction. Anaerobic digestion, alcoholic fermentation, and agrochemical methanol synthesis are the three types of metabolic pathways. Carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, carbon, methane, and water are the most common components in the samples investigated, and they can be found in gas, liquid, or solid form. As a result, subsequent reactions of decomposing biomass material can yield methanol. Biomethane is currently the most efficient and clean-burning biofuel available. Biomethane is the most commonly used fuel in vehicles based on gaseous fuels. It may be produced from any type of biomass, even from wet biomass, which isn’t suitable for most other biofuels. Biogas is the basic ingredient of biomethane production, which can be received from a variety of sources. Biogas may be made from a considerably wider range of feedstocks than traditional liquid biofuels. The feedstock may come from a variety of sources, including livestock waste, manure, harvest surplus, and vegetable oil leftovers. Dedicated energy crops are increasingly being used as a feedstock for biogas production. Biogas collected from landfills is another source of feedstock. Bio-butanol has been renewed as a cutting-edge biofuel with exceptional qualities of application as a “drop-in” fuel. ABE fermentation technology, which was the second largest industry in the United States in the first part of the twentieth century, can be revived for bio-butanol production while also addressing environmental concerns. Many researchers have explored several aspects of this process since the 1980s, resulting in significant improvements in bio-butanol production. However, several obstacles related to the substrate, process, and strain are still existing, and research is underway to improve bio-butanol production systems.
Article
Full-text available
In this growing world with new developing technologies, the sector of science and analysis are accenting a lot for searching out an altered way which would be considered as environmentally compatible propellant over fossil fuels. With the growth of the human population, the need for sustainable resources of energy has increased a lot since large-scale utilization of fossil fuels would lead to the absence of viable energy resources for our future progeny so for that we need renewable and clean sources of energy which are called Green Energy Resources. Biodiesel is one such form of green energy. In recent decades production of biodiesel from algal biomass has been taken up over the petrochemical-based propellant. The requirement for cropland is also less in terms of Algal cultivation and neither it requires intricate operations for its cultivation. As the worldwide energy sector is still being so the formulation of propellant from bio-based sources might be a roseate in several energy divisions which sought huge people's interest in the development of algal biomass fuel of fourth generation and analyzing prospects of biofuels. On the other hand, it is imperatively obvious to curtail the expenditure for biodiesel formulation as biofuel may be considered as a novel material which shows us a road map towards sustainable development and waste management. In this study, we highlight the most prolific studies on biofuel production from algal biomass.
Chapter
The need for the development of sustainable fuel alternatives have been boosted by the rapid rise in the depletion of fossils fuels, environment degradation, and industrialization. The global development patterns for biofuel technology have been developing in recent decades, Biofuels, which are created from renewable, organic (carbon containing) elements like plant matter and animal waste are possible replacements for fossils fuels. These substances together referred to as biomass, include agricultural products and trash, algae, special energy crops, and forestry byproducts. Sugar crops like sugarcane, starch crops like maize and sorghum, oilseed crops like soybean and canola and cellulose plants like corn stalks, grasses and leftover wood chips are typical agricultural plants that are utilized as biomass. In this we will discussed that how fossil fuels have long been replaced by biofuels and biofuel crops. Instead of the extremely slow geological processes involved in the creation of fossil fuels, biofuel is a low carbon fuel that is made from biomass.
Article
Full-text available
The aim of the present research study is to produce biodiesel from waste cooking oil (WCO) using Transesterification reaction at laboratory scale and also comparison of the % of yield and quality of Bio-diesel fuel that comply the specification of standard methods (ASTM D 6751 and ISO 3675/p32). For the production of Bio-diesel, WCO is collected from Restaurant, university canteen, snack centre and mixed oil is collected from temple. In transesterification process KOH and NaOH is used as catalyst and Methanol andEthanol were used. All tests are conducted using same volume of alcohol and constant stirring speed i.e., 200 rpm for two hrs, during stirring no heat is supply. High % yield of Bio-diesel is achieved from WCO collected from Restaurant and snack centre using KOH as a catalyst and methanol. Physico-chemical parameters of both samples are within the prescribed limit of Bio-diesel.
