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The impact of sport-hunting on the lion population in a protected area. Biol Conserv
Abstract
Between 1999 and 2004 we undertook an ecological study of African lions (Panthera leo) in Hwange National Park, western Zimbabwe to measure the impact of sport-hunting beyond the park on the lion population within the park, using radio-telemetry and direct observation. 34 of 62 tagged lions died during the study (of which 24 were shot by sport hunters: 13 adult males, 5 adult females, 6 sub-adult males). Sport hunters in the safari areas surrounding the park killed 72% of tagged adult males from the study area. Over 30% of all males shot were sub-adult (<4 years). Hunting off-take of male lions doubled during 2001–2003 compared to levels in the three preceding years, which caused a decline in numbers of adult males in the population (from an adult sex ratio of 1:3 to 1:6 in favour of adult females). Home ranges made vacant by removal of adult males were filled by immigration of males from the park core. Infanticide was observed when new males entered prides. The proportion of male cubs increased between 1999 and 2004, which may have occurred to compensate for high adult male mortality.
... This was because sustained shooting on the farms resulted in the disruption of the normal, mutually exclusive territorial system of black-backed jackals and created vacated areas for younger dispersers. Minnie et al. (2016) also demonstrated that the populations on the farmland compensated for population reductions by reproducing at a younger age and by carrying more foetuses (also see Loveridge, Searle, Murindagomo & MacDonald, 2007;Chapter 7). Minnie, Zalewski, Zalweska & Kerley (2018) also showed that shooting created to these farmers developing a dislike towards the protected wildlife and the prescribed management methods. ...
... Furthermore, if factors other than litter presence influence livestock predation patterns, denning will not necessarily be effective (Till & Knowlton, 1983). Denning may potentially also trigger compensatory breeding in certain predators (see Loveridge et al., 2007;Minnie et al., 2016). ...
... 1. Unselective lethal management: The removal of territorial dominant individuals encourages the influx of dispersing, non-territorial individuals (Loveridge et al., 2007;Minnie et al., 2016) that could negatively impact the density of natural prey Avenant et al., 2009) and could be more prone to predate on "unnatural" prey (i.e. livestock) Avenant et al., 2006). ...
This assessment provides a policy relevant synthesis on the topic of livestock predation and its management in South Africa, as well as recommendations for future research.
See also https://predsa.mandela.ac.za/
... Group-living carnivores have been established as model species for studying the role that each individual plays within a social cooperative breeding group and how some roles are critical to breeder fitness and group persistence (Loveridge et al. 2007;Ausband et al. 2017a, b;Sparkman et al. 2017;Tanaka et al. 2018). In many group-living carnivores, breeders are vital to perpetuating the group, and the death or removal of an individual breeder can greatly affect group compositions, genetic content, and short-term population growth (Ausband et al. 2015, Bohling and. ...
... In many group-living carnivores, breeders are vital to perpetuating the group, and the death or removal of an individual breeder can greatly affect group compositions, genetic content, and short-term population growth (Ausband et al. 2015, Bohling and. Harvest of African lions (Panthera leo) increased the frequency of breeder turnover, because harvest was disproportionally targeting large males that typically sired cubs of multiple resident females in the group (Loveridge et al. 2007). Human-caused mortality can have compounding effects on group-living wolves. ...
In cooperatively breeding carnivores, breeders are vital to perpetuating the group; the death or removal of an individual breeder can greatly affect group composition, genetic content, and short‐term population growth. Understanding the number of breeders harvested and timing of harvest can increase our knowledge of how mortality affects groups of cooperative breeders. Gray wolves (Canis lupus) in Idaho, USA, are exposed to annual harvest and are an ideal species for studying the effects of harvest on breeder turnover. We combined genotypes from tissue samples of harvested wolves with parentage analyses and cementum annuli ages and estimated when and how many breeding wolves were harvested. We genotyped and aged 229 adults and 203 pups using tissue and tooth samples from wolves harvested between 2014 and 2016. We identified a minimum count of 33 breeders in the harvest and found that they were disproportionately harvested more during the breeding season. We estimated that a minimum of ~14.5% of adult wolves harvested annually, or approximately 1 in 7, were breeders. We posit their behavior during breeding season may increase their vulnerability to harvest. By linking animal life history with vulnerability to human‐caused mortality we show that managers could structure harvest seasons so there is less overlap with wolves’ breeding season if there is concern about the demographic consequences of harvesting breeders.
... For example, harvest creates spatial vacancies by removing established males, releasing surviving individual from competition or other social constraints (Frank et al., 2018;Loveridge et al., 2016). This destabilization of social structure can also result in an increase of intraspecific conflict and infanticide (Gosselin et al., 2017;Leclerc, Frank, et al., 2017;Loveridge et al., 2007;Whitman et al., 2004). Alternatively, in some species, harvest restrictions designed to protect females with dependent young can actually promote slower life histories by increasing selective pressure on mothers to stay with their cubs for longer periods of time (van de Walle et al., 2018). ...
... High levels of harvest-associated mortality can also reduce dispersal and modify patterns of philopatry and kin-clustering (Fattebert et al., 2015;Loveridge et al., 2007;Naude et al., 2020). ...
Hunting mortality can affect population abundance, demography, patterns of dispersal and philopatry, breeding, and genetic diversity. We investigated the effects of hunting on the reproduction and genetic diversity in a puma population in western Colorado, USA. We genotyped over 11,000 single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), using double‐digest, restriction site‐associated DNA sequencing (ddRADseq) in 291 tissue samples collected as part of a study on the effects of hunting on puma population abundance and demography in Colorado from 2004 to 2014. The study was designed with a reference period (years 1–5), during which hunting was suspended, followed by a treatment period (years 6–10), in which hunting was reinstated. Our objectives were to examine the effects of hunting on: (1) paternity and male reproductive success; (2) the relatedness between pumas within the population, and (3) genetic diversity. We found that hunting reduced the average age of male breeders. The number of unique fathers siring litters increased each year without hunting and decreased each year during the hunting period. Mated pairs were generally unrelated during both time periods, and females were more closely related than males. Hunting was also associated with increased relatedness among males and decreased relatedness among females in the population. Finally, genetic diversity increased during the period without hunting and decreased each year when hunting was present. This study demonstrates the utility of merging demographic data with large‐scale genomic datasets in order to better understand the consequences of management actions. Specifically, we believe that this study highlights the need for long‐term experimental research in which hunting mortality is manipulated, including at least one non‐harvested control population, as part of a broader adaptive, zone management scheme.
... Valid criticisms of certain hunting programmes can be ecological, social and ethical. Ecological problems can include driving population declines and disrupting age-sex and social structures (Loveridge et al., 2007;Packer et al., 2010), while social problems may involve the inadequate or inequitable distribution of benefits which often stem from poor trophy hunting governance (Nelson et al., 2013). More fundamental concerns about trophy hunting relate to animal welfare and the ethics of the practice, which arguably constitute the main obstacles to trophy hunting as an acceptable conservation tool (Batavia et al., 2018). ...
... Yet, despite such large spatial scales, much of the area over which trophy hunting is permitted in countries like Russia, Kazakhstan, and Turkey is not actively managed for trophy hunting, but rather animals are simply allowed to be shot. This differs from areas managed specifically and intensively for trophy hunting, like many hunting areas in sub-Saharan Africa (Loveridge et al., 2007). The combination of trophy hunting being allowed over such large areas in several Asian countries with the relatively low intensity of management could have remarkable economic implications; for example, it could result in lower management costs while still yielding valuable benefits (e.g. ...
The continuing debates about trophy hunting should be underpinned by an understanding of at least the basic characteristics of the practice (e.g. species, quotas, areas, prices). Whilst many countries in Asia have established trophy hunting programmes of considerable importance to conservation and local livelihoods, there remains some ambiguity over the extent of trophy hunting in Asia as its basic characteristics in each country have not been compiled. In this study, we compile information on various ecological and socioeconomic characteristics of trophy hunting of mammals for countries across Asia by reviewing published and unpublished literature, analysing trade data, and obtaining contributions from in‐country contacts. Across Asia, established trophy hunting programmes exist in at least 11 countries and target at least 30 species and one hybrid (incl., five Vulnerable and one Endangered species). Trophy hunting in these countries varies markedly in areas (e.g. >1 million km² in Kazakhstan, 37% of country, vs. 1325 km² in Nepal, <1% of country) and annual offtakes (e.g. Kazakhstan: 4500 individuals from 4 of 5 trophy species; Pakistan: 229 from 4 of 7; Mongolia: 155 from 6 of 9; Tajikistan: 126 from 3 of 6; Nepal: 22 from 3 of the 4 that are trophy hunted in practice). Permit prices also vary across species and countries, with domestic and international hunters sometimes charged different rates. Hunters from the USA appear overwhelmingly prominent among international clients. National legislations typically mandate a proportion of trophy hunting revenue to accrue locally (range: 40–100%). We provide five key recommendations for research to inform trophy hunting policy in Asia: (1) Ecological impact assessments; (2) Socioeconomic impact assessments; (3) Evaluations of the contributions of trophy hunting to conservation spending; (4) Evaluations of the contributions of trophy hunting to the post‐2020 Global Biodiversity Framework; (5) Further examinations of perceptions of trophy hunting.
... To relieve the situation and retaliate their losses, livestock farmers have resolved to hunting or poisoning lions [73,95]. Studies show that this conflict has led to a considerable decrease in the numbers of predators in places all over Africa [9,46,48,57,77]. However, large predators such as the lion fulfil an important function in the specific ecosystem with regard to the equilibrium of individual populations. ...
... Their disappearance could change "the structure and function of the entire ecosystem" [23] unpredictably [36]. Additionally, large predators form a major tourist attraction [3,12,23,46,57]. ...
Can cattle farmers live peacefully alongside lions, and what role can technology play in this sensitive setting? Since 2017, we have been investigating this question in the Okavango Delta, Botswana, using a Grounded Design (GD) approach. Based on community involvement we have been building and evaluating a system together with local and foreign experts which warns the locals when a lion comes near their village or their cattle and which has significantly reduced livestock predation by giving time for action. However, as our research shows, technology alone is not the solution for locals’ problems: education, knowledge transfer, economic self-determination, as well as the revival of herding traditions and lost connection to nature need to evolve further to foster a true coexistence between humans and predators in Botswana – and perhaps all over the world. To address these problems and solutions by design and ensure sustainability of its outcome, it is important to take into account the oral culture and collective history of the inhabitants with predators, especially lions. Consideration must also be given to their social environment and individual experiences and goals, as well as their digital infrastructure, accessibility, and digital ecologies. We therefore argue that the successful development of a design solution requires a holistic understanding of design that is built on inclusion, participation, collaboration, understanding, respect, sacredness and the always-recurrent cyclic renovation of life.
... The study took place in the north-east of the park, where artificial waterholes retain water year-round and areas that are > 8 km from a waterhole are rare, even in the dry season (Chamaille-Jammes et al. 2007). The densities of lion (Panthera leo) and spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta), the two main predators of plains zebras, are relatively high (Loveridge et al. 2007;Drouet-Hoguet 2007). There is no hunting in the park. ...
In large herbivores, the timing of births often coincides with the seasonal peak of food resources availability, likely to improve juvenile survival and reduce reproduction costs. Some species, however, breed year-round, even in seasonal environments. Demographic processes, such as to what extent being born during the lean season reduces survival of juveniles and reproductive females, remain understudied in large mammals inhabiting tropical ecosystems. We investigated survival rates in plains zebras (Equus quagga) in Hwange National Park (Zimbabwe), a highly seasonal savanna ecosystem. We used capture–recapture models to analyse long-term demographic data (2008–2019). We investigated the effect of seasonality as a categorical (wet versus dry season) and continuous (duration of the dry season) variable on survival. We found little variability in early juvenile survival (φ = 0.458 ± 0.044 SE, < 6 m.o.), whereas late juvenile and yearling survivals were higher and decreased with increasing length of the dry season (from 0.850 ± 0.095 SE to 0.480 ± 0.120 SE). Female survival was high (> 0.703 ± 0.057 SE and up to 0.995 ± 0.006 SE) but decreased with exposure to the dry season in non-reproductive females. The probability of females becoming reproductive in the following year was not affected by the length of the dry season (0.423 and 0.420 for reproductive and non-reproductive females, respectively). Our results highlight the importance of individual quality in reproductive performance, as reproductive females seem to buffer the effect of environmental variability on their own survival and that of their foal.
... Although lions are the most-studied species in the African large carnivore guild (Strampelli et al., 2022), empirical analyses of their demographic responses to management and conservation actions remain rare, and mostly restricted to the effects of trophy hunting Loveridge et al., 2007Loveridge et al., , 2016Mweetwa et al., 2018;Rosenblatt et al., 2014;Whitman et al., 2004). found that low prey density due to bushmeat poaching in the GKE caused lion density to be low, primarily due to poor cub recruitment (rather than poor adult survival). ...
Large carnivores such as the lion are declining across Africa, in part because their large herbivore prey is declining. There is consensus that increased protection from prey depletion will be necessary to reverse the decline of lion populations, but few studies have tested whether increased protection is sufficient to reverse the decline, particularly in the large, open ecosystems where most lions remain. Here, we used an integrated population model to test whether lion demography and population dynamics were measurably improved by increased protection. We used data from monitoring of 358 individuals from 2013 to 2021 in the Greater Kafue Ecosystem, where prior research showed that lions were strongly limited by prey depletion, but protection increased in several well‐defined areas beginning in 2018. In some other areas, protection decreased. In areas with high protection, lion fecundity was 29% higher, and mean annual apparent survival (φ) was 8.3% higher (with a minimum difference of 6.0% for prime‐aged adult females and a maximum difference of 11.9% for sub‐adult males). These demographic benefits combined to produce likely population growth in areas with high protection (λ̂ = 1.085, 90% CI = 0.97, 1.21), despite likely population decline in areas with low protection (λ̂ = 0.970, 90% CI = 0.88, 1.07). For the ecosystem as a whole, population size remained relatively constant at a moderate density of 3.74 (±0.49 SD) to 4.13 (±0.52 SD) lions/100 km². With the growth observed in areas with high protection, the expected doubling time was 10 years. Despite this, recovery at the scale of the entire ecosystem is likely to be slow without increased protection; the current growth rate would require 50 years to double. Our results demonstrate that increased protection is likely to improve the reproduction and population growth rate of lions at a large scale within an unfenced ecosystem that has been greatly affected by poaching.
