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Protecting the self through consumption: Status goods as affirmational commodities. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 46(3), 564-570

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Abstract

Individuals conspicuously consume to signal their wealth. As a variant to this economic explanation, four studies explored individual’s psychological need for self-integrity as a potential motivating force for these consumption decisions. Relying on both field and experimental studies, and employing multiple instantiations of high-status goods and self-threat, we demonstrate that individuals consume status-infused products for their reparative effects on the ego. Individuals under self-threat sought ownership of high-status goods to nurse their psychological wounds (Study 1), and when afforded an alternate route to repair their self-integrity, sought these products less (Study 2). Furthermore, among a representative sample of US consumers, low-income individuals’ lowered self-esteem drove their willingness to spend on high-status goods (Study 3). Finally, these high-status goods serve the purpose of shielding an individual’s ego from future self-threats (Study 4). The compensatory role of high-status goods has important implications for consumer decision-making and public policies aimed at reducing consumer debt.

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... Previous research has emphasized the role of self-protective motivations in consumption decisions (for a review, see Mandel et al. 2017), particularly those involving products that improve or reflect high status, intelligence, or health-typically aimed at compensating for perceived vulnerabilities of the self (e.g., Gao, Wheeler, and Shiv 2009;Rucker and Galinsky 2008;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). For example, Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) demonstrated that individuals facing self-threats preferred highstatus products, such as an exclusive watch, as a means to repair their ego and protect against future threats. ...
... Previous research has emphasized the role of self-protective motivations in consumption decisions (for a review, see Mandel et al. 2017), particularly those involving products that improve or reflect high status, intelligence, or health-typically aimed at compensating for perceived vulnerabilities of the self (e.g., Gao, Wheeler, and Shiv 2009;Rucker and Galinsky 2008;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). For example, Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) demonstrated that individuals facing self-threats preferred highstatus products, such as an exclusive watch, as a means to repair their ego and protect against future threats. In this research, we suggest that anger-eliciting consumption constitutes a comparable behavior, serving to reaffirm self-value and alleviate the psychological discomfort caused by sociomoral violations: ...
... Though a few studies have identified consumption-related strategies for coping with threats arising from such violations (e.g., Tal, Gvili, and Amar 2022), they predominantly focus on positive forms of consumption that reaffirm one's beliefs (e.g., Cutright et al. 2011;Crockett 2017). These studies are part of a broader literature on compensatory consumption, which has extensively explored how consumption that elicits positive feelings can instantly boost consumers' low self-perceptions, often countering direct threats to their selfconcept by enhancing status, intelligence, or health perceptions (Gao, Wheeler, and Shiv 2009;Kurt 2022;Rucker and Galinsky 2008;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010;see Mandel et al. 2017 for a review). Our findings reveal that consumption that elicits the negative emotion of anger may serve as an unconventional variant of compensatory consumption. ...
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We are inundated with daily occurrences of discrimination and racism. Such events violate consumers' core moral values and can lead them to experience negative emotions and feelings of vulnerability. Surprisingly, instead of avoiding content that triggers additional negative feelings, many also actively seek out anger‐eliciting content. Drawing on the idea that anger can fulfill a positive psychic role, we suggest that consuming anger‐eliciting content can serve as a means of coping with sociomoral violations. In six experiments, we show that such violations enhance people's tendency to consume content they expect will make them angry. This effect occurs because anger serves to protect positive self‐perceptions following sociomoral violations; indeed, the effect is mediated by the desire to feel more valuable and attenuated when self‐perceptions are enhanced by alternative means. Our findings shed new light on how individuals might use consumption as a strategy to cope with sociomoral violations.
... Second, this research also investigates the driving forces of green-brand affect according to the assumptions of terror management theory, where fear of mortality drives people to take behavioral actions (Pyszczynski et al., 2003). Two precursors in the theory, death anxiety and self-esteem, are known to influence consumer consumption (Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010) and included in the proposed framework. Despite their significance, a review of literature reveals a dearth of research investigating the effectiveness of these factors in motivating green-brand affect. ...
... Eventually, they will release themselves from the entrapment of low self-esteem. Field studies by Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) revealed that US consumers with low self-esteem, despite having low income, tend to indulge in the purchase of luxury goods. As a result, it is hypothesized as follows: ...