Article
Full-text available
Due to limited stock of levels fossil fuel resources and ecological issues, biodiesel is becoming an attractive alternative choice f or replacing conventional fuels. Bio diesel can be used by mixing with different fuels like citrullus lanatus seeds, camphor, cleaner fuel injector, sunflower, safflower, soybean, cottonseed, rapeseed, palm, Jatropha and Moringa oil seeds. This paper reviews use of bio fuels blended with citrullus lanatus seeds. The Citrullus lanatus biodiesel was mixed with diesel in different percentages by volume. Some physico-chemical characteristics of blends and pure diesel were investigated and it was established that is conforms to the ASTM standards. The exceptions were the viscosity and specific gravity of the pure biodiesel B100 which were 0.09 and 0.018mm2/s above the ASTM standard, respectively. All blends were run on a stationary 4-cylinder diesel engine at 70% loading and speeds of 1500 RPM 2000 RPM and 2500 RPM . It was deduced that, B10 gave the best brake power, thermal efficiency and optimum specific fuel consumption at speed of 2500 rpm. B15 gave the highest brake mean effective pressure. B25 and B100 gave the least values of brake power and brake thermal efficiency across the speeds. B100 gave the highest brake specific fuel consumption. Furthermore, the exhaust emission gases such as; CO2, CO, NOx and HC at different engine conditions stated above were recorded and analyzed. It was found that B25 emitted about 53% lesser CO2 and 37% lesser CO as compared to pure diesel with zero HC at 2500 RPM. The blends were better in terms of engine performance and also in reduction of emissions in most cases, than pure diesel fuel. B10 has the highest value of brake power. NOx emissions of biodiesel Were higher than that of pure diesel in most cases. Maximum NOx emissions were recorded by B100 blend.
Article
Sulfated TiO2 nanowires (STNW) were prepared by molten salt method from anatase TiO2 followed by sulfatation using ammonium sulfate precursor. The phases, morphologies, surface properties and acidity of the STNW were characterized using X-ray powder diffraction (XRD), scanning electron microscope-energy dispersive X-ray (SEM–EDX), nitrogen physisorption, and temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (NH3-TPD), respectively. STNW has a rutile structure and shows a needle-like one-dimensional (1D) nanowires morphology with mean crystal size calculated from Scherrer equation was 53.35 nm. The catalytic activity of the as-prepared STNW for esterification of waste cooking oil (WCO) was performed in comparison to sulfated anatase TiO2 (STA). The STNW catalyst exhibited higher conversion and yield compared to STA. Moreover, the reaction rate of STNW catalyst was 1.3 times higher than STA although the total acidity of STNW catalyst was slightly lower than STA. The superior catalytic activity of STNW was corresponds to its higher temperature acid sites of STNW compared to STA, indicating a super acidity of the catalyst. The optimum reaction conditions of 3 h reaction time, 1:26 molar ratio of WCO to methanol, 3 wt% catalyst loading to WCO and 65 °C reaction temperature give the catalytic conversion of 99.5%. The result implies that STNW act as promising acidic heterogenous catalyst for the esterification of free fatty acids with good reusability.Graphical abstract
Article
Biodiesel has become a subject which increasingly attracts worldwide attention because of its environmental benefits, biodegradability and renewability. Negative environmental consequences of fossil fuels and concerns about petroleum supplies have spurred the search for renewable transportation biofuels. To be a viable alternative, a biofuel should provide a net energy gain, have environmental benefits, be economically competitive, and be producible in large quantities without reducing food supplies. We use these criteria to evaluate, through life-cycle accounting, ethanol from corn grain and biodiesel from soybeans. Ethanol yields 25% more energy than the energy invested in its production, whereas biodiesel yields 93% more. Compared with ethanol, biodiesel releases just 1.0%, 8.3%, and 13% of the agricultural nitrogen, phosphorus, and pesticide pollutants, respectively, per net energy gain. Relative to the fossil fuels they displace, greenhouse gas emissions are reduced 12% by the production and combustion of ethanol and 41% by biodiesel. Biodiesel also releases less air pollutants per net energy gain than ethanol. These advantages of biodiesel over ethanol come from lower agricultural inputs and more efficient conversion of feedstocks to fuel. Neither biofuel can replace