... celebensis) indicates a territorial behaviour of male individuals (Leus et al., 1996), suggesting that competition among males could push less-dominant individuals to suboptimal habitats and increase male's mortality. Hunting can also in uence sex ratio by targeting a speci c sex (Loveridge et al., 2007). Local farmers kill the Togean babirusa for pest control (Jati et al., 2024), but establishing whether males are more affected requires further investigations. ...
The Togean Islands babirusa ( Babyrousa togeanensis ) is an Endangered wild pig species endemic to the Togean Archipelago, Indonesia. Despite its conservation status, our knowledge of the species is limited, which hampers conservation efforts. We here report the results of an island-wide camera trapping study, assessing the species’ demographic status and activity patterns. We sampled 103 camera stations distributed throughout the entire range of the species from July-October 2022. Through N-mixture modeling, we estimated the babirusa’s population size as 440 adult individuals (CI: 340–580), with a sex ratio of 1:2.3. The male babirusas were mostly solitary, but females were typically part of a group dominated by juveniles. Using multistate occupancy modeling, we also found the probability of reproductive babirusas being present in an occupied site was 0.74 ± SD 0.11, and the probability was higher with increasing distance to human settlement. Despite high human activities, the babirusa remained diurnal, with activities concentrated in the early morning and late afternoon. We suggest the IUCN Red List status of the Togean Islands babirusa should remain Endangered or shifted to Critically Endangered if the risk from potential African Swine Fever outbreak is considered.
... TH is a divisive topic; some argue that, when well-managed, it offers conservation benefits to target species, conservation incentives for areas of land used for hunting, and socioeconomic benefits to local communities that live in or near hunting areas [2][3][4][5][6][7]. Others contend that TH is linked to negative conservation impacts [6,[8][9][10][11][12], unethical hunting practices [4][5][6]13], adverse evolutionary effects [14][15][16][17][18], and socioeconomic problems for local communities that are intended beneficiaries of the TH programs [5,7,[19][20][21]. ...
This study examines the perceived influence of corruption on the practice of trophy hunting in South Africa, the largest trophy exporter in Africa. Corruption is a major problem in South Africa, where it takes the form of bribery and embezzlement. To investigate its perceived effects on the practice of trophy hunting, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 15 trophy hunting stakeholders in South Africa. Interviews were conducted via Zoom, recorded, transcribed, and coded using a qualitative content analysis. Six of the 15 respondents had personally witnessed corruption in the trophy hunting industry in South Africa, and 13 respondents had heard accounts of corruption witnessed or experienced by others. Respondents identified several perceived problems caused by corruption in the trophy hunting industry and suggested ways to mitigate corruption. Based on these results, a multi-pronged approach for addressing corruption within the trophy hunting industry in South Africa may be necessary.
... General harvest yielded declining populations in six of eight reporting studies; one study reported no change, and two reported population increases (N > 8 because one study focused on both poaching and general harvest). Four of the seven studies that focused on selective harvest showed population declines and two of those reported decreased adult survival (Loveridge et al., 2007;Becker et al., 2013; Table 2). ...
Human‐caused mortality can be pervasive and even highly selective for individuals in groups of cooperative breeders. Many studies of cooperative breeders, however, do not address human‐caused mortality. Similarly, studies focused on the effects of human‐caused mortality on wildlife populations often do not consider the ecology of cooperative breeders. We searched the literature and identified 58 studies where human‐caused mortality affected a group characteristic, vital rate, or population state of a cooperative breeder. Of studies reporting population growth or decline, 80% reported a link between human‐caused mortality and population declines in cooperative breeders. Such studies often did not identify the mechanism behind population declines, but 28% identified concurrent declines in adult survival and another 21% reported concurrent declines in recruitment or reproduction. There was little overlap between the cooperative breeding and human‐caused mortality literatures, limiting our ability to accrue knowledge. Future work would be beneficial if it ( i ) identified the vital rate(s) causing population declines, ( ii ) leveraged management actions such as lethal removal to ask questions about the ecology of group‐living in cooperative breeders, and ( iii ) used insights from cooperative breeding theory to inform management actions and conservation of group‐living species.
... Biologists too have expressed concerns about the excesses of the African hunting industry. Trophy hunting, for example precipitated the rapid decline of some lion (Panthera leo) populations in East Africa (Packer et al., 2011), and unregulated hunting has disrupted the age-sex structure of lions in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe (Loveridge et al., 2007). Moreover, unregulated trophy hunting may drive unnatural selection in targeted species (Festa-Bianchet and Mysterud, 2018). ...
African trophy hunting is controversial. Central to the debate on this practice is whether it may be justified by any broader provisions to African society. These typically include meat supply to poor communities, problem animal control, and the funding of conservation and community development. The societal role of African hunting is as contested as the practice itself, with proponents advocating for the benefits of hunting, while critics point to these being inadequate. Little is known about the role of location and demography in the debate on hunting benefits. Here we circulated an anonymous online survey through our international networks. We asked respondents to indicate which (if any) benefits they thought may justify the practice and whether they supported African trophy hunting, or not. We also collected data on respondent geographic location, age, gender, and employment within conservation. The 5755 responses were analysed using multiple correspondence analysis and provided strong evidence for an association between the level of support/rejection of trophy hunting and potential benefits that were perceived to justify the practice. Funding of wildlife conservation through hunting was the most frequently selected benefit, even among many respondents with a neutral or slightly negative view toward trophy hunting as a practice. Respondents strongly opposed to trophy hunting were more likely to reject all societal benefits of hunting. There was some divergence in views between Africa-based respondents, and those outside of Africa. We suggest that any policy development on African trophy hunting be required to incorporate the views of all African stakeholders.
... While leopard trophy hunting in the Delta is well-managed and funds anti-poaching efforts, and encroachment of human activity within WMAs is regulated, bushmeat poaching has only recently been brought under control by gradually increased and sustained anti-poaching efforts. Trophy hunting of large carnivores has the potential to generate significant financial returns for conservation (Lindsey et al., 2007, while poorly managed hunting may drive population declines and ultimately imperil both the industry and the conservation revenue it provides (Loveridge et al., 2007;Muller et al., 2022;Packer et al., 2011). Leopards are particularly sensitive to over-harvest due to their complex social systems and reliance on relatively stable kin-clustering (Fattebert et al., 2016). ...
The population size and conservation status of wildlife in post‐conflict areas is often uncertain. In Mozambique, decades of armed conflict resulted in large‐scale wildlife population depletion with limited conservation and research opportunities. The African leopard (Panthera pardus) is a large carnivore with great ecological and economic significance, yet their population status is largely unknown within Mozambique. Using camera trapping in conjunction with robust spatially explicit capture‐recapture modeling, we estimated leopard density in 2021 for Coutada 11, a wildlife management area in the postwar Zambezi Delta landscape of central Mozambique. Leopard density was relatively low (1.57 ± 0.37 SE [latent‐mixture‐model] and 1.84 ± 0.41 [sex‐mixture‐model] leopards/100 km²), occurring in the bottom fourth of 161 range‐wide leopard densities, and similar to those from semiarid and human‐dominated landscapes. Prey‐based carrying capacity estimates suggested that leopard density should be at least twice as large. Despite a recent and substantial reduction in poaching activity, evidence of snared leopards indicates that sustained bushmeat poaching, combined with sustainable, but additional legal offtake is suppressing leopard population recovery. This study provides important baseline insight into leopard population density in Mozambique and joins mounting evidence indicating that anthropogenic pressures limit large carnivore populations which is of major national and global concern. We suggest long‐term monitoring of this leopard population to determine trends over time and implement effective conservation interventions in response to population changes. This population clearly has the capacity to recover if hunting quotas are reduced to account for illegal offtake and, more importantly, if anti‐poaching efforts are redoubled to reduce unsustainable anthropogenic mortality of leopards.
... For example, in NKNP and Pendjari NP, the climate is of the Sudanian type (DPNS, 2000;Kane, 2014;Sogbohossou et al., 2011) and in Waza NP it is of the Sudano-Sahelian type (Beauvilain, 1995;Tumenta et al., 2010). Group size in East and Southern Africa is generally larger (DPNS, 2000;Schaller, 1972;Spong, 2002;Stander, 1992) and Bauer (2003) Anthropogenic activities around and within protected areas are known to affect the social structure (Loveridge et al., 2007(Loveridge et al., , 2009Verschueren, 2017) and are also present in NKNP (Gueye et al., 2022). ...
To inform the conservation of the Regionally Critically Endangered West African lion, we studied lion population size and social structure in Niokolo Koba National Park (NKNP), Senegal. Calling station and camera trap surveys were conducted and opportunistic lion observations were documented from 2015 to 2020. The average lion density was calculated as 0.50 lion/100 km ² and the population size was estimated as 28–56 individuals. Average lion group size was 2.1 ± 1.45 lions (range 1–8 lions). There were no significant differences between observations of single individuals (43%), groups of two (22%), three (19%), four (4%) and more than four (5%) individual lions ( X ² = 30.021, p ‐value = 0.06452). Sex ratio showed a ratio of male:female of 1:1.1 to 1:2.8. About 13.59% of the lion population was composed of cubs while, respectively, 81.22% and 5.17% were adults and subadults. Based on the analysis of activity patterns, lions in NKNP are mainly nocturno‐crepuscular (18:00–01:00) and matutinal (06:00–08:00). Lion population size and density are still low in NKNP compared to earlier estimates from the same area, in the late 1990s. We therefore conclude that the conservation of lions in NKNP must be further improved to safeguard this population in the long term.
... The global lion (Panthera leo) population is thought to have declined by about 75% (Loveridge et al. 2022) over the last five decades, with more than 43% of the decline occurring since the early 1990s (Bauer et al. 2015). Several factors have accounted for this decline, including land use change , declines in prey species abundance (Elliot & Gopalaswamy 2017, Lindsey et al. 2017, illegal killing through poaching and retaliation (Visser et al. 2009, Lindsey et al. 2017) and poorly regulated hunting (Loveridge et al. 2007, Kissui 2008, Packer et al. 2011. This decline in abundance varies regionally, with populations smaller and more fragmented in West Africa and India than in eastern and southern Africa (Bauer & Van Der Merwe 2004, Tumenta et al. 2010. ...
Since the 1990s, the number of lions ( Panthera leo ) has declined by about 43% across African range states. Reliable lion population estimates can contribute to effective management and inform local and international conservation policies. Though many survey methods have been used to estimate lion abundance, an assessment of their usefulness and effectiveness is lacking.
We reviewed and identified available methods used to estimate lion populations, then investigated their feasibility, cost‐effectiveness and suitability to achieve primary objectives.
We identified 12 methods in two categories: direct (minimum counts, call‐in surveys, capture–recapture, opportunistic sightings, remote cameras, distance‐based and aerial counts) and indirect (track counts, secondary information, prey‐based, genetic samples and roar counts).
We identified 48 studies (57%) in which lion population estimation was not repeatable. Additionally, 38% did not provide any measure of precision. About 28% of the studies were conducted specifically for management purposes, while remaining studies focused on population estimates and dynamics.
Because data from these studies have influenced local management and global lion conservation policies, we recommend basing future policies and management on repeatable, precise and accurate population estimates supported by appropriate and cost‐effective experimental designs. In most cases, these estimates are obtained through actual lion counts derived from direct observation methods including call‐in, capture–recapture and remote camera surveys or through reliable animal signs such as genetic samples.
... Eight range countries only have a single wild lion population left, and almost half of all range countries have lion populations estimated at fewer than 250 individuals. Given that lions have innate biological characteristics linked to high extinction risk (e.g., high trophic level, low population density, slow life history 26 ), and are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic risk factors such as habitat conversion, illegal or unsustainable hunting, prey depletion and conflict 15,[27][28][29] , these figures are concerning and warrant greater emphasis on urgent and effective conservation effort. Anthropogenic pressures are likely to grow, especially as more than half the global human population growth between now and 2050 is predicted to occur in Africa (United Nations DESA/ Population Division). ...
... Eight range countries only have a single wild lion population left, and almost half of all range countries have lion populations estimated at fewer than 250 individuals. Given that lions have innate biological characteristics linked to high extinction risk (e.g., high trophic level, low population density, slow life history 26 ), and are particularly susceptible to anthropogenic risk factors such as habitat conversion, illegal or unsustainable hunting, prey depletion and conflict 15,[27][28][29] , these figures are concerning and warrant greater emphasis on urgent and effective conservation effort. Anthropogenic pressures are likely to grow, especially as more than half the global human population growth between now and 2050 is predicted to occur in Africa (United Nations DESA/ Population Division). ...
Lions are one of the world’s most iconic species but are threatened with extinction. Developing effective range-wide conservation plans are crucial but hampered by the relative lack of knowledge on specific threats facing each population and the socio-political context for conservation. Here, we present a range-wide examination of the relative fragility of lion populations, examining socio-political factors alongside ecological ones. We found Ethiopia’s Maze National Park had the most ecologically fragile geographic population while Kavango-Zambezi was the least. At a country level, lion populations had highest ecological fragility in Cameroon and Malawi. When we examined socio-political fragility, Somalia was the most fragile lion range country, followed by South Sudan. When socio-political and ecological fragility were combined, lion populations in Maze National Park and Bush-Bush (Somalia) and more broadly, Somalian and Malawian lion populations were the most fragile. These insights should help inform more nuanced and appropriately targeted lion conservation plans.
... Additionally, older or territorial males displaced for various reasons may seek refuge in the habitat patches of Greater Gir (Singh 1997(Singh , 2017b, leading to a skewed sex ratio in these two satellite populations. Previous studies have reported highly skewed sex ratios favoring females in populations selectively harvested for adult male lions (Yamazaki 1996;Loveridge et al. 2007), but this is unlikely for lions in India due to their high level of protection under Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972. Content courtesy of Springer Nature, terms of use apply. ...
Estimating the population size of wildlife is essential for effective conservation and management efforts. In this study, we used a management-oriented technique called minimal total count by direct beat verification to assess the population of Asiatic lions (Panthera leo persica, hereafter referred to as “lions”) across their distribution range commonly known as Asiatic Lion Landscape. From June 5th to 6th 2020, we estimated a total of 674 lions at 294 locations among 611 units surveyed. The Gir protected areas had the largest number of lions (344), followed by the satellite populations of Savarkundla-Liliya and adjoining areas (98), the southeastern coast (67), Girnar (56), Bhavnagar mainland (56), the southwestern coast (20), the Bhavnagar coast (17), and Mitiyala (16). Of the total individuals (n = 674), 62.46% were adults, 17.21% were sub-adults, and 20.33% were cubs. During the estimation, we counted 260 adult females, of which 23.08% were lactating. Compared to the previous estimate in 2015, the present estimation showed a percent change of 28.87% in five years, with an annual percent change of 5.77%. Lions were distributed across an area of approximately 30,000 km2. The adult male-to-female ratio was 1:1.61, and the average group size was 2.29 ± 0.10 (Mean ± SE). The successful conservation initiatives spanning over six decades in the Gujarat state have contributed to the increase in the lion population.
