Article

Composition of the base glass used to realize the stained glass windows by Duccio di Buoninsegna (Siena Cathedral, 1288–1289 AD): A geochemical approach

December 2009
Materials Characterization 60:1545-1554

DOI:10.1016/j.matchar.2009.09.005

Authors:

Elena Basso

Metropolitan Museum of Art

Maria Pia Riccardi

University of Pavia

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A set of 35 samples from the rose window of the Siena Cathedral (Tuscany, Italy) has been studied using EMPA to define the chemical composition (17 major and minor elements) of the base glass. This paper focuses on colourless and natural-coloured glasses, i.e. glass produced without the intentional addition of colouring agents. The presence of natural impurities of Fe and Mn, as well as the control of the furnace conditions plays an important role as well. Three compositional groups of natural-coloured glass have been identified taking into account the Al/Ti ratio and the K2O and MgO concentrations. The most represented and homogeneous group contains the original glasses and defines the base glass composition. It is a soda–lime glass based on quartz (pure quartz sand or quartz-bearing pebbles/rocks) as vitrifying component and a Na-rich plant ash as flux. Restoration interventions explain the other two compositional groups. The compositional comparison of the original glass with coeval glass from Tuscany (Italy) has allowed us to postulate local production for them.

Caracterizacion quimica de la vidriera de la capilla de San Antonio de Padova (1525), Basilica de San Petronio, Bolonia, (Italia)

Conference Paper

Oct 2010

Chemical characterization of the stained glass window from the rose window, Siena Duomo (Italy, 1288-1289)

Article

Full-text available

May 2010

The chemical composition of nine medieval coloured stained glasses from Duomo (Catedral) of Siena, Italy, has been characterized. They come from the rose window elaborated under the drawing of Duccio di Buoninsegna masterwork (1288- 89 AD). This note explains the results obtained by EMPA, representative of bulk chemistry of several coloured glasses (deep green, olive green, yellow, purple, pink, deep blue, light blue, red plaqué and also uncoloured), as well as the associated trace elements (obtained by Induced Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry) that represent the chemical fingerprint of these glasses. The studied samples are sodium-calcium glass (chemical compositions in the range 13-14 wt% Na2O, 56-64 wt% SiO2, 4 wt% MgO, 9-10 wt% CaO, 2,5-4 wt% K2O); thus of Mediterranean tradition.This fact has been found by our team in previous studies (stained glasses from the church of Monestir de Pedralbes, Barcelona) for XIV century glass made at least 40 years later. As a general rule, the conservation state of these sodium glasses is good, except for the cohesion of grisaille to glass mesostase. This study allowed to identify three glass groups developed from different raw material formulations: a first group is constituted by deep green, olive green, light blue and yellow glass; a second one comprises by uncoloured, deep purple, deep blue and pink glass; and finally, the plaqué red glass that shows deeply different composition. Pink and yellow glass was produced following the traditional recipe compiled by Theophilus, a monk who lived at the beginning of XII century. This implies a separate process of raw material purification and a careful control of the redox kiln conditions; thus, these glasses can be considered as traditional or technologically not evolved. The deep blue, light blue and deep purple were obtained after the artisan dosed addition of a cobalt salt. Olive green and deep green glasses were produced with addition of copper (together with manganese and iron), previously prepared as a pigment that has as excipient a potassium glass. The use of potassium glass instead of the sodium glass locally produced strongly suggests that the pigment could be bought directly from Middle or Northern Europe markets and/or could be a sub-product of copper ore melting. On the other hand, the production of sodium red ruby plaqué glass, technologically more evolved and comparable to the coeval potassium glass coming from the Central Europe glass factories, would be outstanding in the XIV century; but we interpret (taking into account its chemical composition) that was produced later and introduced during the restoration conducted at the end of XVII century. We can also note the use of well-dosed lead additions in order to increase the lightness and transparency of coloured glass. Manganese has been a very important element in the Siena workshop glassmaker colour palette achievements. On the other hand, the trace-element chemical fingerprint of the glass allows arguing what kind of mineral salts were used as pigments, as well as the way to introduce it in the uncoloured original glass.Se han caracterizado químicamente una colección de vidrios arquitectónicos coloreados originales del rosetón del Duomo (catedral) de Siena, Italia, realizados bajo diseño del artista Duccio di Buoninsegna en 1288-89. Esta comunicación expone los resultados obtenidos mediante el empleo de microsonda electrónica de Castaing (mayoritarios) y espectrometría de masas con fuente de plasma acoplado inductivamente (ICP-MS, elementos en traza) en vidrios de varios colores (incoloro, verde oscuro, verde oliva, amarillo, violeta, rosa, azul oscuro, azul celeste, rojo plaqué). Se trata de vidrios sódico-cálcicos (valores en peso alrededor del 13-14 % de Na2O, 56-64 % SiO2, 4% MgO, 9-10 % CaO, 2,5-4 K2O) de tradición por tanto mediterránea. Un resultado semejante se encontró precedentemente para vidrios realizados a lo largo del siglo XIV, cuanto menos unos 40 años después (vidriera de la iglesia del Monestir de Pedralbes, Barcelona). En general, el estado de conservación de estos vidrios es bueno, excepto por lo que se refiere a la adherencia de las grisallas al vidrio base. El estudio desarrollado ha permitido identificar tres grupos de vidrios desarrollados a partir de formulaciones de diferentes composiciones: un primer grupo constituido por los vidrios de color verde claro, verde oscuro, azul celeste y amarillo; un segundo grupo constituido por los vidrios incoloro, violeta, azul oscuro, y malva; y finalmente el vidrio rojo plaqué, de composición netamente diferente a todos los demás. Desde el punto de vista de la obtención de los colores, cabe destacar que los datos químicos permiten deducir que el malva y el amarillo han sido elaborados siguiendo la receta tradicional del monje Theophilus de inicios del siglo XII, utilizando un proceso de purificación especial de las materias primas, y controlando artesanalmente las condiciones redox del horno; en este sentido, estos vidrios se pueden calificar como tradicionales o tecnológicamente poco evolucionados. Los colores azul oscuro, violeta y azul celeste se han obtenido mediante la adición de una misma sal de cobalto en diferentes dosis, y los colores verde oliva y verde oscuro mediante la adición de cobre (junto con manganeso y hierro), previamente preparados en un colorante que tiene como excipiente un vidrio potásico. Este último hecho (el empleo de vidrio potásico no usual en los centros productores del área mediterránea) permite suponer que el color puede haber sido comprado directamente a un fabricante centroeuropeo o que se tratara de un subproducto de fundición de minerales de cobre. Por su parte, la fabricación del vidrio plaqué, tecnológicamente más complejo y comparable al vidrio rojo plaqué potásico centroeuropeo contemporáneo indicaría, si fuera original, la incorporación de este proceso tecnológico al taller local. En opinión de los autores se trata de un vidrio de producción local mucho más tardia, incorporado en la restauración documentada a finales del siglo XVII. Destaca también, como en Pedralbes, el empleo del plomo para aumentar la luminosidad y transparencia del vidrio, en dosis variables atendiendo al color del vidrio. Por otro lado hay que señalar que en Siena el manganeso es un elemento muy importante con el que el fabricante del vidrio jugó intensamente para obtener la paleta de colores. El análisis de los metales presentes como elementos traza, y de las tierras raras, permite establecer sólidas hipótesis sobre el tipo de sales minerales empleadas como colorantes y como fueron incorporados al vidrio incoloro original.