much petroleum without impacting food supplies. Even dedicating all U.S. corn and soybean production to biofuels would meet only 12% of gasoline demand and 6% of diesel demand. Until recent increases in petroleum prices, high production costs made biofuels unprofitable without subsidies. Biodiesel provides sufficient environmental advantages to merit subsidy. Transportation biofuels such as synfuel hydrocarbons or cellulosic ethanol, if produced from low-input biomass grown on agriculturally marginal land or from waste biomass, could provide much greater supplies and environmental benefits than food-based biofuels.Biodiesel production typically involves the transesterification of a triglyceride feedstock with methanol or other short-chain alcohol. This paper presents a study of transesterification of various vegetable oils, sunflower, soybean, olive, and waste cooking oils, with the alkaline catalyst.Transesterification reaction plays an important role in converting vegetable oil or used oil into biodiesel. Reaction process may result in low yield, due to the conversion stage between oil and methanol takes place is not perfect and can lead to low-quality of biodiesel. In the transesterification reaction; mass of catalysts, mass of methanol, FFA value, reaction temperature, reaction time, and stirring speed is a major factor determining the quality of biodiesel produced. Reactions were carried out at 65°C temperature gives lower yield of methyl ester. Using the stirrer speed is too high will cause the saponification reaction which reduce the yield generated. Use stirring speed is too high will cause the saponification reaction which will reduce the yield generated. The results of these three variables biodiesel, has met SNI the standard and ASTM D 6751 for testing density, viscosity, cetane index, and flash point.
Article
Full-text available
Biodiesel is used as an alternative fuel or fuel additive in diesel engines. In the literature, engine performance, exhaust emission, and thermodynamic analyses have been conducted using biodiesel, diesel–biodiesel, diesel–biodiesel–alcohol, and diesel–biodiesel–nanoparticle fuel blends as alternative fuels in diesel engines. The present research examined and discussed only studies related to energy and exergy analyses. Using energy efficiency, exergy efficiency, and destroyed exergy values, a distinct perspective has been given to using biodiesel as an alternative fuel. While a certain decrease occurs in engine power with biodiesel, an improvement is observed in engine emissions. Hence, the exergy efficiency of biodiesel fuel blends is lower than pure diesel fuel. Some studies in the literature have reported exergy destruction due to the use of biodiesel to be 5–15% higher than pure diesel fuel.The exergy efficiency of some biodiesel types is very low compared to diesel fuel. When nanoparticles such as Al2O3 and TiO2 are added to diesel–biodiesel fuel blends, exergy destruction in the engine decreases and, thus, the useful work increases. Whereas nanoparticles ensure a 2–5% power increase in diesel–biodiesel blends, they cause exergy destruction to decrease at the same rate. This study reviewed in detail the effects of using biodiesel fuels in diesel engines on energy and exergy performance and aimed to contribute to researchers working in this field.
Article
Full-text available
This study was initiated to evaluate and optimize the conversion of waste animal fat (WAF) into ethyl and methyl ester called biodiesel. The physical and chemical characteristics of these esters were much closer to those of Diesel fuel than those of fresh vegetable oil or fat, which makes them a good substitute for Diesel fuel. Experiments have been performed to determine the optimum conditions for this conversion process using a three factor factorial design for producing biodiesel. The major variables in the transesterification process are determined from the pre-experiments as: reaction temperature, molar ratio of alcohol/oil, alcohol type utilized and catalyst type. Absolute ethanol was found better than absolute methanol, since ethanol gives higher conversion and less viscosity at all levels, mainly at 100% excess concentration. Temperature had no detectable effect on the ultimate conversion ratio and viscosity for both ester products. However, higher temperatures decreases the time required to reach maximum conversion, which will be at the expense of the cost of energy. An interaction between time and temperature was found for all conversions. Therefore, 50 °C was found to be the optimum temperature, and two hours is the optimum time for the conversion of WAFs into biodiesel.