... Finally, it is crucial to recognize and target consumers with high self-esteem, as they differ from those with low self-esteem in their response to green commitment. Given that consumers with low self-esteem tend to prioritize high-status goods (Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010), green brands should concentrate their efforts on developing tailored strategies for this specific market segment to maximize return on investment. For marketers interested in cultivating the low self-esteem consumer market, using narratives and social engagement can be effective approaches to motivate consumers to attain highstatus and enhance their commitment to green brands. ...
Article
Purpose This study aims to investigate specific green-brand affect in terms of commitment and connection through the morality–mortality determinants of consumer social responsibility and the assumptions of terror management theory in the proposed three-layered framework. Religiosity serves as a moderator within the framework. Design/methodology/approach Data are collected in Taipei, Taiwan, while quota sampling is applied, and 420 valid questionnaires are collected. The partial least squares technique is applied for data analysis. Findings With the contingent role of religiosity, consumer social responsibility influences socially conscious consumption, which in turn drives the commitment and connection of green-brand affect. The death anxiety and self-esteem outlined in terror management theory influence materialism, which then drives green-brand commitment; however, contrary to expectations, they do not drive green-brand connection. Originality/value By considering green brands beyond their cognitive aspects and into their affective counterparts, morality–mortality drivers of green-brand commitment and green-grand connection are explored to provide unique contributions so as to better understand socially responsible consumption.
... For those who are relatively poor, particular brands (e.g., global ones in less developed countries) may be especially desirable as perceived camouflage for poverty (Van Kempen 2004). Empirical evidence supports this, with individuals consuming status-enhancing goods to protect and repair their self-identity, especially in the absence of alternative mechanisms for doing so, with lower self-esteem driving lowincome consumers to desire and purchase high-status goods (Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). ...
... The use of brands to look good in the eyes of reference groups (impression management) is linked to social anxiety (Gentina, Shrum, and Lowrey 2016;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). Individuals most susceptible to interpersonal influence have the greatest insecurities regarding their degree of association/assimilation into reference groups (Rubin, Bukowski, and Bowker 2015). ...
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The marketing literature has examined extensively consumer preferences between global and local brands. However, there remains a dearth of research on the topic in the context of vulnerable consumers with insecure self‐identities. Children largely embody insecure identities and, thus, there are several factors that can influence their global versus local brand preferences. Surprisingly, however, there is still limited empirical research examining how key demographic and socioeconomic factors influence children's brand preferences, especially in developing countries. Drawing on symbolic self‐completion theory, and based on data from Serbia, we address this research gap and contribute to the social psychology and marketing literatures by showing how age, gender, poverty background, and external reference groups influence children's preferences between global and local brands.
... For example, when a person's self-view is shaken, affirming self-worth unrelated to the view can make consumers less inclined to purchase products that support the view [25]. The consumption of status-related products can decrease when consumers restore their self-integrity perceptions through self-affirmation in other domains unrelated to the specific threat [81]. Accordingly, compensatory consumption behavior may be performed not only in the domain related to self-threat but also in the domain unrelated to self-threat, which is contrary to what has been potentially assumed in most previous studies. ...
... The top 10 most cited articles in Google Scholar are shown in Table 3. Among them, "Desire to Acquire: Powerlessness and Compensatory Consumption" [75] is the most cited article in the compensatory consumption literature, with a total of 1086 citations, followed by "Social Exclusion Causes People to Spend and Consume Strategically in the Service of Affiliation" [60] and "Protecting the self through consumption: Status goods as affirmational commodities" [81]. In terms of average annual citations, the article "Service Robots Rising: How Humanoid Robots Influence Service Experiences and Elicit Compensatory Consumer Responses" [61] has the highest average (124 citations per year). ...
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Different from previous studies on the motives of compensatory consumption, this review focuses on the strategies of compensatory consumption. This literature review aims to introduce two main strategies for compensatory consumption, within-domain and across-domain compensation. Within-domain compensation is a consumption strategy to repair a self-discrepancy in a specific domain, while across-domain compensation refers to a consumption strategy that consumers restore their global self-worth by affirming themselves in other important domains yet unrelated to the self-discrepancies. Based on the SPAR-4-SLR protocol to assemble, arrange and assess literature published from 2008 to 2023 Q1, we chose 65 articles to review. In order to gain a deeper understanding of within-domain and across-domain compensation, we systematically review the existing literature in the field and propose a framework based on the ADO models. Lastly, we discuss the various research directions for within-domain and across-domain compensation from the viewpoint of theory, context, characteristics, and methodology according to the TCCM framework. Researchers, marketers, and advertisers can learn about the latest research related to compensatory consumption strategies in this article.