... Using data from 22 intensive studies, Woodroffe and Ginsberg (1998) showed that humans are responsible for the majority of large carnivore deaths inside protected areas. Most mortality occurs when carnivores range beyond reserve boundaries and are killed, accidentally and deliberately, by humans (Schwartz et al.,2006;Loveridge et al.,2007). Theory and empirical data suggested that behavioural factors may play a role in tiger-leopard co-existence in certain circumstances. ...
The estimation of abundance or density of a particular species is very important in understanding the population ecology to effectively manage large, wide-ranging carnivores such as the leopard (Pantherapardus). Nowadays habitat fragmentation is a major concern for the long term survival of the aforesaid species. Being elusive and inhabitant of both forested and human dominated landscape, leopard is always in conservation priority. The present study was carried out in Sariska Tiger Reserve, between 18th February 2014 and 20th April 2014, to find out the abundance and
distribution pattern of leopard with respect to prey and top predator. Here tiger is the top predator in the food chain. The effective trapping area (ETA) was 355.523 square kilometre with a buffer of half mean maximum distance moved. Sign survey and camera trapping methods were employed to identify the probable leopard movement areas and receive photo-captures in the deployed digital cameras of the same, respectively. Thirty four individual leopards were photocaptured
during the study period. The data was modelled under a likelihood-based capture-recapture analytical framework like M0 (null model), Mb (learnedbehaviour) and Mh
(heterogeneity). The ecological parameters such as density (D), detection probability (g0) and distance from home range centre (sigma) were estimated explicitly. The programs used were DENSITY 5.0 and SECR R. The estimated total population size(N-hat ± SE)of leopard (including both the blocks) using M0 Null estimator is44.0 ± 5.0 whereas for MhJackknife it is61.8 ± 12.4 and the overall estimated density of leopard is11.6+2.65individuals/100 km2 using half mean
maximum distance moved (½ MMDM). The capture rate per 100 trap nights showed that leopards avoid tiger dominated and livestock areas. The leopard distribution pattern with respect to vegetation was mainly found around Boswelliaserrataforest patches with gentle to steep slope terrain. In the present study, the photographic capture recapture technique gave the ability to predict population change when compared to earlier population data. This non- invasive method is useful for management purposes and for long term investigation for population dynamics of
leopard in similar study sites in the semi-arid region.
... Since the golden jackal in Italy is not subject to hunting or control measures, being strictly protected under the National Law, this country is ideal to study the species behavioural and population dynamics. In fact, hunting may alter population dynamics in different ways, also by affecting behaviour and reproductive strategies (Milner et al. 2007;Loveridge et al. 2007;Wielgus et al. 2013;Gosselin et al. 2015;Van de Walle et al. 2021). In this note, we report the first evidence of allonursing in the golden jackal. ...
In the last decade, there has been a remarkable increase in the number of scientific publications on the ecology of the golden jackal Canis aureus , whereas information on its reproductive biology is still scanty, and the basic reproductive parameters of the species are not yet fully understood. In 2021, we began a research project in North-Eastern Italy, where the golden jackal is strictly protected under the National Law, to investigate the species behavioural ecology and reproductive biology at the den site, as a key element for defining conservation measures. Within this project, we documented allosuckling behaviour, possibly related to the breeding of two females within the same social unit, with den sharing and communal nursing of the cubs. Our observations open new scenarios and raise questions on the reproductive biology and social organisation of the golden jackal, stimulating further topics for research.
... Relatively few studies have examined the effects of human disturbance to biological metrics other than the population size or growth rate such as sex ratios, age structure, and social structure, yet several have reported notable impacts. For example, infanticide increased with male harvest in both African lions (Panthera leo) (Loveridge et al. 2007) and Scandinavian brown bears (Ursus arctos) (Leclerc et al. 2017), and humancaused mortality disrupted dispersal patterns in African leopards (Panthera pardus pardus), resulting in higher rates of inbreeding (Naude et al. 2020). ...
Transboundary movement of wildlife results in some of the most complicated and unresolved wildlife management issues across the globe. Depending on the location and managing agency, gray wolf (Canis lupus) management in the US ranges from preservation to limited hunting to population reduction. Most wildlife studies focus on population size and growth rate to inform management, but relatively few examine species biological processes at scales aside from that of the population. This is especially important for group‐living species such as the gray wolf, for which the breeding unit is the social group. We analyzed data for gray wolf packs living primarily within several US National Park Service units (years of data): Denali National Park and Preserve (33 years), Grand Teton National Park (23 years), Voyageurs National Park (12 years), Yellowstone National Park (27 years), and Yukon‐Charley Rivers National Preserve (23 years). We identified two gray wolf biological processes that differed from population size – namely, pack persistence and reproduction – and determined that while human‐caused mortality had negative effects on both, pack size had a moderating effect on the impacts of mortality.
... Whilst this is a realistic scenario in hunting blocks where hunters can access the entire population, trophy hunting frequently occurs on or close to the boundaries of fully protected areas such as national parks, and exerts a significant edge effect on these areas 18,27,28 . Loveridge et al. 29 described such an effect in Hwange National Park, where trophy hunting of male lions in hunting blocks adjacent to the national park boundary created territorial vacancies in peripheral areas which were sequentially filled by new males from the national park core. This exposed a high proportion of lions in the protected population to trophy hunting mortality. ...
Many large predator populations are in decline globally with significant implications for ecosystem integrity and function. Understanding the drivers of their decline is required to adequately mitigate threats. Trophy hunting is often cited as a tool to conserve large mammal populations but may also have negative impacts if not well managed. Here we use a spatially implicit, individual based model to investigate the threats posed to African lion populations by poorly managed trophy hunting and additive anthropogenic mortality such as poaching and retaliatory killing. We confirm the results of previous studies that show that lion trophy hunting can be sustainable if only older male lions are hunted, but demonstrate that hunting becomes unsustainable when populations are exposed to additional anthropogenic mortality, as is the case for most free ranging populations. We show that edge effects can be a critical determinant of population viability and populations that encompass well protected source areas are more robust than those without. Finally, errors in aging of hunted lions by professional trophy hunters may undermine the sustainability of the age-based quota setting strategies that are now widely used to manage lion trophy hunting. The effect of aging errors was most detrimental to population persistence in the ≥ 6 and ≥ 7 year-old age thresholds that are frequently used to define suitably aged lions for hunting. Resource managers should limit offtakes to older demographics and additionally take a precautionary approach when setting hunting quotas for large carnivore populations that are affected by other sources of anthropogenic mortality, such as bush-meat poaching, retaliatory killing and problem animal control.
... People directly affected by HWC often resort to hunting wildlife or destroying wildlife habitats to enlarge their crop fields in an attempt to compensate for the damage they suffered (Distefano, 2005). This persecution results in an endangered status of predators and other species in Africa, which affects wildlife diversity and ultimately the whole ecosystem (Dickman, 2010;Distefano, 2005;Hazzah, Borgerhoff Mulder, & Frank, 2009;Loveridge, Searle, Murindagomo, & Macdonald, 2007). Predator attacks on cattle in Botswana have led to the shootings and poisoning of lions (Okavango Community Trust between 2009 and 2014), threatening to lower their endangered population. ...
In the Southern African country of Botswana, the Okavango Delta is famous for its abundance of wildlife. However, this popular tourist destination is also inhabited by many people, mostly farmers, who live in close proximity to the national parks. When domesticated animals' grazing land extends into predator territory, fatal conflicts are the consequence: around 250 attacks on cattle were reported in the four villages we researched in 2017, 87 % of them being by lions. Not only are the farmers' livelihood and safety endangered, but poor governmental compensation schemes also lead to frustration , a negative image and even persecution of lions. To solve this problem and reduce conflicts to a minimum, the non-profit organisation CLAWS (Communities Living Among Wildlife Sustainably) has introduced GPS tracking of selected lions by means of attaching collars and establishing a warning system called LionAlert, where researchers notify locals via a text message to their mobile phones whenever a lion enters a critical area. While this has helped reduce attacks by around 50 %, a range of problems remain, among them a static signal area and time frame, network instability, the inefficient nature of manual warning as well as other factors which prevent warning recipients from reacting accordingly.
This Master's thesis deals with an attempt to solve these issues by iteratively designing and evaluating an interactive interface for a new, automatically operated version of Li-onAlert. For this purpose, a Design Case Studies and Participatory Design methodology has been applied (Schuler & Namioka, 1993; Wulf et al., 2018). Over the course of three weeks in August 2018, two rounds of workshops were conducted by an interdisci-plinary team with 35 participants from three villages in the Okavango Delta. They served to determine the concerned parties' current situation, the adoption and usage of the current system as well as the potential for improvement, identifying the initial requirements for the updated system. An interface prototype incorporating participants' suggestions was then evaluated and discussed in the second workshop. Based on feedback from the workshops as well as by the observations of local researchers, a final prototype has been developed and eventually will be implemented in an automated version which features a tablet-based local warning station and an app for two different kinds of mobile devices. Further implications and limitations for mitigating the human-wildlife conflict via information and communication technology (ICT) are discussed below.
... Vissia, pers. obs.) and high mortality rates among carnivores due to humans can occur when carnivores range beyond reserve boundaries (Balme et al., 2009;Loveridge et al., 2007;Schwartz et al., 2006), possibly leading to a decline of the carnivore population within the protected area itself (i.e., the edge effect; Balme et al., 2010;Woodroffe & Ginsberg, 1998). Retaliatory killings of leopards outside central Tuli only occasionally occur (S.V., pers. ...
Scavenging is widespread in the carnivore guild and can greatly impact food web structures and population dynamics by either facilitation or suppression of sympatric carnivores. Due to habitat loss and fragmentation, carnivores are increasingly forced into close sympatry, possibly resulting in more interactions such as kleptoparasitism and competition. In this paper, we investigate the potential for these interactions when carnivore densities are high. A camera trap survey was conducted in central Tuli, Botswana, to examine leopard Panthera pardus densities and spatiotemporal activ-ity patterns of leopard and its most important competitors' brown hyena Parahyaena brunnea and spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta. Spatial capture–recapture models esti-mated leopard population density to be 12.7 ± 3.2 leopard/100 km2, which is one of the highest leopard densities in Africa. Time-to-event analyses showed both brown hyena and spotted hyena were observed more frequently before and after a leopard observation than expected by chance. The high spatiotemporal overlap of both hyena species with leopard is possibly explained by leopard providing scavenging opportu-nities for brown hyena and spotted hyena. Our results suggest that central Tuli is a high-density leopard area, despite possible intense kleptoparasitism and competition.
... Such instances of non-compliance should be of interest to statutory authorities and conservation organizations, as well as the trophy hunting industry, as it may directly jeopardize the reputation and viability of the industry (Lindsey et al., 2007). Thus, regulation compliance ensures sustainability for both felid populations and the hunting industry (Loveridge et al., 2007;Packer et al., 2011). ...
Sustainable offtake of any threatened species and objective monitoring thereof relies on data-driven and well-managed harvest quotas and permit compliance. We used web-sourced images of African leopard (Panthera pardus pardus) trophy hunts to determine whether online photographs could assist in monitoring and documenting trophy hunting in Africa. Of 10,000 images examined, 808 (8%) showed leopard trophy hunts and could be contextualized by date and country. From a subset of photos (n = 530), across six countries between 2011 and 2020, we extracted information on the leopards killed and hunter demographics. We found no significant differences in leopard sex, age, or shot wound position between countries, and most trophy leopards were in good physical condition. Most hunters were White (96%) and estimated at over 40 years old (82%), with the proportion of women hunters in younger age classes significantly higher than in older classes. Rifles, bows, and hounds were used in all countries, except Tanzania and Zambia, where rifles were exclusively used. Online images could not be reasonably compared to the CITES trade database, but in South Africa, more than half (57%) of all nationally registered leopard trophy hunts in the last decade (2010-2020) have been posted online. Online images also reveal hunting violations, including non-permitted hunting of female leopards and illegal hounding. Such monitoring methods may become increasingly useful as social media usage grows and provide valuable insight into this multi-million dollar industry.
... This increases the risk of pride take over by other intruder males in areas where male competition is high [19]. Not only local hunting might reduce lion fitness, in Zimbabwe the lion population outside Hwange National Park faced a continuous decline due to trophy hunting [48]. In northern Tanzania, trophy hunting around Serengeti and Ngorongoro Conservation Area, showed to have devastating impact on lion population [23,26]. ...
In landscapes where people and lions coexist, conflicts are common due to livestock predation and threats to human safety. Retaliatory lion killing by humans is often a consequence and is one of the leading causes of lion population declines across Africa. We assessed the effects of retaliatory lion killing on male lion coalitions in the Tarangire-Manyara Ecosystem (TME) using a long-term dataset of lion monitoring for ten lion prides, spanning over a fourteen year-period from 2004–2018. We also interviewed 214 respondents about their attitudes and awareness of the effects of retaliatory killing on lions. We found that male lion coalitions were larger and lasted for a longer tenure period in locations with low risk of retaliatory killing, as well as far away from active hunting blocks. Further, young people (18–35 years old) had a more positive attitude towards lion existence and conservation compared to older age classes. Surprisingly, people with primary or secondary level of education were more likely to having lions killed if they attack livestock compared to people with no formal education, although the former supported lion presence for tourism in protected areas. We conclude that retaliatory killing has a large effect on long-term lion coalition dynamics and, thus, survival. Community awareness on retaliation effect varies widely, and we recommend implementing better education and policy strategies at TME to protect the declining carnivore populations.
... Large and dominant males of such species as grizzly bears (Ursus arctos) and African lions (Panthera leo) also suffer from selective harvest as trophies. This can be followed by a reduction in survival among juveniles triggered by the growing infanticidal behavior of less dominant males [52,53]. In addition, for long-lived species with high natural survival rates of adults, size-selective hunting may cause changes in a trait such as reproductive investment [48]. ...