Article
Dibutyl maleate was prepared from maleic anhydride and n - butyl alcohol in the presence of p - toluene sulphonic acid. The yield of the ester could reach 95.6% under amount of substance ratio of maleic anhydride, n - butyl alcohol and p - toluene sulphonic acid were 1:4:0.16, refluxing and water segrating for 70 min. The catalytic activities of p - toluene sulphonic acid, sulfuric acid, Ferric chloride hexahydrate and ammonium ferric sulfate dodecahydrate et al. in synthesis of dibutyl maleate also were comparison.
Article
As used already by Rudolf Diesel in 1912 plant oils represent not a new alternative fuel compared to fossil sources, but only by the force of the oil supply shocks in the 70s a new development of Biodiesel was triggered. This paper gives a review of the political background, the historical development since the beginnings in Austria and the volumes produced today in the world, the main raw materials used, key fuel properties and standards. It highlights the fuel's environmental advantages and different marketing strategies applied as well as key factors of micro- and macro-economic considerations
Article
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as raw material, adaption of continuous transesterification process and recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel by-product (glycerol) are primary options to be considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There are four primary ways to make biodiesel, direct use and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The transesterification reaction is affected by molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time and free fatty acids and water content of oils or fats. The mechanism and kinetics of the transesterification show how the reaction occurs and progresses. The processes of transesterification and its downstream operations are also addressed.
Article
Environmental concerns are driving industry to develop viable alternative fuels from renewable resources. On the other hand, to reduce food surplus, the Agricultural Policy of the European Union (EU) obliges the European farmers to leave a percentage of the arable land as set-aside, where can be grown, as an exception, vegetables for nonfood purposes, i.e., energetic ones. Currently, fossil fuels are used in diesel engines and are essential in industrialized places. In addition, petroleum-based diesel increases environmental pollution. To solve these problems, transesterified vegetable oil that has been grown in set-aside lands can be considered to be a renewable energy resource. In this sense, this work describes the optimization of the parameters involved in the transesterification process of Brassica carinata oil. Gas chromatography was used to determine the fatty acid composition of Brassica carinata oil and its esters. Results revealed that the free fatty acid content is a notorious parameter to determine the viability of the vegetable oil transesterification process. In this sense, it was not possible to perform a basic transesterification using Brassica carinata oil with a high erucic acid content. The transesterification process of Brassica carinata without erucic acid required 1.4% KOH and 16% methanol, in the range of 20−45 °C, after 30 min of stirring. Our results suggest that the greater the presence of KOH, the lesser the methanol requirements. However, this is valid only under certain limits. Also, if the presence of KOH or methanol is lower or higher than the optimal values, the reaction either does not fully occur or leads to soap production, respectively. Based on this field trial, biodiesel from Brassica carinata oil could be recommended as a diesel fuel candidate if long-term engine performance tests provide satisfactory results.
Article
Biodiesel is an alternative diesel fuel consisting of the alkyl monoesters of fatty acids from vegetable oils or animal fats. Currently, most biodiesel is made from soybean oil, methanol, and an alkaline catalyst. However, there are large amounts of fats and oils that are unsuitable for human consumption that could be converted to biodiesel at lower cost. The problem with processing these waste oils is that they often contain large amounts of free fatty acids that cannot be converted to biodiesel using an alkaline catalyst. These free fatty acids react with the alkaline catalyst to produce soaps that inhibit the separation of the biodiesel, glycerin, and wash water. Previous research has developed a process for pretreating these high free fatty acid feedstocks using acid catalysts which do not form soaps. The objective of this study was to construct a pilot plant to produce biodiesel from a wide variety of feedstocks including those with high free fatty acids. A 190-liter batch pilot plant has been built which can process high free fatty acid feedstocks using an acid-catalyzed pretreatment followed by an alkaline-catalyzed transesterification. Case studies of pilot plant-scale production of biodiesel from soybean oil, yellow grease with 9% free fatty acids, and brown grease with 40% free fatty acids are presented. The effect of varying the reaction parameters is discussed and the separation and washing processes are described. Estimates of the fuel cost using different feedstocks are also provided.