The representation of skin colour in medieval stained glasses: The role of manganese

Article

Aug 2021
JASR

The present study concerns a corpus of 17 glass pieces representing character heads, originating from 11 major cathedrals and churches from North Western France and which constitute the masterpiece of stained glass windows. Skin complexion ranges from colourless to flesh-tone and purple. These glasses have been investigated using non-destructive and non-invasive techniques. Particle Induced X-ray Emission and Particle Induced Gamma Emission analyses at AGLAE show that these glass pieces show potassic plant ash glass compositions, typical to 12th −15th centuries. The compositional variability of the major glass components remains limited, similar to that found for single monuments, despite the diversity of geographic origins. The Mn and Ba concentrations follow a different trend in flesh-coloured or purple glasses and in colourless glasses, suggesting that the sources of Ba and Mn in these two kinds of glasses originated from different raw materials. Purple and flesh tone glasses contain more manganese than colourless glasses with an almost similar iron content. Synchrotron X-ray absorption near-edge structure spectroscopy (XANES) and portable UV–visible-NIR optical absorption spectroscopy indicate that glass colour varies with results from Fe²⁺, Fe³⁺, Mn²⁺ and Mn³⁺. The thickness of the glasses, about 3 mm, has been measured using ultrasound techniques. Its dispersion is similar in the various coloured glasses. This parameter mostly influences the colour saturation but not the hue. Obtaining flesh-coloured or purple glasses requires some control of the oxidation state of manganese during glass making. Divalent manganese is largely prevalent and the colour change from flesh-tone to purple hues is driven by small variations in the Mn³⁺ content. As these variations are not related to the Fe/Mn ratio, the resulting glass colour is difficult to predict on the only basis of glass composition. Due to the low kinetics for obtaining a redox equilibrium state between furnace atmosphere and the silicate melt, using Mn⁴⁺- and Mn³⁺-oxide minerals made it possible to favour oxidized melts, provided the glasses be taken out of the oven before redox equilibrium be reached: the shorter the melting time, the more oxidized will be resulting glass. This shows that medieval glassmakers were able to overcome the challenge of making glasses under highly oxidizing conditions to retaining enough oxidized manganese to favour flesh-tone and purple colours in wood-fuelled furnaces.

Medieval Tuscan glasses from Miranduolo, Italy: A multi-disciplinary study https://authors.elsevier.com/a/1ZDrI,rVDBRdsp

Article

Jun 2019
JASR

Twenty transparent glass fragments from Miranduolo were analysed by Variable Pressure - Scanning ElectronMicroscopy - Energy Dispersive System (VP-SEM-EDS), Particle Induced X-Ray Emission and Particle InducedGamma-Ray Emission (PIXE/PIGE) and Laser Ablation - Inductively Coupled Plasma - Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS). The fragments are dated from mid-13th to mid-14th century CE, when the first Tuscan glass-makingworkshops emerged. Miranduolo did not have anin situglass-making workshop. Hence, the aim was to de-termine the glass production technology and raw material provenance. All the glasses are of plant ash (PA) soda-lime-silica (Na-Ca-Si) composition, with eighteen being made with Levantine plant ash (LPA), one with Barillaplant ash (BPA), and one Na-Ca-Si glass with high magnesium and low potassium (HMg-LK). The production ofLPA glasses can be distinguished according to the use of different sand typologies as former. It seems probablethat glasses were produced regionally from multiple Tuscan glass factories

The browning phenomenon of medieval stained glass windows : identification criteria and nature of the alteration phase

Article

Dec 2013

Jessica Ferrand

The medieval stained glass windows, which glass composition contain manganese, are often affected by an alteration commonly designated as "browning". This phenomenon results in the presence of Mn-rich brown spots at the surface or subsurface of the glass thus limiting the passage of light and hindering the interpretation of the artwork. Poorly documented, the occurrence of browning among stained glass windows is not precisely described. Currently, one of the major problems in terms of conservation and restoration is that long-term treatments are not available. In these conditions, the recommendations are not to treat the affected glasses, a solution that satisfies neither the architects nor the curators, nor the restorers. In order to answer the questions and expectations of curators and restorers the comprehension of this phenomenon is essential. In this work, a panel of 24 historical and 3 archaeological stained glass samples were studied by microscopic and spectroscopic methods in order to i) establish reliable criteria for identifying the browning phenomenon due to manganese and ii) obtain information on the nature of the dark phases and the oxidation state of manganese in these phases. In parallel with the study of ancient samples, synthetic glasses with medieval-like compositions were synthesized for: i) understanding the reaction between manganese and iron, as well as the influence of the process parameters on the color of glasses and ii) studying the influence of bacteria in the development of the browning phenomenon

Synthesis and Characterization of Leucite Using a Diatomite Precursor

Article

Full-text available

Jul 2019

Leucite is nowadays an important component in ceramic restoration systems with particular suitability to dental porcelains. The leucite synthesis from a hydrothermally-derived precursor is here presented. A silicate solution was prepared by mixing a naturally derived amorphous silica (diatomitic rock from Crotone, southern Italy) with potassium hydroxide and an aluminate solution was obtained by mixing aluminium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide. Three mixtures of varying ratios of aluminate and silicate solutions were prepared and submitted to hydrothermal treatment at 150 °C for one hour. Subsequently these hydrothermal precursors were subjected to calcination at the temperature of 1000 °C for variable time intervals, thus resulting in 3 series of syntheses. The synthesis run 3 turned out to be the best from the point of view of temporal yield showing the crystallization of the leucite after only 15 hours of heat treatment. The products of synthesis run 3 were fully characterised by Powder X-Ray Diffraction, Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry, Infrared Spectroscopy and Thermal Analysis. The amorphous phase in the synthesis powders was estimated by quantitative phase analysis using the combined Rietveld and reference intensity ratio methods. Density of leucite was also achieved by He-pycnometry. The use of a cost effective starting material such as a diatomite in the experimental route makes the process highly attractive for expansion to an industrial scale especially considering that both the chemical and physical characterizations of our leucite product are highly satisfactory. Last but not least we explain some inferences that can be obtained from this process of synthesis in order to a better understanding of some natural occurrences of leucite in geologic systems related to basaltic magmas.