We examine population trends in light of male harvest data considering the long-time series of population data on northern fur seals at Tyuleniy Island. To answer the question has the way males were harvested influenced the population trajectory, we analyzed the visual harem size and birth rate dynamics of the population, as well as the strategy and intensity of the harvest. We analyzed the dynamics of the sex ratio in the early (1958–1988) period to estimate parameters in the late period (1989–2013) based on the observed number of bulls and pups, while utilizing the distribution of reproductive rates obtained from pelagic sealing. Using a matrix population model for the observed part of the population (i.e., the male population), we analyzed the population growth rate associated with changes in both birth and survival rates considering the stochastic effects. Observations allow us to reject the hypothesis of nonselective harvest. Among the variety of natural and anthropogenic factors that could contribute to the decrease in the birth rate in the population, the effect of selective harvesting seems to be the most realistic.
... A variety of methods have been used to estimate lion populations, with capture-mark-recapture by using camera traps being one of the most widely used, but is a resource-intensive technique [8] [9]. Given the costs and staffing requirements associated with camera trapping, conservation researchers and managers are shifting their focus to use more inexpensive and rapid approaches, notably spoor or sign counts and call-back surveys [10] [11]. ...
... The study took place in the north-east of the park where artificial waterholes retain water year round and where areas > 8 km from a waterhole are rare, even in the dry season (Chamaillé-Jammes et al. 2007). There is no hunting in the park, but the densities of the two main zebra predators, lion Panthera leo, and spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta are high (Loveridge et al. 2007, Drouet-Hoguet 2007. ...
The phenology of births corresponds to the study of the position and duration of the period of births, related to its drivers and consequences on individuals and populations. Mainly regulated by environmental, biotic and internal factors through evolutionary processes and phenotypic adjustments, the date of birth has short- and long-term implications on individual survival and reproductive success. The phenology of births also affects population dynamics. Although the study of the phenology of births is an old discipline, it still arouses strong interest nowadays because of its sensitivity to climate change. The methods employed to study phenology are constantly progressing, but numerous interrogations remain regarding the diversity of phenology of births encountered in natura and the modifications to which they are exposed. The aim of this thesis is to study the phenology of births, from the validation of sampling methods to the identification of the ecological and evolutionary processes associated, with large herbivores as a case study.In the first chapter, I studied the ability of non-specialist volunteers to identify the presence or absence of young individuals in pictures produced by a camera trap grid located in Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Some limitations still need to be accounted for before using such dataset to reconstruct phenology of births. In the second chapter, I explored and compared the different methods used to describe the phenology of births in large herbivores using simulated data. I reassessed the framework for studying phenology in terms of concepts and mathematical description, discussed the diversity of metrics, and proposed guidelines to help identify the most suitable method. In the third chapter, I explored the consequences of the timing of birth on the juveniles, yearlings and mares survival in plain zebras living in Hwange National Park, Zimbabwe. Survival decreased with an increasing proportion of time spent in dry season. Thus, climate change could have a detrimental effect on the population dynamics because of their phenology of births.Using direct observation data can be associated with several methodological limitations, but it is possible to account for them. Allometric relationships can also reduce the comparability of the studies between small and large organisms, and it could be interesting to account for this factor. Eventually, the study of the phenology of births is of major interest to understand the risks to which wild populations are exposed because of climate change. Involving the general public through citizen science is a great tool to raise awareness about such issues.
... For example, the removal of resident leopards from non-protected areas can generate vacant gaps in the landscape, luring leopards from protected areas and leading to a 'vacuum effect' [17]. This may even affect carnivores at the very core of large protected areas [59,62]. Our study revealed seasonal shifts in male leopard activity centres away from the protected area and into the surrounding farmland matrix during winter. ...
Globally, leopards are the most widespread large felid. However, mounting anthropogenic threats are rapidly reducing viable leopard populations and their range. Despite the clear pressures facing this species, there is a dearth of robust and reliable population and density estimates for leopards across their range, which is particularly important in landscapes that consist of protected and non-protected areas. We conducted a camera trapping survey between 2017 and 2018 in the Western Cape, South Africa to estimate the occupancy, density, and population size of a leopard population. Leopards were recorded at 95% of camera trapping sites, which resulted in a high occupancy that showed no significant variation between seasons, habitat types, or along an altitudinal gradient. Our results indicated a low leopard density in the study area, with an estimated 1.53 leopards/100 km² in summer and 1.62 leopards/100 km² in winter. Mean leopard population size was therefore estimated at 107 and 113 individuals in the winter and summer respectively. Leopard activity centres for female ranges were centred in the core study area and could be predicted with good certainty, while males appeared to move out of the study area during winter which resulted in a higher uncertainty in locations of activity centres. Interestingly, livestock depredation events in the surrounding farmlands were significantly higher in winter, which coincides with male leopards moving outside the core protected area into the surrounding farmlands. To reduce livestock losses and retaliatory leopard killings, we suggest that human-carnivore conflict mitigation measures be intensely monitored during the winter months in the study area. We also suggest that future leopard conservation efforts should focus on privately-owned land as these non-protected areas contain the majority of the remaining suitable leopard habitat and may provide important dispersal corridors and buffer zones on which the long-term sustainability of leopard populations depends.
... For example, the abundance of African lions Panthera leo has declined from about 200 000 individuals historically (Myers 1975) to as few as 20 000-35 000 individuals (Riggio et al. 2013), including a reported 43% decline since 1993 (Bauer et al. 2015). Dominant factors for these declines include land use change (Bauer et al. 2010), poorly regulated legal harvests (Loveridge et al. 2007) and illegal killing of lions and their prey (Bauer and De Iongh 2005, Hayward et al. 2007, Bauer et al. 2008. Even large carnivores with abundant populations are currently experiencing population declines (e.g. ...
Accurate abundance estimates can contribute to effective management of large carnivore populations. Lion Panthera leo and spotted hyena Crocuta crocuta populations are frequently estimated at night by eliciting their approach using broadcasted vocalizations. Spotlights are typically used to observe these species on approach but can disturb animals and adversely affect counts. We compared the efficacy of spotlight with red filters and forward looking infrared (FLIR) thermal monocular to enumerate lions and spotted hyenas in Serengeti National Park (SNP; non‐hunted area) and Maswa Game Reserve (MGR; hunted area), Tanzania, during 2015–2017. We established 119 call‐in sites in SNP and 20 in MGR and conducted repeated call‐ins at 1–2 week intervals. During call‐ins we conducted systematic paired counts using both devices. We assessed the influence of device order, species, hunting regime and land cover on species counts. We found that FLIR was more efficacious for counting hyenas in MGR and spotlight for counting lions in SNP. We found evidence for temporary artificial light disturbance in MGR, as counts were higher when FLIR was used as the second device. Habitat type within 200 m of call‐in sites did not influence device performances. Greater spotlight efficacy in SNP is a likely consequence of lower perceived risk and less anthropogenic disturbance compared to MGR. To improve accuracy of counts and subsequent population estimates for lions and spotted hyenas, we recommend consideration of variation in device efficacy, based on species surveyed and management regime.
... In Africa, the majority of threats are related to anthropogenic causes including habitat loss, poaching, humanwildlife conflict (HWC), and poorly-regulated trophy hunting (Dickman, 2010;Riggio et al., 2012;Lindsey et al., 2013;Bauer et al., 2016;Jacobson et al., 2016;Wolf and Ripple, 2016;Loveridge et al., 2020). While some topics such as trophy hunting of lions Panthera leo and leopards Panthera pardus, have garnered considerable attention (Loveridge et al., 2007;Packer et al., 2010;Rosenblatt et al., 2014;Creel et al., 2016), fewer studies have attempted to quantify carnivore mortality or injury attributable to other anthropogenic causes, or the effectiveness of programs designed to alleviate anthropogenic threats. Here, we focus on the potential impact on lions and leopards of two human endeavors, wire-snares used both for bush-meat poaching and set as a means of carnivore control (hereafter snaring) and the use of shotguns firing buckshot (a collective term for ammunition consisting of small, spherical metal pellets) to drive off or kill unwelcome predators (a type of HWC). ...
The impact of snaring and human-wildlife conflict (HWC) on large carnivore populations is of growing concern, and yet few empirical data are available. Mortality is the metric most often used, but non-lethal injuries that impact fitness are also important threats. However, because non-lethal injuries to wild carnivores are difficult to detect, they have received little study. Using straightforward forensic examination of the skulls of trophy-hunted lions and leopards from Luangwa Valley (LV) and Greater Kafue Ecosystem (GKE), Zambia, we identified non-lethal injuries consisting of snare damage to teeth and shotgun pellets in skulls. Wire snare entanglement can cause permanent, diagnostic damage to carnivore teeth when individuals bite and pull on the wire. Shotguns are used by poachers, as well as during HWCs to drive off carnivores perceived as threats. Carnivores struck by shotgun pellets can suffer non-lethal, but potentially toxic injuries such as pellets embedded in their skulls. Because poaching and HWC are generally more prevalent near human settlements, we predicted a higher incidence of anthropogenic injuries to carnivores in Luangwa where the human population is larger and more concentrated along protected area edges than Kafue. Contrary to expectation, anthropogenic injuries were more prevalent among lions and leopards in Kafue than Luangwa. Notably, definitive evidence of snare entanglement greatly surpassed previous estimates for these regions. Overall, 37% (41 in 112) of adult male lions (29% in Luangwa, 45% in Kafue) and 22% (10 in 45) of adult male leopards (17% in Luangwa, 26% in Kafue) examined had survived being snared at some point in their lifetime. Among adult male lions, 27% (30 in 112) had old shotgun pellet injuries to their skulls. Our procedure of forensic examination of carnivore skulls and teeth, some of which can be applied to live-captured animals, allows for improved detection of cryptic, non-lethal anthropogenic injuries. Further, our methods represent a consistent and economical way to track changes in the frequency of such injuries over time and between regions, thereby providing a direct measure of the effectiveness of conservation programs that seek to reduce poaching and HWC.
... with Peter Gitonga). Anthropogenic activities around and within protected areas are known to affect lions' social structure (Loveridge et al., 2007;Loveridge et al., 2009). I found the mean adult group size of MNP lions to be rather small. ...
My research project covered a study on lion population size, pride structure, reproductive success, foraging success, distribution and factors influencing human-lion interactions in the MNP. Data on lion presence were collected during transect counts and through direct opportunistic searches and observations, while data on human-lion interactions were collected through a questionnaire survey that was administered in nine villages (sub-locations) around the park. Results show a lion density of 6.8 lions/km2 and an estimated lion population size of 31 individuals. I identified four lion prides in the park. The pride structure seems to be influenced by prey availability and seasonal fluctuations of water and prey in and around the MNP. Attitudes towards carnivores are predominantly influenced by livestock ownership and level of education. Livestock husbandry practices, particularly the height of the boma fence and the type of livestock enclosure (boma) also influence livestock loss and mortality. The questionnaire survey showed that human-lion conflicts mainly occur near the north-eastern boundary of the MCA, which is unfenced. The frequency of reported lion conflict incidences in the area peaks around August which is also the driest month of the year in the MCA and the month with the least number of lion observation sightings inside the park. Livestock raiding behaviour therefore seems to be mainly influenced by lion distribution in and around the park, the presence of livestock and livestock husbandry practices such as the type and height of the boma fence as well as the influence of seasonality. Other livestock husbandry practices (such as the use of flashlights, adult herders/guards and guard dogs) also reduce livestock depredation, although habituation to flashlights reduces the effectiveness of the flashlights and
the Muslim pastoralists in the area (who also own the majority of livestock lost to carnivores) do not use guard dogs due to religious beliefs.
... Actually, when human pressure is high, factors such as fear drive animals to adjust their behaviour to reduce risk. That is, bears can allocate part of their time to vigilance at the expense of other vital needs, such as searching for food, to avoid threatening encounters with humans (Gosselin et al., 2015;Loveridge et al., 2007;Ordiz et al., 2011Ordiz et al., , 2012Ordiz et al., , 2013. Thus, hunting pressure might also help explaining why brown bears moved slowly, over short distances and follow more tortuous paths when the hunting season was opened. ...
Moonlight plays a significant role in prey–predator relationships. At full moon, predators' hunting success and activity rates generally increase. Even though the analysis of facultative carnivore movement patterns can improve our knowledge of how moonlight can change the behaviour of such a group of species with diverse ecological needs, few studies have been conducted with facultative carnivores and none with telemetric data. Here, we studied whether moonlight influences brown bear, Ursus arctos, movement behaviours. By analysing data collected from 2002 to 2014 for 71 collared individuals inhabiting Finland and Russian Karelia, we found that some internal and external factors are influencing brown bear movement patterns. In particular, this facultative carnivore moves more slowly and over shorter distances during hyperphagia periods than during the mating season. However, moonlight does not affect brown bear movements. Although brown bears are large carnivores, they are opportunistic omnivores with a high fruit diet and, therefore, the prey–predator relationships that are behind the dependence of carnivores on moonlight seem to be weaker than in obligate carnivores.
... Humans pose a threat to wild animals for a range of reasons. Humans may act as predators, killing animals for food (Ripple et al., 2015), sport (Loveridge et al., 2007), or even for conservation purposes (Russell et al., 2016). They may also act as competitors and kill animals to prevent or reduce consumption or damage of resources. ...
Whilst humans undisputedly shape and transform most of earth's habitats, the number of animals (domestic and wild) living on this planet far outnumbers that of humans. Inevitably, humans have to interact with animals under a variety of circumstances, such as during conservation efforts, wildlife and zoo management, livestock husbandry, and pet keeping. Next to the question of how humans deal with these interactions and conflicts, it is crucial to understand the animal's point of view:
How do animals perceive and differentiate between humans?
How do they generalize their behavior towards humans?
And how does knowledge about humans spread socially?
In this Research Topic, we aim to collect original empirical work and review articles to get a more comprehensive and diverse picture on how humans are part of the sensory and cognitive world of non-human animals. We strongly invite contributions that pinpoint shortcomings and limitations in interpreting the available research findings, that provide new cross-disciplinary frameworks (e.g. links between conservation biology and comparative psychology, or human-animal interactions at zoos and animal welfare) and that discuss the applied implementation of these findings (e.g. for conservation attempts or livestock husbandry management).
... Critics of the conduct of the African hunting industry indicate that unregulated hunting may drive species' population decline (Packer et al., 2011), or may disrupt animal age-sex structures (Loveridge et al., 2007). Hunting may also lead to "unnatural selection" (Festa-Bianchet & Mysterud, 2018). ...