... To examine this question, we focused on self-affirmation, an exercise that focuses individuals' attention on the values that are most important to them [25,26]. In a prior study, participants were less interested in boosting their own status after they engaged in self-affirmation [27], which suggests self-affirmation might mitigate the effects of status on SWB because it makes status less important to the individual. ...
... Can any intervention cause people to feel better when their teammates have higher rather than lower status? To address this question, we examined whether asking participants to self-affirm would help mitigate the effects of status on subjective well-being, as prior research suggests that this intervention prompts individuals to be less interested in boosting their own status [27]. Therefore, Study 2 used the same design as in Study 1, but now included a self-affirmation manipulation for half of the participants. ...
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Does the status people possess shape their subjective well-being (SWB)? Prior research that has addressed this question has been correlational. Therefore, in the current research, we provide causal evidence of this effect: In two experiments, we found that individuals reported higher SWB when their own status was higher compared to when it was lower. However, individuals’ SWB was not only shaped by their own status, but also by others’ status. Specifically, individuals reported higher SWB when others’ status was lower than when it was higher. Thus, people have a competitive orientation towards status; they not only want to have high status on an absolute level (e.g., to be highly respected and admired), but also to have higher status than others (e.g., to be more respected and admired than others). A standard self-affirmation manipulation was used in an attempt to mitigate individuals’ competitive orientation towards status, but only helped already high-status members feel happier in groups of high-status members, rather than help low-status members feel happier when they uniquely held low status.
... People with low self-esteem are more interested in material possessions because they believe that these things are valuable in terms of self-enhancement (Li et al., 2018;Nagpaul & Pang, 2017;Park & John, 2011). Meanwhile, scholars have argued that purchasing, presenting, or even just thinking about a product may be a coping mechanism people use when their self-esteem is threatened (Koles et al., 2018;Rustagi & Shrum, 2019;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). These two streams of research share the view that self-esteem triggers consumption behavior. ...
... Summing up the review of research and main research gaps, we unveiled several key findings on consumption and selfesteem. Firstly, prior studies have predominantly focused on analyzing the impact of consumption on self-esteem (Djafarova & Rushworth, 2017;Isaksen & Roper, 2012;Rohe & Basolo, 1997;Rohe & Stegman, 1994;Son & Lee, 2021) or regarded consumption as a coping strategy for low self-esteem (e.g., Li et al., 2018;Oh, 2021;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010;Zheng et al., 2018). Secondly, research on the determinants of consumers' self-esteem is limited and fragmented. ...
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While the significance of self-esteem in various consumer behaviors has been well recognized, there is still a noticeable research gap in understanding its specific determinants, especially in the context of the purchase process. The purpose of our study is to fill this gap by elucidating the factors shaping consumers’ self-esteem throughout the purchase journey utilizing our model of purchase self-esteem antecedents. Based on social exchange theory and affect theory of social exchange our model proposes that consumer brand engagement (CBE) and feelings of authentic pride play an important role in predicting self-esteem. We tested this model with longitudinal data collected at two measurement times: 1 week before a purchase (n = 111) and around 1 week after a purchase (n = 99). The longitudinal structural equation modeling results revealed that CBE elicited feelings of authentic pride, and feelings of authentic pride led to higher self-esteem. Both relationships were statistically significant within and between measurement times. The results confirmed that authentic pride mediated the relationship between CBE and self-esteem. These findings provide strong support for our model of purchase self-esteem antecedents.
... Although there is a broad research stream tackling conspicuous consumption as a form of compensatory consumption to resolve self-threats (cf. Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010;Dittmar, 2011;Rucker and Galinsky, 2013;Lee and Shrum, 2013;Isaksen and Roper, 2012), the research lacks a scale that measures conspicuous compensatory consumption as a tendency using a consumer-centric approach. To this end, this paper aims to develop and validate a conspicuous compensatory consumption scale. ...