Article
Biodiesel is one of the environmentally friendly alternative liquid biofuels that has proven itself commercially, with international standards all around the world. Industrial and scientific studies on reducing biodiesel production costs are one of the major contributions that have strengthened the position of biodiesel commercially. The type of vegetable oil used for biodiesel production is the parameter that has the greatest effect on biodiesel production cost. For this reason, investigations on the types of no-to-low-cost vegetable oils become crucial. In this study, the optimum conditions for biodiesel production from restaurant-originated used cooking oil (which is composed primarily of oleic and linoleic acids) and the refining procedure were investigated. A refining method of “washing with hot water” was used for biodiesel refinement. One of the properties of biodiesel that has an influence on biodiesel purity is glycerin content. In the refining studies, the effects of glycerin amount, used washing water amount, and the number of washing steps were discussed and biodiesel that meets EN 14214 standards was produced.
Article
The conversion of waste edible oil to biodiesel fuel in a fixed-bed bioreactor was investigated. Three-step methanolysis of waste oil was conducted using three columns packed with 3 g of immobilized Candida antarctica lipase. A mixture of waste oil and 1/3 molar equivalent of methanol against total fatty acids in the oil was used as substrate for the first-step reaction, and mixtures of the first- and second-step eluates and 1/3 molar equivalent of methanol were used for the second- and third-step reactions, respectively. Ninety percent of waste oil was converted to the corresponding methyl esters (ME) by feeding substrate mixtures into the first, second, and third reactors at flow rates of 6, 6 and 4 mL/h, respectively. We also attempted one-step methanolysis of waste oil. When a mixture of waste oil and 90% ME-containing eluate (1∶3, wt/wt) and an equimolar amount of methanol against total fatty acids in the waste oil was fed into a reactor packed with 3 g of immobilized C. antarctica lipase at a flow rate of 4 mL/h, the ME content in the eluate reached 90%. The immobilized biocatalyst could be used for 100 d in the two reaction systems without significant decrease in its activity. Waste oil contained 1980 ppm water and 2.5% free fatty acids, but these contaminants had little influence on enzymatic production of biodiesel fuel.
Article
Candida antarctica lipase is inactivated in a mixture of vegetable oil and more than 1∶2 molar equivalent of methanol against the total fatty acids. We have revealed that the inactivation was eliminated by three successive additions of 1∶3 molar equivalent of methanol and have developed a three-step methanolysis by which over 95% of the oil triacylglycerols (TAG) were converted to their corresponding methyl esters (ME). In this study, the lipase was not inactivated even though 2∶3 molar equivalent of methanol was present in a mixture of acylglycerols (AG) and 33% ME (AG/ME33). This finding led to a two-step methanolysis of the oil TAG: The first-step was conducted at 30°C for 12 h with shaking in a mixture of the oil, 1∶3 molar equivalent of methanol, and 4% immobilized lipase; the second-step reaction was done for 24 h after adding 2∶3 molar equivalent of methanol (36 h in total). The two-step methanolysis achieved more than 95% of conversion. When two-step reaction was repeated by transferring the immobilized lipase to a fresh substrate mixture, the enzyme could be used 70 cycles (105 d) without any decrease in the conversion. From the viewpoint of the industrial production of biodiesel fuel production, the two-step reaction was conducted using a reactor with impeller. However, the enzyme carrier was easily destroyed, and the lipase could be used only several times. Thus, we attempted flow reaction using a column packed with immobilized Candida lipase. Because the lipase packed in the column was drastically inactivated by feeding a mixture of AG/ME33 and 2∶3 molar equivalent of methanol, three-step flow reaction was performed using three columns packed with 3.0 g immobilized lipase. A mixture of vegetable oil and 1∶3 molar equivalent of methanol was fed into the first column at a constant flow rate of 6.0 mL/h. The eluate and 1∶3 molar equivalent of methanol were mixed and then fed into the second column at the same flow rate. The final step reaction was done by feeding a mixture of eluate from the second column and 1∶3 molar equivalent of methanol at the same flow rate. The ME content in the final-step eluate reached 93%, and the lipase could be used for 100 d without any decrease in the conversion.