The Grande Rose of the Reims Cathedral: an eight-century perspective on the colour management of medieval stained glass

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2019

The Grande Rose of Reims Cathedral (France), a UNESCO Cultural Heritage Monument from the 13th century, underwent several restoration works during the 20th century. Its colours result from centuries of colour management from which little information remain. We used non-destructive and portable optical absorption spectroscopy to quantify glass colour and determine the colouring species on a large-scale study of this monumental window. We found six distinct colour groups, each containing both medieval and modern glasses, with colouring processes specific to each colour. This illustrates medieval glassmakers’ mastering of glass colouring and modern glassmakers’ management to reproduce medieval glasses colours. Full UV-visible-NIR energy range is necessary for determining the contribution of colouring elements as Fe2+ and Cu2+. Systematic thickness measurements reveal an average glass thickness of 3 mm and demonstrate the major control of chromophore concentration on glass colour. Yellow, red and purple colours arise from a single chromophore each, suggesting the use of well-defined glassmaking techniques leading to robust colour reproducibility. By contrast, blue and green glasses show different chromophore combinations depending on production time, which suggests more diversity in glassmaking techniques.

Archaeometrical and typological analysis of 17th century glass production in Sa Gerreria workshop (Majorca, Spain)

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2017

In this article, we conduct a study of 104 samples (pieces, technological elements, lumps and frit remains) recovered from the 17th century glass workshop of Sa Gerreria (Majorca, Spain). A SEM-EDS analysis of the chemical composition of 104 samples and the analysis of distinct groupings obtained from a statistical treatment of the data using principle components analysis (PCA) have revealed the type of production developed in the workshop, at both the qualitative and the quantitative levels. On the one hand, this study has contributed interesting information regarding the characteristics of local production, particularly little known aspects such as the types of pieces manufactured and their diverse colourations and decorations. On the other hand, this study has allowed us to identify, for the first time through the study of the materials themselves, the existence of a group of typologically consistent samples that does not match the composition of the products made in this workshop and are most likely related to objects of an imported nature. In conclusion, this study has allowed us to develop a more in-depth understanding of the Island of Majorca’s role in peripheral production, exchange networks, and the circulation of knowledge regarding the recipes and techniques used by the Sa Gerreria workshop and their relationship with production contexts closely linked to Barcelona and the territories that composed the ancient Crown of Aragon. This understanding has been developed for the first time from a new perspective that is not exclusively documentary.

Earthen mortars from Cremona (Northern Italy): The evolution throughout centuries of a manufacturing tradition

Article

Aug 2016
CONSTR BUILD MATER

Earthen architectures were widespread in the town of Cremona (Northern Italy) until the first decades of the XX century. An archaeometric study of earthen mortars from buildings of different ages in Cremona allowed investigating the evolution throughout centuries of a well-established masonry tradition. Three typologies of earthen mortars were identified, differing in the amount of added lime. A two-step change in the technology of earthen mortars manufacturing has been inferred. Since the XVII century, lime was added in larger amounts to the mixtures. During the XVIII–XIX centuries, organic additives were employed to further improve the performances of the earthen mortars.

Characterization of XVIIIth century earthen mortars from Cremona (Northern Italy): Insights on a manufacturing tradition

Article

Mar 2015
MATER CHARACT

Glass colourations caused by Mn-Fe redox pair : Application to ancient glass technology

Article

Jul 2022
J NON-CRYST SOLIDS

Manganese is a chemical element used as a colourizer in glass industry since antiquity. Combined with iron, manganese often plays the role of a decolourizer leading to uncoloured glasses used to represent hands and faces in medieval stained glass windows. A series of medieval-like glasses has been synthesized in order to relate the colouration of glasses with the conditions of synthesis (temperature, atmosphere, glass composition). Optical absorption spectra in the UV–Vis-NIR range have been measured to follow and characterize the changes in colouration. For a given temperature, the addition of Mn in a Fe-rich glass composition implies a decrease of the concentration in Fe²⁺and an increase of the concentration in Fe³⁺ as compared to the Mn-free glass composition. The uncoloured glass composition is obtained for different contents of Mn when melting temperature varies. These results might help deciphering the complexity of colour making in ancient times.

Evidencing Human Occupation of a Small Island Through Ancient Glass: The Case of Ustica (Palermo, Italy)

Article

Full-text available

Aug 2020

The subject of this study consists of 17 ancient glass fragments from the island of Ustica (Palermo, Italy) obtained from local museums. All the 17 glass fragments are stratigraphically decontextualized, as they were collected by archaeological surface surveys. Each fragment was analyzed by Electron Micro Probe Analyzer coupled with an Energy Dispersive X-Ray System (EMPA-EDS) and by Laser Ablation-Inductively Coupled Plasma-Mass Spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS) to obtain the composition of major, minor and trace elements. Surface analyses revealed the presence of corrosion layers in most of the glass fragments which was evident also in the chemical data. Nevertheless, reconstruction of the glassmaking processes and the approximate period of production was possible for almost all the glass fragments. Less than half of the examined fragments are attributable to recognizable typologies as unguentaria, beakers, bottles, and vases; all the other small fragments are typologically undetermined. Out of 17 fragments only one fragment is of HLLA composition possibly being produced in 17th–18th century AD, while all the others can be attributed to soda glass with different periods of production: natron glass from Roman and Early Medieval period, plant-ash glass from High or Late Medieval period with the exception of possible Byzantine glass from 6th century AD, and synthetic soda glasses typical of modern era. These data confirm the discontinuous habitation of the island from the Roman period as well as the import of glass objects to the island.

La couleur des vitraux au XIIIe siècle : Étude chimique et spectroscopique

Thesis

Oct 2018

Natan Capobianco

Colour variety of medieval stained glass is a characteristic feature of gothic cathedrals. Glass colour results mainly from ions of metals such as copper, iron and cobalt, and depends on parameters from glass fabrication, like its chemical composition or the furnace atmosphere. These glasses are thus important witnesses in the history of glass technology. First, we summarised the reported French medieval glass compositions, to work out the relationship between their changes over time and geography and the prime materials that have been used. The restoration of the Rose of Reims Cathedral allowed us to use optical absorption spectroscopy, with a portable device specifically designed, to analyse in a non-invasive manner the glass colours of this major window and the origin of the colourations. We showed how medieval glassmakers mastered many colouration processes and comparison with glass from previous restorations showed the consideration of restorers for matching the colour of ancient glasses. Among the colours, colourless to purple glasses are all coloured by a mixture of iron and manganese. Thank to XANES and optical absorption spectroscopies, and to the comparison between medieval glasses from state reserves and reproduction glasses we synthesised, we show that mastering of colourless to purple colouring result from a smart control of the oxidoreductive conditions in the furnace during glassmaking.