Over the past decade, trophy hunting in Africa has seen increased public and scientific interest. Much of that attention has come from outside of Africa, with little emphasis on local views. We circulated an online survey through international networks to explore demographic and regional differences in opinion regards support for African trophy hunting, trophy import bans, and outside funding of conservation estates supported by hunting. We received ∼5700 responses and found that location, demography, and conservation background influenced opinion. African and North American respondents showed (significantly) more support for trophy hunting than respondents from Europe or other areas, as did respondents with conservation backgrounds. Unlike North Americans, Africans supported external subsidies of wildlife areas presently funded by hunting. Many factors affected opinions on African hunting, but respondent location played a major role. Realistic policy on African trophy hunting should thus integrate African perspectives, in particular those of rural communities.
... Subadult individuals have to disperse far to search their own territories. As infanticide is known from several large felids including jaguars (Loveridge et al. 2007;Barlow et al. 2009;Balme and Hunter 2013;Tortato et al. 2017), females and their cubs should be continuously alert and should avoid spatially and temporarily any encounters with stranger males, which could result in different daily activity patterns. It has been shown that detectability and movement parameters obtained from camera trapping differ significantly between sex/age groups in jaguars (Jędrzejewski et al. 2017), suggesting likely differences in activity levels and activity patterns between sex/age groups. ...
All animals, including carnivores, adapt their daily activity duration and distribution to satisfy food demands, breed, or avoid mortality risk. We used the kernel density method to estimate daily movement activity levels and movement activity patterns of jaguars in Hato Piñero, in Venezuelan Western Llanos, based on 3,656 jaguar detection time records from two and a half years of camera trapping. Jaguars were active for 11.7 h per day on average and exhibited mostly nocturnal and crepuscular activity pattern, however, with marked differences between sex/age/reproductive groups. Reproductive females had the highest daily activity level (13.2 h/day), followed by adult males (10.9 h/day), non-reproductive females (10.5 h/day), and cubs (8.7 h/day). Activity patterns also differed, with males and reproductive females having activity peaks at the same hours after sunset and before sunrise, cubs in the night and after sunrise, while non-reproductive females were most active during night hours. This study was the first to document the effect of sex, age, and reproductive status on daily level and activity pattern in the jaguar.
... Herders living on grasslands maintain a delicate relationship with wildlife (Miller, 2015). In the traditional nomadic period, grazing and hunting (Loveridge et al., 2007) were the primary means of livelihood. Still, there was a relative balance between human activities and wildlife, and the biodiversity of grassland ecosystems was preserved (Li et al., 2019). ...
The neglect of wildlife in grassland ecosystem conservation may lead to severe ecological consequences. Humans use more than 99% of the natural grassland in China, but local herders' attitude and willingness to pay for wildlife conservation in grassland ecological restoration have not been studied. This study evaluated local herders' preferences and willingness to pay for increasing the wildlife population in grassland ecosystem conservation through a choice experiment in Siziwang Banner and Damao Banner of Inner Mongolia, China. The results show that herders have a positive preference for improving vegetation coverage, grassland landscape, and groundwater level, but they are averse to the growth of the wildlife population, and their preferences toward the issue are heterogeneous. The sources of heterogeneity include the gender of the respondents, whether they are village cadres, whether their families raise sheep, whether they are preparing for migration and family size. Sheep farmers, female respondents, non-village cadres, smaller families, and those preparing for migration are more opposed to the increase in wildlife population than the other groups. An increase in wildlife will cause welfare loss among herders. Specifically, the average marginal willingness to pay for the rise in the frequency of wildlife sightings is -21.57 CNY (1 USD = 6.7744 CNY) per year, and the total welfare loss of herder households in the study area is 1.22 million CNY per year due to each unit increase in the frequency of wildlife sightings. We suggest that herders' support for wildlife conservation should be gained through education and ecological compensation to avoid unexpected grassland ecological consequences. Our results are applicable globally because most natural grasslands are under human use, and the conflict between wildlife and humans has been observed globally.
... Influencing lion occupancy in WAP with management decisions can help to minimize risks of human-lion conflict that arise from spatial overlap in both parks and concessions. Across their range, lions reside in national parks that are often abutted by hunting concessions 32,61,62 , and assessing the existence of similar spatial patterns in other protected areas may be important in improving conservation outcomes for the species. ...
African lions reside primarily in protected areas, both of which are increasingly threatened by human pressures and subsequent depletion of natural resources and suitable habitat. Management of protected areas as hunting concessions often results in higher revenues and smaller areas compared to national parks, allowing for high quality habitat and stronger regulation of illegal activity. The successful conservation of lions in protected areas where both management types are implemented could depend on the extent to which lions avoid the risks associated with human encounters, which likely depends on distribution of high-quality habitat, water availability and prey resources. We conducted the first camera survey of lions in the W-Arly-Pendjari (WAP) protected area in West Africa, a 26,620-km2 complex which has two primary management types: national parks (NPs) and hunting concessions (HCs). We combined occupancy modeling, which accounts for imperfect detection of lions, and structural equation modeling to disentangle the relative effect sizes (ES) of environmental, ecological, and anthropogenic variables expected to influence lion space use. Lion occupancy (𝜓) did not show a response to management type (𝜓NP = 0.56; 𝜓HC = 0.58), exhibiting no spatial avoidance of hunting concessions. Water availability was higher and habitats were more diverse in hunting concessions, which may negate mortality risks from trophy hunting and higher human occupancy (𝜓NP = 0.49; 𝜓HC = 0.61). Lion occupancy was strongly driven by prey availability (ES = 0.219), which was influenced by edge effects and water availability. Cues of highquality habitat combined with increased human pressures may indicate hunting concessions functioning as ecological traps for lions in WAP. We recommend management interventions (e.g., increasing water availability and patrols near park edges) to provide refuge for lions in national parks by reducing the intersection of lion space use and the risk of human encounters.
This study presents a comprehensive analysis of endangered wildlife species in Nigeria, exploring threats, conservation efforts, and potential solutions. The multidisciplinary methodology incorporates data sourced from reputable organizations such as the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN), ensuring reliability. Results reveal concerning statistics about critically endangered species, including the Niger Delta red colobus and the Cross River gorilla. Key threats to mammal conservation involve climate change, pollution, deforestation, habitat loss, invasive species, and poaching. The study emphasizes the urgent need for conservation initiatives, highlighting the adverse impacts of climate change, pollution, and habitat loss on Nigeria's wildlife. Protected areas and non-governmental organizations, notably the Centre for Education, Research, and Conservation of Primates and Nature (CERCOPAN), and the Nigerian Conservation Foundation, play crucial roles in these efforts. In conclusion, the study advocates for immediate conservation measures and recommends increased financial allocation, habitat restoration, robust legislation, and climate change mitigation. We, therefore, call for collaborative efforts to ensure the coexistence of Nigeria's vibrant wildlife within its evolving human landscape. World Scientific News 190(2) (2024) 216-236-217
In Africa, humans and large carnivores compete over access to resources, including prey. Disturbance by humans to kills made by carnivores, often for purposes of obtaining all or portions of the carcass, constitutes a form of human-wildlife conflict. However the occurrence of this practice, known as human kleptoparasitism, and its impact on carnivores has received little scientific attention. We obtained expert opinions from African lion researchers and stakeholders via a standardized questionnaire to characterize the geographic extent and frequency of human kleptoparasitism as it occurs in modern times. Our survey found modern human kleptoparasitism on kills made by lions, and possibly other large carnivores in Africa, to be geographically more widespread than previously reported. Meat lost to humans requires carnivores to hunt and kill additional prey thereby causing stress, increasing their energetic costs and risks of natural injury, and exposing them to risk of direct injury or death from human usurpers. Because of their conspicuous behaviors and tendency towards killing large-bodied prey, lions are particularly susceptible to humans detecting their kills. While human kleptoparasitism was geographically widespread, socio-economic factors influenced the frequency of occurrence. Prey type (wild game or domestic livestock) influenced human attitudes towards meat theft; ownership allows for legal recovery of livestock carcasses, while possessing wild game meat is mostly illegal and may incur penalties. Meat theft was associated with other illegal activities (i.e., illegal mining) and most prevalent among people of low income, including underpaid game scouts. Despite quantifiable costs to carnivores of human disturbance to their kills, the majority of experts surveyed reported a lack of knowledge on this practice. We propose that human disturbance at kills, especially loss of prey through human kleptoparasitism, constitutes an important anthropogenic threat that may seriously impact energy budgets of individual lions and other scavengers when meat and carcasses are removed from the ecosystem, and that the costs incurred by carnivores warrants further investigation.
Almost all life on earth is facing environmental change, and understanding how populations will respond to these changes is of urgent importance. One factor that is known to affect the speed by which a population can evolve when faced with changes in the environment is strong sexual selection. This increases the adaptive capacity of a population by increasing reproductive skew toward well-adapted (usually) males who will, on average, be best able to compete for matings. This effect could potentially be disrupted when males pursue alternative reproductive tactics (ARTs), whereby males within a species exhibit qualitatively different behaviors in their pursuit of matings. ARTs are diverse, but one common class is those expressed through condition-dependent polyphenism such that high-quality, well-adapted males compete aggressively for mates and low-quality, poorly adapted males attempt to acquire matings via other, nonaggressive behaviors. Here, using an individual-based modeling approach, we consider the possible impacts of ARTs on adaptation and evolutionary rescue. When the ART is simultaneous, meaning that low-quality males not only engage in contests but also pursue other tactics, adaptive capacity is reduced and evolutionary rescue, where a population avoids extinction by adapting to a changing environment, becomes less likely. This is because the use of the ART allows low-quality males to contribute more maladaptive genes to the population than would happen otherwise. When the ART is fixed, however, such that low-quality males will only use the alternative tactic and do not engage in contests, we find the opposite: adaptation happens more quickly and evolutionary rescue when the environment changes is more likely. This surprising effect is caused by an increase in the mating success of the highest quality males who face many fewer competitors in this scenario—counterintuitively, the presence of males pursuing the ART increases reproductive skew toward those males in the best condition.
Within the realm of social carnivores, lions (Panthera leo) are the sole representative of the large felids. While other Felidae may tolerate temporary associations with dependent offspring or receptive members of the opposite sex, lions are the only big cat where both males and females live in permanent social units. Each sex forms independent groups that come together to engage in a wide variety of social behaviors, including cooperative hunting, mutual defense of kills, cooperative territorial defense, and communal raising of young. Unique patterns of egalitarianism and flexible fission-fusion dynamics make this social structure distinctive among mammals. The bulk of our knowledge on the evolutionary drivers of lion sociality has been derived from extensive studies of populations inhabiting mesic and productive eastern African savanna systems. However, lions across Africa occupy a wide variety of habitat types, including arid deserts, seasonally flooded wetlands, and densely thicketed scrub. Comparison of lion behavior and interactions across their range reveals that their social strategies are highly plastic and adapt to maximize survival and fitness under prevailing local conditions. In this chapter, we first review the ultimate drivers of lion gregariousness based on research from eastern Africa and discuss how lions optimize individual fitness under constraints imposed by group-living. We then explore how variation in proximate drivers of social living (i.e., resource availability, intensity of inter- and intra-specific competition, and habitat structure) can shape the expression of social behavior. We end with a discussion of the social adaptations lions make to survive in increasingly human-dominated landscapes.
Hunting is an increasingly contentious topic. Trophy hunting, whereby people hunt individual animals with desirable characteristics in order to keep body parts (e.g. horns, heads, hides, antlers) as mementos, is especially contested. Political pressure, often in the form of trophy import bans, is being applied in multiple nations, and campaigns to ban trophy hunting, or trophy imports, attract considerable media attention. However, trophy hunting often has conservation value, acting to protect habitat and provide income for local communities. Assuming that media coverage can influence public and political opinion, negative or simplistic media coverage of trophy hunting has the potential to cause adverse outcomes for conservation and local communities. Here, we analyse coverage of trophy hunting from July 2010 - June 2020 (five years before and five years after the death of Cecil the Lion) in the most popular UK media outlets (624 articles in total), assessing the overall sentiment of each article, and the species and countries covered. Ninety percent of all coverage occurred after the death of Cecil the lion, marking this event as a watershed moment in UK mainstream media depiction of trophy hunting. The overall sentiment of articles was largely against trophy hunting (63.1%), and this was more pronounced in tabloids (84.2%) than broadsheets (42.2%). Pro-trophy hunting articles were very uncommon overall (3.5%). Articles that described the complexity of trophy hunting decreased following Cecil and were most common in pre-Cecil broadsheets (35.7%, dropping to 30.6%) and rarest in post-Cecil tabloids (3.1%). Articles focussed mainly on charismatic but rarely hunted species including lion, elephant and rhino, with commonly hunted species (such as impala or Cape buffalo) only rarely being mentioned. When countries were mentioned, southern African nations predominated, with four nations (Zimbabwe, South Africa, Namibia and Botswana) being named in 68% of qualifying articles. We conclude that simplistic media depiction of trophy hunting has the potential to cause negative outcomes for conservation through its impact on public perception and political opinion.
Large carnivore populations are in decline across the globe due to the destruction of their natural habitat and targeted persecution by the human species. Africa is home to one of the last remaining intact guilds of terrestrial mega-carnivore taxa and includes species that occupy a unique role in ecosystem function and in human evolutionary history. The rapid disappearance of large carnivores from the African landscape is therefore particularly alarming and several species are predicted to soon be extirpated outside of protected areas. Developing solutions addressing the drivers of decline are complex due to Africa's rapid human population growth and land use patterns, cultural and traditional values among rural communities, and regulations governing lethal control programs and the trophy hunting industry. There is also a critical need to consider the intrinsic value of the carnivore guild in the discourse as having a value beyond that which benefits humans. Lessons can be learned from a few programs that combine good governance and regulation, effective law enforcement, strong community participation and sustainable funding mechanisms to conserve carnivores at landscape scales. Integrating these criteria into a workable model and employing an evidence-based and adaptive approach is central to implementing long-term solutions for carnivore-human coexistence. Africa can become a global leader in the conservation of biodiversity by demonstrating resilience, collaboration and ingenuity to reverse the current trend, and restore and protect these charismatic carnivore species for the benefit of the planet as a whole.