Article
Trends in China's energy future will have considerable consequences for both China and the global environment. Though China's carbon emissions are low on a per capita basis, China is already ranked the world's second largest producer of carbon, behind only America. China's buildings sector currently accounts for 23% of China's total energy use and is projected to increase to one-third by 2010. Energy policy plays an important role in China's sustainable development. The purpose of this study is to provide a broad overview of energy efficiency issues in the built environment in China. This paper, firstly briefly, reviews the key national policies related to the built environment and demonstrates the government's environmental concern. Secondly, the authors introduce recent energy policies in the built environment. Energy efficiency and renewable energy in the built environment, which are the key issues of the national energy policy, have been reviewed. Discussion of the implementation of energy policy has been carried out.
Article
The world is confronted with the twin crises of fossil fuel depletion and environmental degradation. The indiscriminate extraction and consumption of fossil fuels have led to a reduction in petroleum reserves. Alternative fuels, energy conservation and management, energy efficiency and environmental protection have become important in recent years. The increasing import bill has necessitated the search for liquid fuels as an alternative to diesel, which is being used in large quantities in transport, agriculture, industrial, commercial and domestic sectors. Biodiesel obtained from vegetable oils has been considered a promising option.In this paper, an attempt has been made to review the work done on biodiesel production and utilization, resources available, process(es) developed/being developed, performance in existing engines, environmental considerations, the economic aspect, and advantages in and barriers to the use of biodiesel.
Article
Biodiesel has become more attractive recently because of its environmental benefits and the fact that it is made from renewable resources. The cost of biodiesel, however, is the main hurdle to commercialization of the product. The used cooking oils are used as raw material, adaption of continuous transesterification process and recovery of high quality glycerol from biodiesel by-product (glycerol) are primary options to be considered to lower the cost of biodiesel. There are four primary ways to make biodiesel, direct use and blending, microemulsions, thermal cracking (pyrolysis) and transesterification. The most commonly used method is transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats. The transesterification reaction is affected by molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalysts, reaction temperature, reaction time and free fatty acids and water content of oils or fats. The mechanism and kinetics of the transesterification show how the reaction occurs and progresses. The processes of transesterification and its downstream operations are also addressed.
Article
Increased environmental awareness and depletion of resources are driving industry to develop alternative fuels from renewable resources that are environmentally more acceptable. Esters of fatty acids (biodiesel), derived from the transesterification of vegetable oils, have properties similar to components of petroleum-based diesel fuel. Cost has been a major factor slowing the commercialization of biodiesel. Glycerol is the co-product of the esterification process. In this work the feasibility of the glycerolysis of vegetable oils with crude glycerol derived from the transesterification of vegetable oils and animal fats was studied. Utilization of the crude co-product of the biodiesel process was investigated for improving the overall economy. The transesterification of soybean oil for fuel purposes was optimized. Optimization results are presented. Transesterification of beef tallow produces a mixture of esters which is more concentrated in the saturated fatty acids. Physical properties of these esters are similar to esters of soybean oil. Reaction results and properties for esters of beef tallow are presented.
Article
Vegetable oil fuels have not been acceptable because they were more expensive than petroleum fuels. With recent increases in petroleum prices and uncertainties concerning petroleum availability, there is renewed interest in vegetable oil fuels for Diesel engines. Dilution of oils with solvents and microemulsions of vegetable oils lowers the viscosity, but some engine performance problems still exist. The purpose of the transesterification process is to lower the viscosity of the oil. Pyrolysis produces more biogasoline than biodiesel fuel. Soap pyrolysis products of vegetable oils can be used as alternative Diesel engine fuel. Methyl and ethyl esters of vegetable oils have several outstanding advantages among other new renewable and clean engine fuel alternatives. The main factors affecting transesterification are the molar ratio of glycerides to alcohol, catalyst, reaction temperature and pressure, reaction time and the contents of free fatty acids and water in oils. The commonly accepted molar ratios of alcohol to glycerides are 6:1–30:1.