... Individuals cope with self-discrepancies by purchasing products that symbolize superiority over threatened domains (Yu et al., 2020;Norberg et al., 2020;Mandel et al., 2017). Compensatory consumption presents a substitute tactic for individuals to make up for their deficiencies when resolving threats is unattainable (Workman and Lee, 2022;Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010). ...
Article
Purpose This study aims to develop and validate a measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption. Compensatory consumption phenomenon is gaining increased significance in consumer behavior literature. In a symbolic-rich culture, the use of possessions creates a perfect venue for self-construction and self-repairing to make up for one’s psychological deficiencies and inadequacies. Design/methodology/approach A mixed research design of qualitative and quantitative methodologies is adopted by using elicitation techniques, interviews and survey data. Extensive development and validation procedures are used. A series of studies, encompassing a total sample of 1,782, are reported. Findings The current study offers a valid and reliable measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption by chronologically following the stages of the scale development process. Compensatory consumption had a negative influence on subjective happiness and a positive influence on negative affect and satisfaction with life. Respondents with high materialism scores had significantly higher compensatory tendencies than the low materialism group. The low self-compassionate group had significantly higher compensatory tendencies than the high self-compassionate group. Originality/value The current study provides theoretical contributions to consumer behavior research by providing a valid and reliable measure for conspicuous compensatory consumption. Contrary to past scales that followed a mood-alleviation perspective where therapeutic shopping is used to regulate negative emotions, this scale is novel in adopting a self-completion approach where products are pursued for a tactical effort to offset threatened self-concepts.
... When these needs are satisfied, individuals experience positive developmental outcomes. Conversely, if these needs remain chronically unmet, individuals may develop compensatory motives to fulfill these needs through alternative means 19,42 . Based on self-determination theory, negative parenting styles (such as excessive control, lack of attention and support) fail to meet children's basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence. ...
... This can be explained by self-determination theory: when parents exert excessive control for a prolonged period while lacking attentiveness and support, they fail to meet children's basic needs for autonomy, relatedness, and competence 19 . To compensate for these unmet needs, children may develop a compensatory sense of psychological entitlement, believing they should receive more privileges and preferential treatment than others, thus attempting to satisfy their deprived basic needs through this mindset 19,[42][43][44] . In other words, psychological entitlement is a compensatory motive arising from chronic deprivation of basic psychological needs. ...
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The study aims to explore the influence of parental over-protection on academic entitlement of nursing students, and examine the mediating roles of external locus of control and psychological entitlement. The study sampled two medical universities in Guizhou and Yunnan provinces, China. Participants were nursing students in grades one to four (N = 1003; mean age = 19.51 years; 81.95% female). Using a structural equation model, we examined the mediating effect of external locus of control and psychological entitlement on parental over-protection and academic entitlement. The results show that there was a significant correlation between all variables, and external locus of control and psychological entitlement played a serial mediating role between parental over-protection and academic entitlement. Our findings suggest that academic entitlement of nursing students can be reduced by adjusting parental rearing behaviors, reducing students’ psychological entitlement, and teaching them how to form a healthier attribution style.
... Gao et al. (2009) found that when people's confidence in an important element of their self-concept (intelligence, health consciousness) was shaken, they tended to engage in symbolic self-completion by choosing products that bolster those elements (fountain pen, apple) over products that do not (candy). Another study, involving fluid compensation, found that those whose self-concept was threatened (by negative performance feedback) later showed a higher willingness to pay for high status items than those whose self-concept was not threatened (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). Kim and Rucker (2012) demonstrated how threat to a self-concept element (perceptual intelligence, motivation level) resulted in higher consumption of distracting activities that reduce negative affect. ...
... Moran and Kwak (2015) found that people who experienced failure in a purported intelligence test subsequently had a higher online impulse buying tendency than those who didn't experience failure. Other studies have documented a higher willingness to pay for preferred brands (Chernev et al., 2011) or other items (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010) after a self-concept threat has been experienced. ...
... Although both types of compensatory consumption can successfully restore the threatened self-concept (Gao et al., 2009;Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010), within-domain compensatory consumption can also have some unintended negative consequences. In particular, within-domain compensatory consumption may undermine self-control. ...