Caracterización química de la vidriera del rosetón del Duomo de Siena (Italia, 1288-1289)

Article

Full-text available

Jun 2010

The chemical composition of nine medieval coloured stained glasses from Duomo (Catedral) of Siena, Italy, has been characterized. They come from the rose window elaborated under the drawing of Duccio di Buoninsegna masterwork (1288- 89 AD). This note explains the results obtained by EMPA, representative of bulk chemistry of several coloured glasses (deep green, olive green, yellow, purple, pink, deep blue, light blue, red plaqué and also uncoloured), as well as the associated trace elements (obtained by Induced Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry) that represent the chemical fingerprint of these glasses. The studied samples are sodium-calcium glass (chemical compositions in the range 13-14 wt% Na₂O, 56-64 wt% SiO₂, 4 wt% MgO, 9-10 wt% CaO, 2,5-4 wt% K₂O); thus of Mediterranean tradition.This fact has been found by our team in previous studies (stained glasses from the church of Monestir de Pedralbes, Barcelona) for XIV century glass made at least 40 years later. As a general rule, the conservation state of these sodium glasses is good, except for the cohesion of grisaille to glass mesostase. This study allowed to identify three glass groups developed from different raw material formulations: a first group is constituted by deep green, olive green, light blue and yellow glass; a second one comprises by uncoloured, deep purple, deep blue and pink glass; and finally, the plaqué red glass that shows deeply different composition. Pink and yellow glass was produced following the traditional recipe compiled by Theophilus, a monk who lived at the beginning of XII century. This implies a separate process of raw material purification and a careful control of the redox kiln conditions; thus, these glasses can be considered as traditional or technologically not evolved. The deep blue, light blue and deep purple were obtained after the artisan dosed addition of a cobalt salt. Olive green and deep green glasses were produced with addition of copper (together with manganese and iron), previously prepared as a pigment that has as excipient a potassium glass. The use of potassium glass instead of the sodium glass locally produced strongly suggests that the pigment could be bought directly from Middle or Northern Europe markets and/or could be a sub-product of copper ore melting. On the other hand, the production of sodium red ruby plaqué glass, technologically more evolved and comparable to the coeval potassium glass coming from the Central Europe glass factories, would be outstanding in the XIV century; but we interpret (taking into account its chemical composition) that was produced later and introduced during the restoration conducted at the end of XVII century. We can also note the use of well-dosed lead additions in order to increase the lightness and transparency of coloured glass. Manganese has been a very important element in the Siena workshop glassmaker colour palette achievements. On the other hand, the trace-element chemical fingerprint of the glass allows arguing what kind of mineral salts were used as pigments, as well as the way to introduce it in the uncoloured original glass. Se han caracterizado químicamente una colección de vidrios arquitectónicos coloreados originales del rosetón del Duomo (catedral) de Siena, Italia, realizados bajo diseño del artista Duccio di Buoninsegna en 1288-89. Esta comunicación expone los resultados obtenidos mediante el empleo de microsonda electrónica de Castaing (mayoritarios) y espectrometría de masas con fuente de plasma acoplado inductivamente (ICP-MS, elementos en traza) en vidrios de varios colores (incoloro, verde oscuro, verde oliva, amarillo, violeta, rosa, azul oscuro, azul celeste, rojo plaqué). Se trata de vidrios sódico-cálcicos (valores en peso alrededor del 13-14 % de Na₂O, 56-64 % SiO₂, 4% MgO, 9-10 % CaO, 2,5-4 K₂O) de tradición por tanto mediterránea. Un resultado semejante se encontró precedentemente para vidrios realizados a lo largo del siglo XIV, cuanto menos unos 40 años después (vidriera de la iglesia del Monestir de Pedralbes, Barcelona). En general, el estado de conservación de estos vidrios es bueno, excepto por lo que se refiere a la adherencia de las grisallas al vidrio base. El estudio desarrollado ha permitido identificar tres grupos de vidrios desarrollados a partir de formulaciones de diferentes composiciones: un primer grupo constituido por los vidrios de color verde claro, verde oscuro, azul celeste y amarillo; un segundo grupo constituido por los vidrios incoloro, violeta, azul oscuro, y malva; y finalmente el vidrio rojo plaqué, de composición netamente diferente a todos los demás. Desde el punto de vista de la obtención de los colores, cabe destacar que los datos químicos permiten deducir que el malva y el amarillo han sido elaborados siguiendo la receta tradicional del monje Theophilus de inicios del siglo XII, utilizando un proceso de purificación especial de las materias primas, y controlando artesanalmente las condiciones redox del horno; en este sentido, estos vidrios se pueden calificar como tradicionales o tecnológicamente poco evolucionados. Los colores azul oscuro, violeta y azul celeste se han obtenido mediante la adición de una misma sal de cobalto en diferentes dosis, y los colores verde oliva y verde oscuro mediante la adición de cobre (junto con manganeso y hierro), previamente preparados en un colorante que tiene como excipiente un vidrio potásico. Este último hecho (el empleo de vidrio potásico no usual en los centros productores del área mediterránea) permite suponer que el color puede haber sido comprado directamente a un fabricante centroeuropeo o que se tratara de un subproducto de fundición de minerales de cobre. Por su parte, la fabricación del vidrio plaqué, tecnológicamente más complejo y comparable al vidrio rojo plaqué potásico centroeuropeo contemporáneo indicaría, si fuera original, la incorporación de este proceso tecnológico al taller local. En opinión de los autores se trata de un vidrio de producción local mucho más tardia, incorporado en la restauración documentada a finales del siglo XVII. Destaca también, como en Pedralbes, el empleo del plomo para aumentar la luminosidad y transparencia del vidrio, en dosis variables atendiendo al color del vidrio. Por otro lado hay que señalar que en Siena el manganeso es un elemento muy importante con el que el fabricante del vidrio jugó intensamente para obtener la paleta de colores. El análisis de los metales presentes como elementos traza, y de las tierras raras, permite establecer sólidas hipótesis sobre el tipo de sales minerales empleadas como colorantes y como fueron incorporados al vidrio incoloro original.

PAST: Paleontological Statistics Software Package for Education and Data Analysis

Article

Full-text available

May 2001

A comprehensive, but simple-to-use software package for executing a range of standard numerical analysis and operations used in quantitative paleontology has been developed. The program, called PAST (PAleontological STatistics), runs on standard Windows computers and is available free of charge. PAST integrates spreadsheettype data entry with univariate and multivariate statistics, curve fitting, time-series analysis, data plotting, and simple phylogenetic analysis. Many of the functions are specific to paleontology and ecology, and these functions are not found in standard, more extensive, statistical packages. PAST also includes fourteen case studies (data files and exercises) illustrating use of the program for paleontological problems, making it a complete educational package for courses in quantitative methods.

Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 2: Vitreous finds and sands

Article

Full-text available

Mar 2005
J CULT HERIT

A variety of green vitreous finds (fragments of worked objects, cuttings, moiles, fluidity test samples, glass masses, skims, and frits) from Germagnana (GE) and Gambassi (GP) sites, two glass manufactures of Valdelsa (Florence) have been investigated mainly by optical and scanning electron microscopy equipped with EDS, X-ray fluorescence, X-ray powder diffractometry, inductively coupled plasma atomic spectroscopy and, where possible, by Mossbauer spectroscopy in order to distinguish and classify them on the basis of their physico-chemical and/or mineralogical-petrographic properties. The mean composition of the different finds, their morphology, the included particles, the presence of crystalline phases, are reported. The role of the Fe(II)/Fe(III) ratio and of Mn in the production technology was estimated. Eight archaeological sands of the GP site were also investigated in order to verify their possible use as raw materials in glass production. The obtained physico-chemical and/or mineralogical-petrographic data corroborate the archaeological classification of the finds of the two Tuscanian sites and define more appropriately the glass production cycle and its evolution from the 14th to 16th century. (c) 2005 Published by Elsevier SAS.

From Siena to Barcelona: Deciphering colour recipes of Na-rich Mediterranean stained glass windows at the XIII-XIV century transition

Article

Full-text available

Dec 2008
J CULT HERIT

This paper offers new insights on the evolution of colour recipes for Na-rich Mediterranean stained glass, taking as a guideline the results of the study of the Duccio di Buoninsegna's rose window (1288e89 AD) at the Duomo (Cathedral) of Siena (Italy) and the Santa Maria de Pedralbes presbytery windows of the church at the royal monastery in Barcelona (1326e27 AD). In order to decipher the colour recipes in an original set of glass pieces, a number of chemical analyses have been performed, namely quantitative EPMA on thin sections cutting orthogonally the glass surface. This comparative approach is useful since the studied glass is well preserved in terms of good chemical conservation against corrosion and biological attack. Also, chemical composition of glass provides evidence of preservation of homogeneous original glass sets at each site. The Siena samples are representative of traditional colour production, as explained by the monk Theophilus two centuries before (regarding yellow, pink and colourless glass) or as is well known before Theophilus for Co-blue glass. Also, some chemical data on CueFe-rich green glass provide evidence tentatively related to the use of metal-rich slag as colouring component. The Barcelona samples offer evidence of new recipes (i.e. yellow glass) and hence look more evolved from the glassmaker's point of view, in spite of the more pristine artistic features. Both glass windows can be regarded milestones in the interpretation of technological evolution with the introduction of new colour recipes at the XIIIeXIV century's transition.

Production Technology for Copper‐ and Cobalt‐Blue Vitreous Materials from the New Kingdom Site of Amarna—A Reappraisal*

Article

Full-text available

Apr 2003
ARCHAEOMETRY

Previously published data on the chemical compositions and microstructures of copper- and cobalt-blue frit, glass and faience from the New Kingdom site of Amarna in Egypt (Shortland 2000) are summarized. The data are then used to infer the raw materials and processes employed in the production of these vitreous materials. The results suggest that crushed quartz pebbles were the source of the quartz for all the materials, but that different sources of alkali, both natron and a range of plant ashes, were used in the production of each material. It seems probable that the cobalt-rich alum colorant was pre-treated before use by precipitating cobalt hydroxide from a solution of the alum by the addition of natron. It is further hypothesized that cobalt-blue glass was produced by melting the cobalt-blue frit together with additional plant ash and possibly quartz. Finally, it is suggested that, in glazing the cobalt-blue Variant D faience first produced in the 18th Dynasty, the efflorescence or application method was selected according to object type.

Strontium Isotopes in the Investigation of Early Glass Production: Byzantine and Early Islamic Glass from the Near East*

Article

Full-text available

Feb 2003
ARCHAEOMETRY

87Sr/86Sr ratios have been determined for glasses from four production sites, dated to between the sixth and the 11th centuries, in the Eastern Mediterranean region. On the basis of elemental analyses, the glasses at each location are believed to have been melted from different raw materials. Two glass groups, from Bet Eli‘ezer and Bet She‘an, in Israel, are believed to have been based upon mixtures of Levantine coastal sands and natron, and have 87Sr/86Sr ratios close to 0.7090, plus high elemental strontium, confirming a high concentration of modern marine shell (87Sr/86Sr ~ 0.7092) in the raw materials. The isotopic compositions of these two groups of glasses differ slightly, however, probably reflecting a varying ratio of limestone to shell because the sands that were utilized were from different coastal locations. Natron-based glasses from a workshop at Tel el Ashmunein, Middle Egypt, have 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.70794–0.70798, and low elemental strontium, consistent with the use of limestone or limestone-rich sand in the batch. High-magnesia glasses based on plant ash, from Banias, Israel, have 87Sr/86Sr values of 0.70772–0.70780, probably reflecting the isotopic composition of the soils that were parental to the plants that were ashed to make the glass. Strontium and its isotopes offer an approach to identifying both the raw materials and the origins of ancient glasses, and are a potentially powerful tool in their interpretation.

Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 3: Vitreous finds and crucibles

Article

Jan 2005
J CULT HERIT

Optical, SEM-EDS and TEM microscopy, Mossbauer and UV‐Vis spectroscopy, SIMS spectrometry and ICP spectroscopy, were carried out on sixty vitreous finds, with particular attention to the trace elements, in order to correlate them to the raw materials, the working instruments and the technology employed. The colours of these vitreous finds have been studied in detail to establish the presence and kind of chromophores, the redox conditions used for obtaining of the vitreous mass during the fusion process, the role of the oxidation state and chemical environment of the different metal ions, etc. Eight crucibles and one refractory material were also investigated by XRD diffractometry and TG-DTA thermogravimetry. Their composition, morphology and thermal behaviour gave information on the working temperature inside the kilns. These studies offer a scientific contribution to the archaeological requests to characterise correctly the pre-industrial glass manufactures in Valdelsa. The obtained results allow us to gain a more exhaustive knowledge of the production technology at Germagnana (14th century) and Gambassi (16th century) and of the provenance of the employed raw materials and to register differences and analogies in their production process. © 2005 Published by Elsevier SAS.

Caractérisation des verres de l'Antiquité tardive en Méditerranée occidentale: l'émergence de nouveaux courants commerciaux

Article

Studio conservativo della vetrata absidale del Duomo di Orvieto

Article

Jan 2000

Caracterización química de la vidriera histórica de Sant Pere i Sant Jaume (Monestir de Pedralbes, Barcelona)

Article

Jan 2002

Chemical composition of medieval glass from excavations in West Germany

Article

Aug 1997

K.H. Wedepohl

Investigations of excavated glass fragments from the Roman-Frankish cemetery at Krefeld-Gellep, the Carolingian imperial palace with glassworks at Paderborn, the monasteries and towns of Corvey, Höxter and Brunshausen-Gandersheim and several glassworks in the Bramwald, Hils, Spessart and Eichsfeld areas allow conclusions on the sequence of major medieval glass types. Exhaustion of imports of trona-soda or soda raw glass and increased needs caused the introduction of woodash as domestic alkali and earth alkali source for glass manufacture at about 800 AC. Early woodash glass from 800 to 1000, woodash glass from about 1000 to 1400 and woodash-lime glass from about 1400 to post-medieval times were the major glass types. They were accompanied by minor imports of soda-lime and soda-ash glass objects, the latter since about 1300. From about 1100 to 1400 woodash-lead and lead glass have been produced from the PbO byproducts of the silver metallurgy. Galena from the Harz Mountains was a major source of lead for lead glass in northwestern Europe. The average production of a medieval glassworks was in the order of 15 t glass per year and its requirements for ash and fuel about 3000 t wood. The number of glassworks in Germany during the late medieval period (moving after 5 to 30 years from one to another location) is tentatively estimated to be in the order of 40. Their main furnaces were constructed for about 1400°C working temperature. The occurrence of the medieval chemical glass types in a sequence allows some rough dating of glass fragments.