Selective harvest, such as poaching, impacts group-living animals directly through mortality of individuals with desirable traits, and indirectly by altering the structure of their social networks. Understanding the relationship between disturbance-induced, structural network changes and group performance in wild animals remains an outstanding problem. To address this problem, we evaluated the immediate effect of disturbance on group sociality in African savanna elephants—an example, group-living species threatened by poaching. Drawing on static association data from ten free-ranging groups, we constructed one empirically based, population-wide network and 100 virtual networks; performed a series of experiments ‘poaching’ the oldest, socially central or random individuals; and quantified the immediate change in the theoretical indices of network connectivity and efficiency of social diffusion. Although the social networks never broke down, targeted elimination of the socially central conspecifics, regardless of age, decreased network connectivity and efficiency. These findings hint at the need to further study resilience by modeling network reorganization and interaction-mediated socioecological learning, empirical data permitting. The main contribution of our work is in quantifying connectivity together with global efficiency in multiple social networks that feature the sociodemographic diversity likely found in wild elephant populations. The basic design of our simulation makes it adaptable for hypothesis testing about the consequences of anthropogenic disturbance or lethal management on social interactions in a variety of group-living species with limited, real-world data.
Typically, males of polygamous mammals are responsible for population connectivity and gene flow via dispersal, whereas females, showing stronger philopatry, strengthen local population stability and growth. These expectations can be disrupted by human disturbances; however, this possibility has been poorly examined in wide-ranging mammals that are important targets for conservation.
By reviewing philopatry and dispersal in felids, we aimed to evaluate: 1) whether the sex-related patterns of philopatry and dispersal predicted for polygamous mammals are prevalent in felids, 2) possible major causes underlying each of these behaviours, and 3) if, and to what extent, anthropogenic disturbances can alter patterns of philopatry and dispersal in this animal lineage.
We synthesised the available literature (n = 55 papers) comprising 12 species. Puma concolor was the most-studied species, followed by other large species. Both philopatry and dispersal were heterogeneously defined, depending on the study aim and the method employed (telemetry, camera trapping or molecular tools).
Most species followed the predicted philopatric and dispersal patterns, and most study areas (76%) were under some type of anthropogenic disturbance drivers. Philopatry was linked to females’ higher dependency on the quality and availability of resources, and to their social dynamics, higher reproductive success, inclusive fitness and demographic aspects of population. Dispersal was frequently linked to competition for mates and resources, and inbreeding avoidance. However, some plasticity was observed in both philopatry and dispersal, especially under the presence of anthropogenic drivers. For example, hunting can create open territories, increasing the number of philopatric females and opportunistic philopatric males. Habitat fragmentation can increase population isolation and male dispersal distance, and the presence of anthropogenic or natural barriers can result in unsuccessful dispersal attempts.
We postulate that human activities affect long-term population persistence in the Felidae, via disruption of sex-related patterns of spatial dynamics.
Large carnivores are considered key species and their presence signify health of the ecosystem. Mostly used methods to establish big cats abundance and spatial distribution in SWRA consist of spoor survey, individual observations, analysis of patrol data and interviews with safari operators. In this study, four methods were used to establish current abundance and distribution of big cats in Sengwa and to find advantages and disadvantage for each method used. To do this, spoor survey along twelve transects were done between 13th to 20th April 2020. Oral interviews with local professional hunters and park managers was done between 1st and 10th April 2020, whilst analysis of patrol reports from January 2018 to December 2019 were also done. Descriptive statistics was used for analysis of interview data. For other three methods, data were summarised in excel and quantitatively analysed. Mapping of spatial distribution of big cats from secondary data and spoor surveys were done in QGIS software. Five lion spoors and twenty-one leopard spoors were recorded during spoor survey. Two individual leopards and zero lions were also recorded. Lion spoors were mostly recorded along river valleys while leopard spoors were recorded in different habitats and terrain. Future related studies should focus on use of other survey design and combination of methods such as radio calls and camera traps as well as use of GPS enabled collars for monitoring and estimating abundance.
Drawing from a historical conservation perspective and political ecology, this review mediates the growing debate on wildlife conservation and hunting, especially inhuman-dominated landscapes of Africa. The focus is to 1) trace how socio-political changes during and after colonization transformed the hunting and wildlife conservation discourse in southern Africa, and 2) to address how previous conservation injustices were addressed through benefit-based approaches like CAMPFIRE, adopted in Zimbabwe after colonization. Some 144 published journal articles, books and other source materials were consulted. The review indicates that political changes in southern Africa profoundly transformed the conservation and trophy hunting narrative. This narrative had varied impacts and outcomes for different groups of people. Although a number of benefit-based approaches, like CAMPFIRE reflected a complete departure from past conservation policies, they continue to attract praise and criticisms since opinions differ among stakeholders, especially over extractive activities like trophy hunting and its associated benefits. I conclude that political developments impacted on conservation and trophy hunting in a profound way and that although post-colonial, pro-community conservation programs have inherent weaknesses, to a greater extent they addressed past conservation-based injustices. Continuous monitoring and area-specific adaptive management of wildlife and its sustainable management is recommended for long-term conservation benefits and community livelihoods.
Common brushtail possums (Trichosurus vulpecula) are intractable pests in New Zealand. The effectiveness of local control can be limited by immigration, some of which has been attributed to a ‘vacuum effect’ – directed movements induced by the control itself. To characterise the vacuum effect we examined changes in the home ranges of trapped possums following control in a 6-ha block at one end of a 13-ha forest patch on farmland near Dunedin, New Zealand. We also monitored a sample of possums by radio-telemetry. After control, the density was 3 ha–1 inside the removal area and 16 ha–1 outside. During the year after the removal, 29% of possums within 100 m of the boundary of the removal area (n = 38) shifted their range centre at least 50 m towards it. The effect diminished rapidly with distance: only 1 of 28 animals moved more than 200 m from the boundary. The size of the previous range was a significant predictor of movement among males, but this may be partly a sampling artifact. We measured a net flux of 69 possums km–1 across the boundary in the 12 months after control, and possums settled on average 44 6.9 m inside the boundary. The vacuum effect in brushtail possums appears largely confined to home-range adjustments by individuals with ranges overlapping the area of reduced density. This limits its potential role in population recovery.
Management of many species is currently based on an inadequate under- standing of their population dynamics. Lack of age-specific demographic information, particularly for long-lived iteroparous species, has impeded development of useful models. We use a Lefkovitch stage class matrix model, based on a preliminary life table developed by Frazer (1983a), to point to interim management measures and to identify those data most critical to refining our knowledge about the population dynamics of threatened log- gerhead sea turtles (Caretta caretta). Population projections are used to examine the sen- sitivity of Frazer's life table to variations in parameter estimates as well as the likely response of the population to various management alternatives. Current management practices appear to be focused on the least responsive life stage, eggs on nesting-beaches. Alternative protection efforts for juvenile loggerheads, such as using turtle excluder devices (TEDs), may be far more effective.
Life-history patterns in lions Panthera
leo living in savanna woodlands of the Kruger National Park, South Africa, were investigated and compared with those of the Tanzanian ‘plains-like’ ecosystems (e.g. Serengeti Plains and Ngorongoro Crater). First, lower levels of mortality in the juvenile age classes were found in Kruger lions, which in turn, extend the inter-birth period. A further difference was a prolonged period of association of sub-adult males with their natal pride, either directly or in a land tenure system that has not been described previously. Most (80%) of young male coalitions rather than becoming nomadic, remained close to their natal territory after leaving the pride, either as non-territorial sub-adults or adults and even as territorial adults. Only 20% of coalitions did not stay close to their natal range, one of which acquired a territory 20 km away from its natal pride. The pattern of territory acquisition, in fact, was one in which the majority of holders acquired territories close to their natal ranges. These behaviour patterns contrast markedly with those from ‘plains-like’ ecosystems where dispersing males usually move far away from their natal pride's range (>200) km and often remain nomadic for extended periods of time. Dense bush and access to sufficient prey resources in the form of resident buffalo Syncerus
caffer herds may be important factors allowing extended residence near the natal pride's territory. Buffalo were more available in our study area habitat than in neighbouring habitats, and comprised the majority of male lion kills. Extended male residence contrasts markedly with current theory on dispersal in polygynous mammals, which holds that only one sex (females for lions) gain an advantage by staying close to the territory of their natal pride. In Kruger it seems that both sexes gain an advantage by not dispersing far, and use currently undocumented mechanisms to avoid inbreeding.
In the South Luangwa National Park and the adjacent Lupande Game Management Area, located in Zambia's Eastern Province, the fraction of adult tuskless female elephants increased from 10·5% in 1969 to 38·2% in 1989, apparently as a direct result of selective illegal ivory hunting. From 1989 to 1993, the fraction of adult tuskless females declined from 38·2% to 28·70%, as a result of immigration of a relatively larger fraction of tusked females from adjacent Game Management Areas. Tusklessness appears to run in families and is sex-linked.
Dans le Parc National de la Luangwa Sud et dans l'Aire de Gestion de la Faune de Lupande voisine, dans la province Orientale de Zambie, la proportion de femelles éléphants sans défenses est passée de 10,5% en 1969 à 38,2%, en 1989, suite directe semble-t-il de la chasse sélective pour l'ivoire. De 1989 à 1993, la proportion de femelles adultes sans défenses a baissé de 38,2%à 28,7%, en raison notamment de l'arrivée d'un assez grand nombre de femelles avec défenses en provenance des zones de gestion de la faune adjacentes, mais aussi à cause d'un changement de sex-ratio en faveur des mâles. L'absence de défences semble être un caractère familial et lié au sexe de l'animal.
Biased adult sex ratio can affect fecundity in primiparous moose Alces alces. -Wildl. Biol. 8: 117-128. Recruitment rate has declined in many Norwegian moose Alces alces popu-lations during the last two decades and at the same time the population size has increased and the proportion of males to females has decreased. Although den-sity-dependent food limitation may explain part of the decrease in productiv-ity, we evaluated to what extent the decline could also be a result of an insuf-ficient number of males in the populations to fertilise all females. To test this hypothesis, we compared, based on ovary analyses, the age-specific variation in fecundity rates in eight Norwegian moose populations with annual variation in the adult sex ratio. Differences in female age and body mass explained a signif-icant proportion of the variance in the probability of pregnancy. In addition, there was a significant relationship between the population sex ratio and the probability of pregnancy among 2-year-old females, but not the probability of pregnancy of older females. Because biased sex ratio only affects first-time breed-ers, the effect on the population recruitment rate may be limited. However, we also call attention to other possible effects of biased sex ratio, e.g. delayed parturi-tion date, which in the long term may decrease population productivity through effects on survival and fecundity.
Possible evolutionary consequences of sport hunting have received relatively little con -sideration by wildlife managers. We reviewed the literature on genetic implications of sport hunting of terrestrial vertebrates and recommend research directions to address cur -rent uncertainties. Four potential effects can be ascribed to sport hunting: 1) it may alter the rate of gene flow among neighboring demes, 2) it may alter the rate of genetic drift through its effect on genetically effective population size, 3) it may decrease fitness by deliberately culling individuals with traits deemed undesirable by hunters or managers, and 4) it may inadvertently decrease fitness by selectively removing individuals with traits desired by hunters. Which, if any, of these effects are serious concerns depends on the nature and intensity of harvest as well as the demographic characteristics and breeding system of the species at issue. Undesirable genetic consequences from hunting have been documented in only a few cases, and we see no urgency. However, studies specif -ically investigating these issues have been rare, and such consequences require careful analysis and long time periods to detect. Existing information is sufficient to suggest that hunting regimes producing sex-and age-specific mortality patterns similar to those occur -ring naturally, or which maintain demographic structures conducive to natural breeding patterns, will have fewer long-term evolutionary consequences than those producing highly uncharacteristic mortality patterns.
Data are presented on mortality rates of the Iberian lynx Felis pardina in Doñana National Park and the surrounding area in southwestern Spain, collected from 1983 to 1989. Data from radio-tagged lynxes and records of lynx mortality were used to assess causes of death. Annual mortality rate, estimated by using the Heisey and Fuller methodology, was 0·37. Human activities were the main cause of lynx mortality in this mainly fully protected area, either directly (illegal trapping: 41·7%; road traffic: 16·7%; hunting with dogs: 8·3%) or indirectly (artesian wells: 8·3%). Only 8·3% of the annual mortality can be related unequivocally to natural causes. Sex, age, social status, year, and home range situation influenced mortality rates. The trend of this lynx population during the seven years of study revealed serious threats to its survival. This case study exemplified how a small population can approach extinction because of increased mortality due to habitat fragmentation, despite full protection of the main portion of its range.
Two methods of estimating the number of lions in the Kalahari Gemsbok National Park, Republic of South Africa, are described; the first gives a minimum figure (113) and the second a more realistic one (140). Data are presented on sex and age ratios and pride composition. The factors contributing to the low density are briefly discussed and some management practices in connection with lions trespassing out of the Park are suggested.
The conservation management of large carnivores in Africa is reviewed. In large protected areas the complexity of the relations between predators and prey, and between competing predators, indicate that these relationships should not be disturbed, even though, superficially, there may seem to be sound reasons to do so. Management action, however, may have to be taken against carnivores that break out of reserves. The related questions of translocation and re-introduction are also complex. Guidelines for considering whether to and how to implement these strategies are presented. It is stressed that adequate follow-up observations should be made after translocating or re- introducing carnivores, so that more information on the success of these strategies can be obtained. Much of Africa comprises rural areas inhabited by pastoralists. It may be possible to manage some large carnivore species in these areas to the mutual benefit of man and beast, but for this type of program to be successful, a well planned public relations campaign is essential.
Male lions form cooperative coalitions which compete against other coalitions for exclusive access to female groups1,2. This cooperation and the apparently low level of intra-coalition competition over oestrous females, have been considered to be due to the close genetic relatedness of the males in the coalition1-4. However, we now present evidence that breeding coalitions of male lions include non-relatives much more commonly than was generally supposed, that intra-coalition competition over females is widespread and that kinship is not the primary factor determining levels of competition.