... The participants were administered two different tasks that were described as measures of natural intelligence. The first task was a visual perception task that required participants to estimate the number of dots in the different dot patterns that were shown on the computer screen for 2 s each (adapted from Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010). The second task was a mental reasoning test comprising eight questions that purportedly tested their reasoning capabilities. ...
Article
Purpose Studies have shown that within-domain compensatory consumption can successfully repair the damaged self, but other research indicates that it can undermine self-control because such consumption causes self-threat rumination that impairs self-regulatory resources. This paper aims to identify a boundary condition that reconciles and explains these contradictory findings. Design/methodology/approach The authors conducted three experiments to show that within-domain compensatory consumption undermines self-control, but only in some situations. They test a boundary condition (i.e. type of connections between within-domain products and self-threat domain) for the effects of such consumption on self-threat rumination and self-control. Findings This paper demonstrates that within-domain (but not across-domain) compensatory consumption induces rumination and reduces subsequent self-control, but only when the product’s connection to the self-threat domain is made explicit through brand names or slogans. When the connection is merely implicit, rumination and self-control deficits are not observed. Practical implications Consumers may seek certain products to bolster threatened aspects of their self-concept. Marketing tactics that explicitly highlight connections to such self-aspects can lower a consumer’s self-control resulting in stronger purchase intent, while at the same time hindering the possibility of self-concept repair. Managers need to be wary of ethical concerns. Originality/value This research qualifies the existing findings by presenting “type of product connection” as a key determinant of within-domain compensatory consumption’s impact on self-control. Researchers need to be conscious of the type of products (explicitly vs implicitly connected to the self-threat domain) they use in compensatory consumption studies, because this may influence their findings.
... When individuals have low self-esteem, they tend to enhance it by changing their consumption patterns to gain respect and acceptance from others; this leads them to masstige brands. Similarly, O'Shaughnessy (1992) and Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) explained that individuals increase their spending on status goods when they have low self-esteem. Nevertheless, studies applying selfesteem to consumer consumption are rare, and only a few studies have investigated the role of self-esteem in regard to luxury consumption (Bakir et al., 2020;Semaan et al., 2019;Wang et al., 2022). ...
... Kim and Gal (2014) and Mandel et al. (2017) also stated that lower self-esteem in consumers is more likely to involve conspicuous consumption of luxury brands. Status symbol luxury brands are used as a means to compensate for fears of self-threats (Pettit & Sivanathan, 2011;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010), to reduce negative selfconcepts (Fastoso et al., 2018), to attain social recognition (Neave et al., 2020;O'cass & McEwen, 2004), to signal prestige to others, and to enhance self-esteem (Desmichel & Rucker, 2023;T oth et al., 2022). ...
Article
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Consumers prefer brands that provide them with symbolic meaning, and they use them to enhance their self‐esteem and develop their status and personal images. Self‐esteem is an important psychological factor that contributes to an individual's purchase intentions and consumption behavior, but its role in shaping the consumption of masstige brands has not been thoroughly researched. Hence, this research aims: (1) to identify the masstige brands in the smartphone industry of Pakistan using the masstige mean index, and (2) to explore the role of self‐esteem in consumer consumption behavior grounded in terms of masstige, self‐gifting behavior, and brand personality. Moreover, this study uses self‐gifting behavior as the mediator and brand personality as the moderator in the relationship between self‐esteem and masstige purchase intention. The data from study 1 (n = 560) and study 2 (n = 329) were collected using a self‐administered questionnaire and analyzed using structural equation modeling. The results indicate that masstige brand consumption is influenced by self‐esteem; this relationship is mediated by self‐gifting behavior, and brand personality moderates the association. Theoretically, this study contributes to the masstige theory by exploring the role of self‐esteem in masstige consumption in an emerging economy. Practically, this study provides a comprehensive guideline for brand managers to devise effective marketing strategies to build their brands as masstige brands.
... With the continuous upgrading of artificial intelligence machine-learning technologies and recommendation algorithms, e-commerce platforms can deeply capture the correlations among commodities [115]. The stronger the correlations among commodities are, the more they will meet consumers' current consumption goals [116]. AI-personalized recommendations have the function of inspiring consumers in terms of inspiration and creativity. ...