Studies in Ancient Glasses and Glassmaking Processes, Part V. Raw Materials and Melting Processes

Article

Jan 1956

W.E.S. Turner

Caractérisation des verres de la fin de l'Antiquité en Méditerranée occidentale: l'émergence de nouveaux courants commerciaux

Article

Jan 2003

A comparative analytical investigation on the origins of the Venetian glassmaking

Article

Jan 1990

D'Orient en Occident: l'origine du verre à l'époque romaine et durant le haut Moyen Âge

Article

Jan 2003

Medieval stained glass in a Mediterranean climate: Typology, weathering and glass decay, and associated biomineralization processes and products

Article

Nov 2003

Medieval stained glass (13th–15th centuries) from three restoration works (Santa Maria del Mar and the Pedralbes Monastery church in Barcelona, and the Tarragona Cathedral in the northwestern Mediterranean area have been studied to characterize glass decay. Electron microprobe analysis gave evidence of two types of glass: an Na-rich type (stable, Mediterranean, of Roman-like tradition), and a K-Ca-rich type, similar to coeval Central European medieval stained glasses. The latter shows glass decay in the form of destructive (micro- and mesopitting) and constructive (patina and microcrust) glass surfaces. Nevertheless, this type of decay in the K-Ca-rich group of glasses is in terms of thickness reduction in flat glass an order of magnitude less than that commonly found in Central European countries with a continental climate. Macroscopic and microstructural studies (SEM-EDS, XRD) allowed us to identify biodeterioration decay with chemical effects similar to that for pure chemical hydration leaching and corrosion, associated with biomineralization with unspecific sulfate (gypsum, syngenite) and calcite mineralization as well as bioinduced (weddellite, whewellite, etc.) mineralization. Medieval-stained glass biodeterioration decay in the Mediterranean area shows patterns and products comparable to those developed on stone in the same historic buildings.

Chemical Analyses of Ancient Glass Findings Excavated in the Venetian Lagoon

Article

Oct 2002
J CULT HERIT

Although Venice is regarded as being one of the most important centres of glass manufacture and trade in Western Europe, little is known about the origins of the Venetian glassmaking. Some archaeologists suggest there is a continuity in the history of glass making, in its transplantation from the Roman centres of the mainland (Altino and Aquileia), first to some islands of the lagoon, and later to the town. Some others, instead, think that there was no continuity at all and that the art of glassmaking was imported in Venice from the Islamic glass factories of the Middle East. Of great help in answering this and other technological questions is the information about the composition of ancient glass from well-dated excavations that allows to conclude on the early technology, sources of raw materials and long-distance trade. Some significant glass findings, including fragments of pots used for glass melting, were found on the island of Torcello and, more recently, in two emergency excavations in the historic centre of Venice. In this paper, the chemical composition of a large set of glass findings (and related materials) from the Venetian lagoon dating from the 7th to the 13th centuries is determined by X-ray microanalysis in order to throw new light on the glassmaking technology in the early centuries of the Venetian tradition. The results show that in this period there occurred a gradual transition from the Roman technique (a two-ingredient formulation with silica-lime sand and natron as a fluxer), towards the use of silica sand and soda plant ash. There is evidence, therefore, for a production continuity with the Roman period (melting pots and glass scraps with a natron-based composition), yet restricted to transparent blown items. No evidence was found for a local production of glass tesserae for the mosaics of the church of St. Maria Assunta in Torcello.

Medieval and Renaissance glass technology in Tuscany. Part 4: The XIVth sites of Santa Cristina (Gambassi-Firenze) and Poggio Imperiale (Siena)

Article

Jul 2005
J CULT HERIT

A scientific classification of the finds discovered at Santa Cristina, a XIVth century site of Valdelsa devoted to the glass manufacture, and the relative production cycle is proposed on the basis of a physico-chemical investigation, carried out especially by optical and SEM-EDS microscopy, Mössbaüer and ICP spectroscopy, XRD diffractometry and TG-DTA thermogravimetry. It was verified that the glasses can be divided according to their mean composition in two groups: one sodic–calcic in nature (three glass fragments and two glass masses) similar to that found for the coeval Germagnana glasses, the other sodic-potassic in nature (four glass masses) with a significantly different composition. Furthermore, a relevant number of vitreous samples, found inside a water tank at Poggio Imperiale (Poggibonsi-Siena) certainly filled in 1313, has been completely characterized. These pale yellow-fumé glasses have a sodic–calcic composition. They have been obtained by melting together ashes from coastal plants with non-particularly pure sand and have been decolorized by the intentional addition of manganese (IV) dioxide. They do not reach the purity grade of the coeval Santa Cristina sodic–calcic glasses. A comparison of the obtained data with those already published for the coeval Medieval Germagnana site or the Renaissance Gambassi site offers a satisfactory view of the glass production technology in Valdelsa and of its evolution from the XIVth to the XVIth century.

Study of glasses with grisailles from historic stained glass windows of the cathedral of León (Spain)

Article

Jun 2006
APPL SURF SCI

This work concerns the study of grisailles of historic glass samples from stained glass windows of the Cathedral of León, which were removed during the restoration carried out in 19th century. Both the glass samples and their coloured grisailles showed very different chemical composition and macroscopic heterogeneity. As a general rule their deterioration degree is rather moderate, maybe due to the pieces removal that preserve them from the high atmospheric pollution occurred in the last century. The present research pointed out the physical characteristics, chemical compositions and deterioration degree of the samples selected from the most important Spanish ensemble of Medieval and Renaissance stained glass windows. Moreover, this work offers sufficient results to be compared with those formerly obtained for other stained glass windows from European cathedrals and churches.

Chemical analyses of early glasses

Article

Jan 1999

R. H. Brill

Melting path-ways of medieval glass from Certosa di Pavia (Italy)

Article

Jan 2005
THERMOCHIM ACTA

The melt of silicate system and the compositional evolution of glass-melt can be modelled by the K2OSiO2CaO system. Furthermore, in this way we achieve useful information about solid phases in the batch related to the melt glass. The case of study is taken from the chemical analyses of stained glass windows of Certosa di Pavia (Carthusian Monastry) XVth century AD and it demonstrates how the chemical compositions of different kind of glass are clustered in a narrow region of the plot. This suggests a common recipe and a total batch melting-model followed by all glass typologies.