Article
Crude soybean oil did not undergo methanolysis with immobilized Candida antarctica lipase but degummed oil did. Therefore, the substance that was removed in the degumming step was estimated to inhibit the methanolysis of soybean triacylglycerols (TAGs). The main components of soybean gum are phospholipids (PLs), and soybean PLs actually inhibited the methanolysis reaction. In addition, PLs were detected in chloroform/methanol (MeOH) extracts from the immobilized lipase preparation that had been used in the methanolysis of crude soybean oil. These results showed that PLs were at least one of the inhibitory substances in methanolysis of TAGs. The inhibition may due to the interference of the interaction of the lipase molecule with substrates by PLs bound on immobilized preparation. These findings indicated that degummed oil has to be used as a substrate for enzymatic methanolysis. Indeed, three-step methanolysis successfully converted 93.8% degummed soybean oil to its corresponding methyl esters, and the lipase could be reused for 25 cycles without any loss of the activity.
Article
In this work the transformation process of sunflower oil in order to obtain biodiesel by means of transesterification was studied. Taguchi's methodology was chosen for the optimisation of the most important variables (temperature conditions, reactants proportion and methods of purification), with the purpose of obtaining a high quality biodiesel that fulfils the European pre-legislation with the maximum process yield. Finally, sunflower methyl esters were characterised to test their properties as fuels in diesel engines, such as viscosity, flash point, cold filter plugging point and acid value. Results showed that biodiesel obtained under the optimum conditions is an excellent substitute for fossil fuels.
Article
Transesterified vegetable oils (VOs) are promising alternative diesel fuel. Waste VOs are cheap and renewable but currently disposed of inadequately. In this work, waste palm oil was transesterified under various conditions. H2SO4 and different concentrations of HCl and ethanol at different excess levels were used. Higher catalyst concentrations (1.5-2.25 M) produced biodiesel with lower specific gravity, gamma, in a much shorter reaction time than lower concentrations. The H2SO4 performed better than HCl at 2.25 M, as it resulted in lower gamma. Moreover, a 100% excess alcohol effected significant reductions in reaction time and lower gamma relative to lower excess levels. The best process combination was 2.25 M H2SO4 with 100% excess ethanol which reduced gamma from an initial value of 0.916 to a final value of 0.8737 in about 3 h of reaction time. Biodiesel had the behavior of a Newtonian fluid.
Article
Four different continuous process flowsheets for biodiesel production from virgin vegetable oil or waste cooking oil under alkaline or acidic conditions on a commercial scale were developed. Detailed operating conditions and equipment designs for each process were obtained. A technological assessment of these four processes was carried out to evaluate their technical benefits and limitations. Analysis showed that the alkali-catalyzed process using virgin vegetable oil as the raw material required the fewest and smallest process equipment units but at a higher raw material cost than the other processes. The use of waste cooking oil to produce biodiesel reduced the raw material cost. The acid-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil proved to be technically feasible with less complexity than the alkali-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil, thereby making it a competitive alternative to commercial biodiesel production by the alkali-catalyzed process.
Article
The economic feasibilities of four continuous processes to produce biodiesel, including both alkali- and acid-catalyzed processes, using waste cooking oil and the 'standard' process using virgin vegetable oil as the raw material, were assessed. Although the alkali-catalyzed process using virgin vegetable oil had the lowest fixed capital cost, the acid-catalyzed process using waste cooking oil was more economically feasible overall, providing a lower total manufacturing cost, a more attractive after-tax rate of return and a lower biodiesel break-even price. On the basis of these economic calculations, sensitivity analyses for these processes were carried out. Plant capacity and prices of feedstock oils and biodiesel were found to be the most significant factors affecting the economic viability of biodiesel manufacture.
Synthesis of ethyl caproate catalyzed by ferric sulfate hydrate (in Chinese)
  • Peng Xc
  • Peng Qj
  • Ouyang
  • Yz
Peng XC, Peng QJ, Ouyang YZ. Synthesis of ethyl caproate catalyzed by ferric sulfate hydrate (in Chinese). Huagong Xiandai/Mod Chem Ind 1999;19(1):26–7.
Study on synthesis of dibutyl maleate (in Chinese) Jishou Daxue Xuebao
  • Wen R L Long
  • L Ding
  • Yu
Wen R, Long L, Ding L, Yu S. Study on synthesis of dibutyl maleate (in Chinese). Jishou Daxue Xuebao/J Jishou Univ 2001;22(1):78–80.
Synthesis of ethyl caproate catalyzed by ferric sulfate hydrate (in Chinese)
  • Peng