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AI-personalized recommendation technology offers more accurate and diverse choices to consumers and increases click-through rates and sales on e-commerce platforms. Yet, data on consumers’ experiences of AI-personalized recommendations and their impact path on clicking intention are scarce. This article addressed these issues through three studies. In study 1, we adopted the Grounded Theory approach to conduct in-depth interviews with 30 Chinese consumers and constructed a scale to measure the impact of consumer experience on click intention. In study 2, we adopted the empirical research method to conduct reliability and validity tests on 347 valid questionnaires to finalize the scale officially. In study 3, based on the SOR theory, we constructed a model and formulated hypotheses and then conducted empirical analysis using 1097 valid questionnaires. We found that the relevance, inspiration, and insightful experiences of AI-personalized recommendations can significantly promote consumers’ clicking intention. Moreover, immersive experience mediates between the former three factors and clicking intention, and technology acceptance mediates between relevance, inspiration, and clicking intention. When consumers perceive a high degree of information privacy infringement, the immersive experience’s positive impact on clicking intention will be weakened. Meanwhile, the promoting effect of technology acceptance on clicking intention will also be inhibited. When information quality improves, the positive impact of technology acceptance on clicking intention will be enhanced. This research fills the gap in the literature on consumers’ experiences of AI-personalized recommendations and clarifies how these experiences affect the clicking intention. It offers valuable insights for e-commerce platforms to continuously optimize personalized recommendation algorithms and boost the click conversion rate of online shopping.
... Companies selling high-end products frequently employ celebrities as a strategic move to position their brand as a symbol of excellence and superiority. Conspicuous consumption, a term first introduced by economist and sociologist Thorstein Veblen in The Theory of the Leisure Class (1899), refers to the act of buying luxury goods to signal wealth and social status Since Veblen's time, this concept has been frequently studied in the literature, with research exploring consumer status (O' cass & McEwen, 2004;Mayasari et al., 2022), status goods as commodities (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010), different types of scarcity signals (Gierl & Huettl, 2010), cross-cultural analysis of consumers for branded fashion accessories (Souiden, M'Saad, & Pons, 2011), status consumption of handbags (Grotts & Widner Johnson, 2013), peer effects (Roth, 2015), the role of Facebook usage, envy, and narcissism (Taylor & Strutton, 2016), personality, income, and compensatory consumption (Landis & Gladstone, 2017), happiness and consumption (H. Wang, Cheng, & Smyth, 2019), ecotourism and environmental values (Beall, Boley, Landon, & Woosnam, 2021), the main effects of grandiose and vulnerable narcissism (Neave, Tzemou, & Fastoso, 2020), peer-group inequality (Harriger-Lin, Khanna, & Pape, 2020), and the relationship between social class and social self-esteem (Oh, 2021). ...
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This study explores the irrational aspects of consumer behavior, focusing on conspicuous consumption driven by the pursuit of status and self-expression. It examines how consumers emulate celebrities based on key dimensions of celebrity endorsement—attractiveness, expertise, and credibility—and how these factors vary between genders. The research presents a conceptual framework that integrates conspicuous consumption with celebrity endorsement dimensions, supported by an extensive literature review. Data were collected from 403 participants belonging to the Y and Z generations through online surveys and analyzed using SPSS and AMOS software. The results reveal gender-specific differences in the influence of celebrity endorsement dimensions on conspicuous consumption. For female consumers, celebrity attractiveness and credibility significantly enhance conspicuous consumption, whereas expertise has a mitigating effect. In contrast, male consumers are primarily influenced by celebrity attractiveness. The study concludes that the allure of celebrities, as reflected in their attractiveness and credibility, promotes conspicuous consumption, while their expertise can diminish it. These findings provide valuable insights for businesses leveraging celebrity endorsements, particularly in gender-targeted marketing strategies, highlighting the importance of tailoring approaches based on consumer gender to maximize impact.
... Importantly, the role of identity symbolism may vary by social class, with green products like eco-friendly vehicles or sustainable apparel appealing to different social classes by symbolizing high social status or environmental responsibility, thereby reinforcing purchase behavior (Khare, 2023;Liu et al., 2021). Individuals with lower subjective social class are more likely to use prominent green products as status symbols (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). ...