Microtextures recording melting-history of a medieval glass cake

Article

Aug 2004
J NON-CRYST SOLIDS

Glass cakes are particular historical glass artefacts, the use of which is not ascertained yet. They are semifinished product ingots traded from suburban glasshouses as raw material. Whether they were used to produce worked-glass, jewellery, or enamelware or they were tools used to sleek skin, paper, and textiles, is still debated. An analytical investigation of a glass cake, combining microtextural studies and modelling using pertinent phase diagrams has demonstrated that microtextures of mineral phases within the glass mass result from a complex melting process implying: peritectic-type reactions giving rise to wollastonite crystallization and subsequent reabsorbing of wollastonite when the peritectic temperature is exceeded. Analogous microtextures are shown by K–Al-phases. The melting behavior of a batch, to produce glass, thus represents a complex process that is not possible to model linearly, as commonly believed. It consists of a reaction-path where partial melting is accompanied by separation of crystal phases that, later on dissolved. The composition of the volumetrically dominant glass infers a melting temperature of about 1150 °C.

Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 1: Raw materials, sands and non-vitreous finds

Article

Oct 2003
J CULT HERIT

A significant number of archaeological finds of the 13th–16th century from the Tuscan sites of Germagnana and Gambassi in Valdelsa—FI, was studied by different physico-chemical investigations (SEM–EDS, ICP, Mössbauer spectroscopy, XRD, XRF, TG-DTA) in order to contribute to clarify the production methodology and the pre-industrial glass manufacture technology. The studied samples are mainly non-vitreous finds as production waste, refractory materials, crucibles and raw materials; also vitreous finds as frits, skims, glasses (glass masses, glass working waste and finished products) have been taken into consideration. The obtained petrographic and physico-chemical data strongly suggest that both Gambassi and Germagnana glass manufactures were strictly connected with the sources of vitrifiable materials, situated in Tuscan sand quarries. In particular a comparison between sands from the neighbouring quarries and appropriate finds of the two archaeological sites evidences that the employed vitrifiable materials possibly belong to La Casina La Cava resort. The archaeological classification, based on macroscopic observation and stratigraphic position, was compared and verified with the scientific classification of the examined finds of Germagnana and Gambassi sites based on their composition, morphology and physico-chemical properties.

Caracterisation microstructurale, minéralogique et chimique de l'altération des vitraux

Article

Jan 1998

Caractérisation microstructurale, minéralogique et chimique de l'altération des vitraux

Chapter

Jan 1995

Medieval and renaissance glass technology in Valdelsa (Florence). Part 3: Vitreous finds and crucibles

Article

Apr 2005
J CULT HERIT

Optical, SEM-EDS and TEM microscopy, Mossbauer and UV-Vis spectroscopy, SIMS spectrometry and ICP spectroscopy, were carried out on sixty vitreous finds, with particular attention to the trace elements, in order to correlate them to the raw materials, the working instruments and the technology employed. The colours of these vitreous finds have been studied in detail to establish the presence and kind of chromophores, the redox conditions used for obtaining of the vitreous mass during the fusion process, the role of the oxidation state and chemical environment of the different metal ions, etc. Eight crucibles and one refractory material were also investigated by XRD diffractometry and TG-DTA thermogravimetry. Their composition, morphology and thermal behaviour gave information on the working temperature inside the kilns. These studies offer a scientific contribution to the archaeological requests to characterise correctly the pre-industrial glass manufactures in Valdelsa. The obtained results allow us to gain a more exhaustive knowledge of the production technology at Germagnana (14th century) and Gambassi (16th century) and of the provenance of the employed raw materials and to register differences and analogies in their production process. (c) 2005 Published by Elsevier SAS.

The Ancient Glass Production of the Medieval Val Gargassa Glasshouse: Fe and Mn XANES Study

Article

Oct 2005
J NON-CRYST SOLIDS

Glass finds from the Medieval Val Gargassa glasshouse (Genova, Italy) were investigated by chemical and spectroscopic techniques (colorimetric analysis and X-ray absorption spectroscopy) with the aim to obtain information on the ancient glass production technique. Sampling covers all the typologies of archaeological findings unearthed by the digging, as well as fragments of finished glass-wares. The results indicated that the samples are soda-lime based glasses. The color variability was exerted by the glassmakers by both controlling the kiln atmosphere and/or adding MnO2 as decoloring agent. In both cases, the Fe2+/Fe3+ ratio was modified at a specific step of the production cycle. (c) 2005 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.

Stones from medieval glassmaking a suitable waste product for reconstructing an early stage of the melting process in the Mt Lecco glass factory

Article

Feb 2008
ARCHAEOMETRY

The Mt Lecco glass factory was one of the most important production centres in Liguria (Italy) during the 14th and 15th centuries. Archaeological evidence indicates that the whole production cycle took place here. During the glassworking process, production defects such as ‘stones’ were identified and discarded. Stones are partially melted, glass-coated relics of raw materials or fragments of crucible. The study of the microtexture of stones together with microprobe analyses of phases provides a key for understanding the glassmaking procedure carried out in the Mt Lecco glass factory. The melting rate can be inferred from the compositional variability of glass, which suggests fractional melting of the batch. Glass composition indicates that the Mt Lecco production was a mixed-alkali one, probably made of quartz-bearing material as vitrifying agents, plant ashes as fluxing agents and dolomitic limestones as stabilizing agents.

Evaluation procedure for leaching studies on naturally weathered potash-lime-silica glasses with medieval composition by scanning electron microscopy

Article

May 2005
J NON-CRYST SOLIDS

In order to study the weathering mechanism and quantify the influence of the various air pollutants on the degradation process, potash-lime-silica (PLS) glasses with a chemical composition similar to medieval stained glass were exposed at more than 20 test sites in Europe and North America to the local environmental conditions within the International Co-operative Programme on Effects on Materials Including Historic and Cultural Monuments of the United Nations Economic Commission for Europe (ICP-Materials, UN/ECE). After exposure periods of up to 6 years the specimens were investigated in the scanning electron microscope in combination with energy dispersive X-ray microanalysis (SEM/EDX) in order to characterize the surface layer (leached layer) of the weathered samples. Cross-sections of the samples were prepared for depth profile analyses using linescan measurements in order to calculate the leaching depths of the network modifier ions. The typical diffusion profiles expected for these elements were observed. The evaluation is based on a numerical integration of the background corrected linescan data. This method proved to be suitable for the high amount of samples (more than 130) and yields acceptable errors of less than 10 rel.%. The first results show leaching depths for K+ and Ca2+ between 0.42 and 1.87 μm (average 1.21 μm for K and 1.11 μm for Ca) for exposure times of up to six years. So both network modifier ions present in the glass were leached out, with K+ showing slightly, but significantly higher leaching depths than the bivalent cation Ca2+. As no continuous increase of the leaching depths with time could be observed, network dissolution must have also occurred during the weathering process. Comparing these results to former leaching studies, the rate of leaching on glasses of this composition seems to decrease significantly after about three or four years of exposure.