Pituitary-gonadal function was examined in male lions free-ranging in the Serengeti Plains or geographically isolated in the Ngorongoro Crater of Tanzania. Lions were classified by age as adult (6.1-9.8 years), young adult (3.3-4.5 years) or prepubertal (1.4-1.6 years, Serengeti Plains only). Each animal was anaesthetized and then bled at 5-min intervals for 100 min before and 140 min after i.v. administration of saline or GnRH (1 micrograms/kg body weight). Basal serum LH and FSH concentrations were similar (P greater than 0.05) among age classes and between locations. In Serengeti Plains lions, net LH peak concentrations after GnRH were approximately 35% greater (P less than 0.05) in prepubertal than in either adult or young adult animals. GnRH-stimulated LH release was similar (P greater than 0.05) between adult and young adult lions, and these responses were similar (P greater than 0.05) to those measured in Ngorongoro Crater lions. Basal and GnRH-stimulated testosterone secretion was higher (P less than 0.05) in adult than in young adult lions and lowest (P less than 0.05) in prepubertal lions. Age-class differences in testosterone production were related directly to the concentrations of LH receptors in the testis (P less than 0.05). Basal and GnRH-stimulated testosterone secretion and gonadotrophin receptor concentrations within age classes were similar (P greater than 0.05) between lions of the Serengeti Plains and Ngorongoro Crater. Lower motility and higher percentages of structurally abnormal spermatozoa were observed in electroejaculates of young adult compared to adult Serengeti Plains males (P less than 0.05) and were associated with decreased steroidogenic activity. In contrast, there were no age-related differences in ejaculate characteristics of Ngorongoro Crater lions. Seminal quality in the Crater population was poor in adult and young adult animals and was unrelated to alterations in pituitary or testicular function. In summary, only seminal quality in adult male lions was affected by location, whereas age significantly affected both basal and GnRH-stimulated testosterone secretion and seminal quality (Serengeti Plains only) in sexually mature males. The striking seminal/endocrine differences among pride (breeding) males of different ages raises questions about the impact of age on individual reproductive performance in this species.
Most of the world's biodiversity occurs within developing countries that require donor support to build their conservation capacity. Unfortunately, some of these countries experience high levels of political corruption, which may limit the success of conservation projects by reducing effective funding levels and distorting priorities. We investigated whether changes in three well surveyed and widespread components of biodiversity were associated with national governance scores and other socio-economic measures. Here we show that governance scores were correlated with changes in total forest cover, but not with changes in natural forest cover. We found strong associations between governance scores and changes in the numbers of African elephants and black rhinoceroses, and these socio-economic factors explained observed patterns better than any others. Finally, we show that countries rich in species and identified as containing priority areas for conservation have lower governance scores than other nations. These results stress the need for conservationists to develop and implement policies that reduce the effects of political corruption and, in this regard, we question the universal applicability of an influential approach to conservation that seeks to ban international trade in endangered species.
Phenotype-based selective harvests, including trophy hunting, can have important implications for sustainable wildlife management if they target heritable traits. Here we show that in an evolutionary response to sport hunting of bighorn trophy rams (Ovis canadensis) body weight and horn size have declined significantly over time. We used quantitative genetic analyses, based on a partly genetically reconstructed pedigree from a 30-year study of a wild population in which trophy hunting targeted rams with rapidly growing horns, to explore the evolutionary response to hunter selection on ram weight and horn size. Both traits were highly heritable, and trophy-harvested rams were of significantly higher genetic 'breeding value' for weight and horn size than rams that were not harvested. Rams of high breeding value were also shot at an early age, and thus did not achieve high reproductive success. Declines in mean breeding values for weight and horn size therefore occurred in response to unrestricted trophy hunting, resulting in the production of smaller-horned, lighter rams, and fewer trophies.
The combination of medetomidine-zolazepam-tiletamine with subsequent antagonism by atipamezole was evaluated for reversible anaesthesia of free-ranging lions (Panthera leo). Twenty-one anaesthetic events of 17 free-ranging lions (5 males and 12 females, body weight 105-211 kg) were studied in Zimbabwe. Medetomidine at 0.027-0.055 mg/kg (total dose 4-11 mg) and zolazepam-tiletamine at 0.38-1.32 mg/kg (total dose 50-275 mg) were administered i.m. by dart injection. The doses were gradually decreased to improve recovery. Respiratory and heart rates, rectal temperature and relative haemoglobin oxygen saturation (SpO2) were recorded every 15 min. Arterial blood samples were collected from 5 lions for analysis of blood gases and acid-base status. For anaesthetic reversal, atipamezole was administered i.m. at 2.5 or 5 times the medetomidine dose. Induction was smooth and all lions were anaesthetised with good muscle relaxation within 3.4-9.5 min after darting. The predictable working time was a minimum of 1 h and no additional drug doses were needed. Respiratory and heart rates and SpO2 were stable throughout anaesthesia, whereas rectal temperature changed significantly over time. Atipamezole at 2.5 times the medetomidine dose was sufficient for reversal and recoveries were smooth and calm in all lions independent of the atipamezole dose. First sign of recovery was observed 3-27 min after reversal. The animals were up walking 8-26 min after reversal when zolazepam-tiletamine doses < 1 mg/kg were used. In practice, a total dose of 6 mg medetomidine and 80 mg zolazepam-tiletamine and reversal with 15 mg atipamezole can be used for either sex of an adult or subadult lion. The drugs and doses used in this study provided a reliable, safe and reversible anaesthesia protocol for free-ranging lions.
In most species, sport hunting of male trophy animals can only reduce overall population size when the rate of removal of males is so high that females can no longer be impregnated. However, where males provide extensive paternal care, the removal of even a few individuals could harm the population as a whole. In species such as lions, excessive trophy hunting could theoretically cause male replacements (and associated infanticide) to become sufficiently common to prevent cubs reaching adulthood. Here we simulate the population consequences of lion trophy hunting using a spatially explicit, individual-based, stochastic model parameterized with 40 years of demographic data from northern Tanzania. Although our simulations confirm that infanticide increases the risk of population extinction, trophy hunting could be sustained simply by hunting males above a minimum age threshold, and this strategy maximizes both the quantity and the quality of the long-term kill. We present a simple non-invasive technique for estimating lion age in populations lacking long-term records, and suggest that quotas would be unnecessary in any male-only trophy species where age determination could be reliably implemented.
In just the last few years, behavioral ecologists have begun to address issues in conservation biology. This volume is the first attempt to link these disciplines formally. Here leading researchers explore current topics in conservation biology and discuss how behavioral ecology can contribute to a greater understanding of conservation problems and conservation intervention programs. In each chapter, the authors identify a conservation issue, review the ways it has been addressed, review behavioral ecological data related to it, including their own, evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the behavioral ecological approach, and put forward specific conservation recommendations. The chapters juxtapose different studies on a wide variety of taxonomic groups. A number of common themes emerge, including the ways in which animal mating systems affect population persistence, the roles of dispersal and inbreeding avoidance for topics such as reserve design and effective population size, the key role of humans in conservation issues, and the importance of baseline data for conservation monitoring and modeling attempts. Each chapter sheds new light on conservation problems, generates innovative avenues of interdisciplinary research, and shows how conservation-minded behavioral ecologists can apply their expertise to some of the most important questions we face today.
Lions (Panthera leo) are a principal attraction for both safari hunting and photographic tourism, principal sources of revenue in the Luangwa Valley in eastern Zambia. I studied 6 lion prides in the Valley during 1989-91 to determine how high harvest of adult male lions influenced social behavior. Adult male lions are subject to significant hunting pressure influencing the number of adult male lions (ad M/ad F = 0.17-0.33) and male coalition size (0.67-150 ad M/pride). I observed the following social system: (1) ranges of pride males did not cover the entire pride ranges and were not confined to a specific pride range; (2) copulation occurred between females and males from different prides; and (3) at least 1 pride male gained additional companions during his pride tenure. This social system differs from those found in previous studies of lion populations, and it permits a limited number of males to manage more females, counterbalancing high male harvest.
Available data suggest that lynx (Felis lynx) were overexploited during the last decade on the 7,972-km2 Kenai National Wildlife Refuge (KNWR), especially in its accessible portions. Lynx harvest during the anticipated peak population (1983-84) was >80% below that of the last peak (1973-74) despite increased trapping effort, adequate habitat, and abundant prey. The majority (66%) of lynx taken from 1977-84 came from remote habitats rather than accessible, prey-abundant habitats. Radio-collared lynx mortality, primarily from trapping, increased from 41 to 86% between 2 trapping seasons (1982-83 and 1983-84) and totaled 90% during 649 days (1982-84). Mortality rates were higher for adult males (88%) than adult females (45%). Two radio-collared adult females with young used 50- and 89-km2 areas while 2 adult males used 64- and 783-km2 areas. Lowland (129 m) forest in a 1947-burned area and upland (346 m) transitional habitats were utilized by lynx. Estimated snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus) densities were as high as 1,233/km2 in a 1947-burned forest during 1983 and 1984. Low lynx numbers and harvest and other data, despite abundant habitat and prey, indicated a depressed lynx population. Management implications and actions taken are discussed.
The consumptive use of wildlife, in particular trophy hunting and game ranching of ungulates, has been advocated as a tool for conservation in Africa. We show that these methods of harvesting differ significantly from natural predation, with trophy hunting showing extreme selection for adult males and game ranching leading to disproportionate harvests of young males. Little information, either theoretical or empirical, exists concerning the effect of these harvesting regimes on the long-term population dynamics of ungulate populations. Despite that, the potential effects of sex-skewed harvests are numerous. In this paper, we investigate one potentially deleterious effect of sex-skewed harvests. Both theory and experimental data suggest that male ungulates are limited in their absolute ability to inseminate females. Using a Leslie-Matrix model and published data on impala, we show that the interaction between sperm limitation and harvests with highly male-biased sex ratios can lead to greatly reduced female fecundity (defined as the number of young born) and population collapse. These results are robust and suggest that present methods of harvesting may not be optimal, or viable, in the long term.
The density of adult (≥3 years) female brown bears Ursus arctos was estimated in two areas of Sweden from ratios of radio-marked and unmarked females consorting with radio-marked adult males during the breeding season. The resulting densities were 1·2 ± 0·81 (95% confidence interval) adult females/1000 km2 in a northern study area and 1·06 ± 3·44 adult females/1000 km2 in a southern area. These estimates were extrapolated to obtain a population estimate for Sweden using relative densities throughout the range of the species in Sweden, based on hunter-kill statistics, and observed rates of reproduction and juvenile and subadult survival. The total population in spring 1991 was estimated to be about 620 bears, with almost all females confined to four geographically separated areas, termed female core areas. A supplementary estimate, based on estimated kill rates of adult females in the study areas, was about 660 bears. Estimates based on hunter kill rates of marked bears gave minimum and maximum estimates of about 300 and 900 bears, respectively. Although these are not confidence intervals of the total population estimate, we believe that the true population size is included within these limits. Densities within the female core areas varied from 50 to 100% of those in similar habitats in European Russia. The bear population in Sweden appeared to have increased at a stable rate of about 1·5% annually during the past 50 years. Mean annual rate of legal harvest during 1943–1991 was estimated to be 5·5% (±2·1% SD), suggesting a maximum sustainable rate of 7·0% for this population. The harvest increased at a rate of 9·6% annually during 1981–1991, and apparently was at the maximum sustainable level during 1987–1991.
Panthero leo in the Serengeti National Park and Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania, live in stable social groups. The reproductive success of individuals of each sex depends on the number of like-sexed companions that they have. Males form coalitions of up to 7 individuals that act as a unit in competition against other coalitions. A successful coalition gains temporary, exclusive access to a group of females for up to several years before being ousted by another coalition. Larger coalitions are more likely to gain residence in a pride, remain in residence longer, and gain access to more females. Coalition partners seem to have similar mating success. Reproductive success of males increases with increasing coalition size. Females live in prides of 1-18 adult females; all females breed at a similar rate; females in prides of 3-10 adult females have higher individual fitness, but female fitness does not increase with group size at the same rate as occurs in males. The probability of living in a larger group as an adult depends primarily on the size of the cohort in which an individual was reared.-from Authors
This field guide begins with a checklist. The main part of the volume consists of entries for each species. Each entry provides information on common names, measurements, recognition, geographical distribution (plus map), habitat, diet, behaviour, adaptations and conservation status. Illustrations are also included. Brief notes are also provided on the African environment (physical, climate and vegetation) and palaeoecology (habitats and species). Finally a short section examines African wildlife conservation.
Mammalian carnivores are particularly vulnerable to extinction in fragmented landscapes, and their disappearance may lead to increased numbers of smaller carnivores that are principle predators of birds and other small vertebrates. Such `mesopredator release' has been implicated in the decline and extinction of prey species. Because experimental manipulation of carnivores is logistically, financially and ethically problematic,, however, few studies have evaluated how trophic cascades generated by the decline of dominant predators combine with other fragmentation effects to influence species diversity in terrestrial systems. Although the mesopredator release hypothesis has received only limited critical evaluation and remains controversial, it has become the basis for conservation programmes justifying the protection of carnivores. Here we describe a study that exploits spatial and temporal variation in the distribution and abundance of an apex predator, the coyote, in a landscape fragmented by development. It appears that the decline and disappearance of the coyote, in conjunction with the effects of habitat fragmentation, affect the distribution and abundance of smaller carnivores and the persistence of their avian prey.
Cooperation between two or more individuals has been shown to yield short-term benefits in several vertebrate species1–4, and various hypotheses have been developed to explain the evolution of cooperative behaviour5–7. However, until now there has been no evidence to show that such cooperation actually does confer lifetime's reproductive advantages on more than one member of the coalitions concerned8,9. Long-term studies of wild lions (Panthera leo L.) have now provided such evidence. We show that, compared with singletons and pairs, male lions in groups of three or more can more reliably gain tenure of female prides, retain tenure for longer, mate with more different females, and produce more surviving offspring; thus each individual has higher fitness through cooperation.
The number of free ranging African lions Panthera
leo has never been comprehensively assessed. We present an inventory of available information, covering most protected areas and ranging in quality from educated guesses to individually known populations. This gives a conservative estimate of 16,500–30,000 free ranging lions in Africa. The inventory shows that populations are small and fragmented in West and Central Africa, whereas the species still occurs widely in East and Southern Africa. The results concur with the current IUCN Red List categorization of the lion as Vulnerable.