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Although green consumption behavior is essentially pro-social behavior, some studies indicate a higher tendency for green consumption in individuals of a higher social status, while individuals of lower social status exhibit a lower inclination. Therefore, this study aims to validate the green consumption tendencies of individuals from different social strata and explore the moderating role of identity symbolization. Confirming previous findings, we found that individuals of a higher social status are more willing to purchase green products than those of lower social status. Additionally, the choice of green products by individuals of lower social status is moderated by product symbolization. This study's findings unveil the underlying mechanisms of green product selection among individuals of lower social status and provide insights for green product marketing.
... 39 In a similar way, when self-worth is not recognized, people tend to seek self-affirmation through consumption. 40 Self-esteem, as a basic psychological need, is a representation of individual's sense of self-worth. 41 Individuals with low levels of self-esteem, due to unmet intrinsic needs, are more prone to engage in online buying as a form of compensatory. ...
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Purpose Despite the extensive research examining the antecedents and consequences of impulse behavior, empirical studies exploring the role of self-esteem in college students’ online impulse buying remain relatively scarce. Drawing on the theory of compensatory consumption, the current study aimed to examine the influence of self-esteem on college students’ online impulse buying and the independent and interactive moderating role of interdependent self-construal and interpersonal relationships. Patients and Methods This study recruited 323 college students through random sampling and invited them to complete self-reported questionnaires measuring self-esteem, online impulse buying, interdependent self-construal, and interpersonal relationships. To test the research hypotheses, SPSS 27.0 was used for reliability analysis, correlation analysis, tests of convergent and discriminant validity, hierarchical linear regression analyses, and simple slope analyses to examine moderation effects. Results The study found that self-esteem is negatively associated with online impulse buying among college students. More importantly, interdependent self-construal strengthens this negative relationship, with the effect being significantly stronger for students who exhibit higher levels of interdependent self-construal. Furthermore, a three-way interaction revealed that the inhibitory effect of self-esteem on online impulse buying is strongest when students have both high interdependent self-construal and low-quality interpersonal relationships, compared to other combinations of these factors. Conclusion This study enhances our understanding of the relationship between self-esteem and online impulse buying by examining the moderating effects of interdependent self-construal and interpersonal relationships. Specifically, the inhibitory effect of self-esteem on online impulse buying is strongest among college students with low-quality interpersonal relationships and a high level of interdependent self-construal. These findings explore how interpersonal factors shape the relationship between self-esteem and online impulse buying, offering practical guidance for preventing and intervening in online impulse buying among college students.
... This concept supplements the theory of rational behavior with the assumption that an individual's willingness to act is also influenced by the variable of perceived behavior control [11]. Based on the above theoretical foundations, existing studies concerning factors that affect green consumption intention mainly include: (1) Consumers' personal characteristics, including consumer values [12], internal response mechanisms to pain and empathy [13], and degree of environmental concern [14]; (2) Social influence factors such as reference group [15] and social beliefs [16]; (3) Marketing factors such as advertising design [17] and gamification [18]. In addition to the above studies, some interdisciplinary themes have also been introduced into the discussion of green consumption intentions. ...
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Green consumption represents the fundamental driving force behind the development of an ecologically sustainable society. Consequently, the analysis of green consumption behavior patterns has attracted significant attention from scholars. Nevertheless, there is a paucity of research addressing the impact of reference group type on consumers' intentions to consume in an environmentally responsible way. Building on previous reports, this study presents the concept of individual perceived efficacy and examines distinctions among the impacts of three reference groups on consumers' intentions to consume green products: member, secondary, and aspirational groups. Findings from our experimental analysis demonstrate that the reference group type has a notable effect on consumers' green consumption intentions. Additionally, the green consumption behaviors of different reference groups positively influence consumers' green product consumption intentions by affecting individual perceived efficacy. Moreover, the size of the reference group exerts a moderating influence on the effect of reference group type on green consumption intentions. Specifically, a larger group size exerts a greater positive effect on green consumption intentions. This study advances the theoretical research framework of green consumption and offers insights for manufacturers to refine their marketing strategies for green products. Furthermore, it provides recommendations for environmental organizations and governmental bodies to enhance the promotion of green consumption.
... People with limited funds or those trying to keep up with another's lifestyle often suffer from low self-esteem. This results in feeling unworthy of a better financial future and behaving in selfsabotaging ways, such as overspending on highstatus items (Sivanathan, 2010). Improved financial circumstances require increased self-awareness because every financial decision is impacted by an individual's thoughts, feelings and attitudes about money, which are often more unconscious than conscious (Vitt, 2009). ...