Microanalysis of Glass Containing Alkali Ions

Article

Jan 2000

The common problems connected with alkali ion migration during EPMA were studied on glasses containing nearly all possible alkali ions (Na, K, Rb, Cs). Binary silica glasses were prepared by melting from a very pure batch in Pt crucible. The glasses were carefully polished using alcohol to prevent surface corrosion by water and they were stored in vacuum. The specimens were coated with carbon layers approximately 30-nm thick and exposed to a 50- keV electron beam of 100 μm diameter. It was found that all alkali ions migrate under the electron beam, but the rate of the migration depends on the current density. The decay curves (characteristic X-ray intensity versus time) are similar in shape in all cases. The decay curve shows two transport regimes, the first being linear-like, the second being the exponential-like. The first transport regime busts into the rapid alkali migration after a time known as the incubation period. The period is in general longer for the larger-alkali ions size. It was found that even large rubidium and caesium ions migrate inside the glass with the same mechanism as sodium and potassium ions. While for K, Rb, and Cs ions the incubation periods were observed under the suitable experimental conditions, binary glass containing Na exhibits no observable incubation period. Except for the binary Na2O + SiO2 glass, the suitable experimental conditions for reliable quantitative EPMA can be found.

Le Verre médiéval et son artisanat en France méditerranéenne, Corse exclue : état de la question /

Article

Danièle. Foy

Th. 3è cycle : Archéologie. : Univ. de Provence : 1981. Bibliographie : 430 réf.

PAST: Palaeontological Statistics software package for education and data analysis A comparative analytical investigation on the origins of the Venetian glassmaking

169-75

Ø Hammer
Dat Harper
Ryan
M Verità
Toninato

Hammer Ø, Harper DAT, Ryan PD. PAST: Palaeontological Statistics software package for education and data analysis. Palaeontologia Electronica 2001;4(1):9. [34] Verità M, Toninato T. A comparative analytical investigation on the origins of the Venetian glassmaking. Rivista della Stazione Sperimentale del Vetro 1990;20:169–75.

Caracterización química de la vidriera histórica de Sant Pere i Sant Jaume (Monestir de Pedralbes, [29] Desarrollo de una metodología de análisis de vidrios volcánicos ácidos, y sus equivalentes desvitrificados, por microsonda electrónica

74-5

D Gimeno
Pugès
N Díaz
García
J Veigas
Gimeno

Gimeno D, Pugès M. Caracterización química de la vidriera histórica de Sant Pere i Sant Jaume (Monestir de Pedralbes, [29] Díaz N, García-Veigas J, Gimeno D. Desarrollo de una metodología de análisis de vidrios volcánicos ácidos, y sus equivalentes desvitrificados, por microsonda electrónica. Bol Soc Esp Mineralogía 1998;21:74–5.

La provenienza del vetro usato per la vetrata di Duccio: un approccio interdisciplinare. Oculus Cordis-La vetrata di Duccio. Stile, iconografia, indagini tecniche, restauro Atti del Convegno internazionale di studi

Oct 2001
79-90

F Fenzi
M Mendera
B Messiga
Mp
Vigato
Pa

Fenzi F, Mendera M, Messiga B, Riccardi MP, Vigato PA. La provenienza del vetro usato per la vetrata di Duccio: un approccio interdisciplinare. Oculus Cordis-La vetrata di Duccio. Stile, iconografia, indagini tecniche, restauro, vol. 4. Atti del Convegno internazionale di studi. Siena, September the 1st 2005, Collana di Studi e Ricerche, Opera della Metropolitana, Pacini ed.; 2007. p. 79–90.

Duccio pittore sul vetro

Jan 2003

Bagnoli

Bagnoli A. Duccio pittore sul vetro. In: Bagnoli A, Tarozzi C, editors. La vetrata del duomo di Siena e il suo restauro. Cisinello Balsamo, Milano: Silvana Editoriale; 2003.

Fonti documentarie e storia dell'arte: la vetrata duccesca nel Duomo di Siena

Oct 2005
29-77

A Giorni
Moscatelli
M Caciorgna
R Guerrini
Lorenzoni

Giorni A, Moscatelli S. Fonti documentarie e storia dell'arte: la vetrata duccesca nel Duomo di Siena. In: Caciorgna M, Guerrini R, Lorenzoni M, editors. Oculus Cordis. La vetrata di Duccio. Stile, iconografıa, indagini techniche, restauro. Atti del Convegno internazionale di studi, Siena, September 29, 2005Ospedaletto, Pisa: Pacini Editori; 2007. p. 29–77.

Desarrollo de una metodología de análisis de vidrios volcánicos ácidos, y sus equivalentes desvitrificados, por microsonda electrónica

Jan 1998
74-75

N Díaz
J García-Veigas
D Gimeno

Díaz N, García-Veigas J, Gimeno D. Desarrollo de una metodología de análisis de vidrios volcánicos ácidos, y sus equivalentes desvitrificados, por microsonda electrónica. Bol Soc Esp Mineralogía 1998;21:74-5.

Composition and shapes of glass of the early medieval period (8th to 10th century AD) in Central Europe

Jan 2003
93

Krueger

Krueger I, Wedepohl HK. Composition and shapes of glass of the early medieval period (8th to 10th century AD) in Central Europe. In: Foy D, Nenna MD, editors. Échanges et commerce du verre dans le monde antique. Aix-en-Provence et Marseille: Monique Mergoil Montagnac; 2003. p. 93-100.

La provenienza del vetro usato per la vetrata di Duccio: un approccio interdisciplinare

Sep 2005
79-90

F Fenzi
M Mendera
B Messiga
M P Riccardi
P A Vigato

Part 3: vitreous finds and crucibles

Jan 2005
165-82

Part 3: vitreous finds and crucibles. Journal of Cultural Heritage 2005;6:165–82.

Jan 1998
36-39

V Nieto Alcaide
La

Nieto Alcaide V. La vidriera española. Nerea SA, Madrid; 1998. p. 36-9.

Fonti documentarie e storia dell'arte: la vetrata duccesca nel Duomo di Siena

Jan 2007
29

Giorni

La provenienza del vetro usato per la vetrata di Duccio: un approccio interdisciplinare

Jan 2007
79

Fenzi

I mosaici della facciata (1321–ca. 1390)

Jan 1988
123

Harding

Tecnica e conservazione della vetrata di Duccio

Jan 2003
35

Tarozzi

Desarrollo de una metodología de análisis de vidrios volcánicos ácidos, y sus equivalentes desvitrificados, por microsonda electrónica

Jan 1998
74

Díaz

Composition of the base glass used to realize the stained glass windows by Duccio di Buoninsegna (Siena Cathedral, 1288–1289 AD): A geochemical approach

Abstract

No full-text available

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