A system is described for estimating the age of the African lion by studying the eruption sequence of deciduous and permanent teeth of both jaws and the wear of permanent teeth. This system is supplemented by observing criteria such as height of the cemento-enamel line of permanent canines above the alveolar margin, the closure of the apical foramen of the pulp chamber and the discolouration of permanent teeth. Where skulls are available curves and equations describing closure rate with age of the pulp chambers of maxillary and mandibular canines measured at their maximum mesio-distal width, are provided. These measurements can be taken by either sectioning the canines transversely at a certain point or by X-raying the teeth. Sex-specific von Bertalanffy growth curves and equations describing skull growth with age for four skull measurements are also provided while the use of cranial sutures for age determination in the lion is evaluated. Canine root sections were removed, decalcified, sectioned and stained for incremental cementum line counts. The results of this method were in close agreement with the ages of known-age lions and those aged by the previously mentioned methods (r=0.973; P<0–001). A series of photographs and a description is provided whereby lions observed in the field can be classified into age classes. Sexual dimorphism in the permanent canines is described and appropriate measurements given whereby a single permanent canine can be used to decide on the sex of an animal. The use of oxytetracycline and lead acetate for the in vivo“labelling” of teeth in wild lions is examined.
In 1992, tourist hunting in the Selous Game Reserve generated 1.28 million dollars for the Tanzanian government, of which 0·96 million dollars were returned to wildlife conservation. Lions (Panthera leo) are one of three critical species for tourist hunting, consistently generating 12%–13% of hunting revenue from 1988 to 1992. Because of their ecological and economic importance (and intrinsic value), it is important that lion quotas be set so that offtake is sustainable. The population density of lions in Selous ranges from 0·08 to 0·13 adults km−2, comparable to unhunted ecosystems. The adult sex ratio (36–41% male) and the ratio of cubs to adults (29% cubs) are similar to those of unhunted populations. The ratio of lions to hyaenas is lower in heavily hunted areas (0·17 lions/hyena) than in unhunted areas (0·43 lions/hyena). Hunting levels between 1989 and 1994 took 2·7–4·3% of adult males annually, which is sustainable. The current quota is 10–16% of the adult male population, which exceeds natural mortality rates for male lions. To remain stable if the quota was filled, the population would have to compensate via increased fecundity, increased juvenile survival, or an altered sex-ratio. Compensation occurs in Selous by producing (or raising) more male than female cubs (66–81% of juveniles are male). Only 28% of the Selous quota was filled in 1992. The percentage of quota filled (both in Selous and nationwide) has dropped since 1988 as quotas have increased. The current intensity of lion hunting in Selous is sustainable, but the quota cannot be filled sustainably.
Large carnivores have declined worldwide, largely through conflict with people. Here, we quantify the impact of lethal control, associated with livestock depredation, on a population of African lions (Panthera leo) living outside protected areas. Farmers shot lions only in response to livestock attacks. Nevertheless, adult mortality was high and a simple model predicted that the population was marginally stable or slowly declining. Mortality was four times higher among lions radio-collared in association with attacks on livestock, than among lions with no known history of stock killing, suggesting that some animals were habitual stock killers. Known stock killers also experienced lower reproductive success; hence there was strong artificial selection against stock-killing behaviour. In addition, mortality was higher among lions whose home ranges overlapped a property where non-traditional livestock husbandry was associated with chronic depredation by lions. This 180 km 2 ranch acted as a sink that directly affected lions over more than 2000 km 2 and may have undermined the viability of the study population. Our results suggest that sustainable coexistence of lions and people demands livestock husbandry that effectively deters predators from acquiring stock-killing behaviour, but that lethal control may play an important role in avoiding the spread of such behaviours through the population.
This paper presents preliminary evidence that kleptoparasitism by spotted hyaenas may influence optimal hunting group size of lions. In the absence of adult male lions, hyaenas can drive female and subadult lions off their kills provided they outnumber the lions by a factor of four. Hence the larger the group of lions on the kill, the greater their chance of defending their food against invading hyaenas. At Savuti, where there was a shortage of adult male lions, the groups of female and subadult lions lost almost 20% of their food to hyaenas. Losses were most frequent for those living in small groups. These lions were often satiated by the time the hyaenas acquired the kill, so the hyaenas did not cause immediate need, yet constituted a constant energy drain on lions by forcing them to hunt more frequently. The implications of these observations for modelling optimal hunting group size of lions are discussed.
An age-structured demographic matrix model is developed to determine the long-term viability of the Southern African Kgalagadi Transfrontier Park lion (Panthera leo) population that is subjected to persecution along the park boundaries. In doing so, maximum sustainable persecution rates are established, so that efficient conservation measures may be taken, if required, to ensure the continued survival of the species in the park. Sensitivity analyses indicate that adult female survival ability alone is the most important component of the model in terms of long-term population survival. Furthermore, these analyses show that the boundary prides of the park are able to increase their chances of survival and are able to sustain significantly higher human-caused mortality rates by inducing birth-sex ratio biases in favour of females. The model suggests that the persecution rate experienced by the study population over the period 1998–2001 cannot be sustained in the long term, provided that there is no immigration of adult females into the population from the park interior. To ensure the survival of existing park boundary prides, adult lionesses should, as far as possible, be afforded protection from persecution, so that park boundary populations do not merely serve as population sinks for lions from elsewhere, or become extinct.
Researchers have recently argued that ecological factors, especially high levels of cub predation, are more important than genetic impoverishment in limiting wild populations of the endangered cheetah ( Acinonyx jubatus ). Despite considerable controversy, however, the forces actually driving cheetah population dynamics remain unclear. We used a combination of demographic techniques to investigate how variation in survival and reproduction might influence the population persistence of wild cheetahs. We parameterized our models using detailed demographic data from recently published, long‐term ecological projects on cheetahs of the Serengeti. Results suggest that the influence of juvenile survivorship on population growth rate is relatively small compared to the large effects of adult survivorship. This result is consistent across a range of vital rates and is robust to deviations due to sampling error and environmental variability. These conclusions cast a new light on the current cheetah controversy and, more generally, counsel caution in the interpretation of ecological data for conservation and management.
Nuevas Ideas para la Conservación del Leopardo Mediante Modelado Demográfico
Recientemente los investigadores han argumentado que los factores ecológicos, especialmente altos niveles de depredación de cachorros, son mas importantes que el empobrecimiento genético en poblaciones silvestres limitadas del leopardo ( Acinonyx jubatus ), amenazado de extinción. Sin embargo, a pesar de considerables controversias, las fuerzas que actualmente conducen a las poblaciones del leopardo no son claras. Utilizamos una combinación de técnicas demográficas para investigar como la variación en la sobrevivencia y reproducción puede influir en la persistencia de poblaciones de leopardos. Nuestros modelos fueron parametrizados usando datos demográficos detallados de proyectos de largo plazo recientemente publicados de leopardos del Serengeti. Los resultados sugieren que la influencia de la supervivencia de juveniles en el crecimiento poblacional es relativamente pequeña en comparación con los grandes efectos de la sobrevivencia de los adultos. Estos resultados son consistentes a lo largo de un rango de tasas vitales y es robusto a desviaciones debidas a errores de muestreo y variabilidad ambiental. Estas conclusiones proyectan una nueva luz en la actual controversia sobre leopardos y en lo general aconsejan precaución en la interpretación de datos ecológicos para conservación y manejo.
A protective role for the lion's mane has long been assumed but this assumption has never been tested. We compared patterns of injury, mane development and adult mane morphology in a population of African lions and found no compelling evidence that the mane conferred effective protection against wounding. The mane area was not a specific target of attacks, and injuries to the mane area were not associated with higher mortality than other injuries. Regions of the mane that were most frequently attacked did not show earlier onset of mane growth in subadult males or longer/darker mane hair in adult males. Adult males appeared to be wounded less frequently on the mane area than predicted by surface area, but it is unclear whether this trend was only caused by observer bias from decreased visibility. We conclude that, although the mane may have conferred protection during the early evolution of the trait, protection appears to be secondary to the strong sexually selected advantages of the mane as a condition-dependent ornament.
We used data from a long-term study on two medium-sized generalist predators, the black kite (Milvus migrans) and the red kite (Milvus milvus), to illustrate the complexity of managing wide-ranging top predators by site-protection. The study was conducted between 1989 and 2000 in the Reserva Biológica de Doñana, located at the core of Doñana National Park. Both species occurred at high density and showed high productivity. Black kites were slightly increasing, and red kites showed a non-significant trend. The main cause of breeding failure was nest predation, mainly by mammalian predators, most likely Iberian lynx (Lynx pardinus) or common genet (Genetta genetta). The main cause of mortality was illegal poisoning, which sharply increased in the late 1990s. Nest-site selection models showed that: (1) black kites selected areas near the seasonal marshes, rich in their main prey species and (2) red kites selected areas rich in marshland and far from the park border, possibly in response to illegal poisoning episodes. Productivity was positively related to the availability of marshland and of open terrestrial habitats for black and red kites, respectively, and negatively related for both species to the density of black kites within 200 m of the nest. Our results showed that: (1) intraguild predation and competition among predators make outcomes of interspecific interactions extremely complex, leading to unpredictable side-effects of priority actions targeting one species at a time and (2) though the park was fenced and patrolled by wardens, the wide ranging behaviour of the two species made park borders permeable to negative human pressures, such as poisoning, leading to extreme edge effects and absence of a true, safe core of the park. Park management needs to be better integrated with its regional socio-economic and cultural context. Education programmes against illegal poisoning should be urgently promoted.
The mane of the African lion (Panthera leo) is a highly variable trait that reflects male condition and ambient temperature. We examined the consequences of this variation in a long-term study of lions in the Serengeti National Park, Tanzania. Mane darkness indicates nutrition and testosterone and influences both female choice and male-male competition. Mane length signals fighting success and only appears to influence male-male assessment. Dark-maned males enjoy longer reproductive life-spans and higher offspring survival, but they suffer higher surface temperatures, abnormal sperm, and lower food intake during hot months of the year. Maned males are hotter than females, and males have lighter and/or shorter manes in hotter seasons, years, and habitats. This phenotypic plasticity suggests that the mane will respond to forecasted increases in ambient temperature.
Based on three years of study in the Serengeti National Park, George B. Schallerâs The Serengeti Lion describes the vast impact of the lion and other predators on the vast herds of wildebeest, zebra, and gazelle for which the area is famous. The most comprehensive book available on the lion, this classic work includes the authorâs findings on all aspects of lion behavior, including its social system, population dynamics, hunting behavior, and predation patterns. âIf you have only enough time to read one book about field biology, this is the one I recommend.ââEdward O. Wilson, Science âThis book conveys not only the fascination of its particular study of lion behavior but the drama and wonder and beauty of the intimate interdependence of all living things.ââSaturday Review âThis is an important book, not just for its valuable information on lions, but for its broad, open, and intelligent approach to problems that cut across the fields of behavior, populations, ecology, wildlife management, evolution, anthropology, and comparative biology.ââRichard G. Van Gelder, Bioscience
Zimbabwe's CAMPFIRE programme is widely regarded as one of Africa's most successful contemporary conservation initiatives. It permits the residents of communal lands-basically poor, black people-to share in the benefits generated by wildlife utilization on those lands. Despite its achievements the programme still faces fundamental challenges. In particular the development strategies of households in CAMPFIRE areas are focusing on land uses that are incompatible with wildlife-population in-migration, the extension of cropping and increased livestock numbers. To a significant degree these problems arise because CAMPFIRE has only been able to devolve authority over natural resources from the central government to rural district councils. If the programme is to be effective then a further devolution of authority is required so that producer communities, those who live directly beside wildlife, are given full control of the natural resources on their lands. Copyright © 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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Natal dispersal can have important effects on mammal population structure and dynamics following a local population crash. Such dispersal is of practical importance when applied to the control of pest species because dispersal may significantly, and undesirably, reduce the population recovery time following a control operation. The relative dispersal rate of the sexes is also critical because that too will affect the rate of population increase. Here, we describe a field experiment in which we reduce the density of two populations of the Australian brushtail possum, and use genetic similarity, as estimated by minisatellite DNA profiles, to investigate dispersal in the original (undisturbed) and recovering populations. Our results show that the genetic similarity within the undisturbed populations was lower between males than between females. Conversely, the genetic similarities between males and females in the two recovering populations were not significantly different, while relatedness among males was significantly higher in the recovering populations when compared with those in the pre-removal populations. These data indicate two important characteristics of dispersal in possums: (i) that dispersal in established populations is sex biased towards males; and (ii) that within the first 3 years following population control, 'the vacuum effect', whereby individuals from areas adjacent to a control area expand their home range and invade the depopulated area, is the most important factor in the re-colonization process for possums. We found no evidence that the mating system, which is polygynous, varied when the density was markedly reduced. These results indicate that drastic reductions in population density by conventional control will not affect the rate of spread of biological control agents that rely on sexual transmission for dissemination.
A common assumption is that breeding in polygnous systems is not limited by the number of males because one male can inseminate many females. But here we show that reproductive collapse in the critically endangered saiga antelope (Saiga tatarica tatarica) is likely to have been caused by a catastrophic drop in the number of adult males in this harem-breeding ungulate, probably due to selective poaching for their horns. Fecundity and calf survival are known to be affected by markedly skewed sex ratios, but in the saiga antelope the sex ratio has become so distorted as to lead to a drastic decline in the number of pregnancies - a finding that has implications both for the conservation of the species and for understanding the reproductive ecology of polygynous ungulates.
Conservation of the African Lion: Contribution to a Status Survey. International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife
- P Chardonnet
Chardonnet, P., 2002. Conservation of the African Lion: Contribution to a Status Survey. International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA.
The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals Do edge effects occur over large spatial scales? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15
- J Kingdon
Kingdon, J., 1997. The Kingdon Field Guide to African Mammals. Academic Press, London. Laurance, W.F., 2000. Do edge effects occur over large spatial scales? Trends in Ecology and Evolution 15, 134–135.
The potential for using GPS collars on wild African lions (Panthera leo); some lessons from experience
- G Hemson
Hemson, G., 2002. The potential for using GPS collars on wild African lions (Panthera leo); some lessons from experience. In: Loveridge, A.J., Lynam, T., Macdonald, D.W. (Eds.). Lion Conservation Research. Workshop 2: Modelling Conflict. Wildlife Conservation Research Unit, Oxford, pp. 59–65.
Reproductive success of lions Reproductive success: studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems
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- Lion Southern
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- Johannesburg
- C Packer
- L Herbst
- A Pusey
- J D Bygott
- J P Hanby
- S J Cairns
- M B Mulder
In: Eastern and Southern African Lion Workshop, Johannesburg. Packer, C., Herbst, L., Pusey, A., Bygott, J.D., Hanby, J.P., Cairns, S.J., Mulder, M.B., 1988. Reproductive success of lions. In: Clutton-Brock, T.H. (Ed.), Reproductive success: studies of individual variation in contrasting breeding systems. University of Chicago Press, Chicago, pp. 363–383.