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The purpose of the study is to assess the impact of expenditure practices during festivities and various social ceremonies on the financial anxiety of the rural poor. Based on the study’s findings, a social work intervention was proposed to combat the financial anxiety arising due to the unregulated spending patterns of rural households. For the present study, we have deliberately adopted a descriptive research design; 640 structurally poor respondents were interviewed from rural Karnataka. The Households Financial Anxiety Assessment Scale developed by Archuleta, Dale, and Spann (2013) (FAS) was used to assess respondents’ financial anxiety. The study found that the spending patterns of poor rural households on festivities and social ceremonies lead them towards financial anxiety, financial vulnerability and continued poverty. We have attempted to draw the attention of professional social work educators to adopt the Financial Social Work model in the curriculum. We have proposed interventional strategies for Practitioners in Government and Non-Governmental organisations to practice in the field. The present study’s findings highlight the significant relationship between festivities and spending on social ceremonies and the consequent financial anxiety.
... Despite its association with maladaptive outcomes (Chen et al., 2014;Dittmar et al., 2014;Gentina et al., 2018), materialism among young people has seen a significant rise (Ahuvia & Wong, 2002;Kasser, 2016). Consequently, investigating the development of materialism within the young demographic segments is of paramount importance (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). scarcity as a reverse index of human capital. ...
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Adopting the normative, stress, and human capital life-course paradigm perspectives as an overarching conceptual framework, the present study seeks to explore how childhood material scarcity (human capital perspective) and emotional scarcity (stress perspective) separately and jointly influence materialism across genders (normative perspective) among Chinese college students. The findings reveal no significant gender differences in materialism among the participants. However, it is observed that experiencing emotional scarcity during childhood is associated with higher levels of materialism, while experiencing material scarcity during childhood is linked to lower levels of materialism. Importantly, the study highlights the critical role of childhood emotional stress in shaping materialism, particularly in females. For males, childhood emotional scarcity did not significantly affect materialism when combined with childhood material scarcity. For females, emotional scarcity appears to amplify the influence of material scarcity, whereas emotional fulfillment seems to alleviate the impact of material scarcity. By adopting the normative, stress, and human capital life-course paradigm perspectives, this study uncovers complex gender differences and interactions that shape individuals’ materialistic tendencies based on their childhood experiences.
... The social pressure of belonging to the community is satisfied only when consuming referent products to present a good social impression (Dinh & Lee, 2022;Seo & Park, 2018). When people are socially excluded and feel threatened, they regain their self-esteem by engaging in compensatory consumption (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). Basic needs like self-esteem, the need to stay updated with trends, and the fear of lagging behind are dimensions of FOMO (Kang et al., 2019). ...
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While sharing positive content about a brand’s products can bring huge benefits, when and what motivates consumers to post on social media is still an underexplored area, especially in a conspicuous consumption context. Therefore, this study tries to explain customers’ journey when engaging in conspicuous consumption and consumption-sharing behavior on social media by applying fear of missing out (FOMO), self-presentation, and social network types. This research was conducted with 400 respondents in the US, and the data were analyzed using PROCESS models. Results reveal that FOMO positively affects conspicuous consumption and consumption-sharing behavior. Moreover, conspicuous consumption and consumption-sharing behavior differ under the influence of self-presentation desire and the type of social network they have. The study contributes to the current literature by investigating the factors encouraging customers to share their conspicuous consumption on social media. It also offers significant insights and recommendations for marketers to increase brand awareness.
... When individuals realize that their performance on essential self-concepts is inferior to that of others, they experience negative, aversive emotions and subsequently feel threatened (Munichor and Steinhart 2016;Rustagi and Shrum 2019;Zheng, Xu, and Shen 2022). This feeling will motivate individuals to seek ways to restore and rebuild global self-worth (Munichor and Steinhart 2016;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010;Wang, Lisjak, and Mandel 2023). They can achieve self-affirmation through fluid compensation to maintain global self-integrity (Mandel et al. 2017;Steele 1988). ...
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In recent decades, green consumption has gained considerable attention among academic and business circles. While previous research has shown that green products combine environmental value and status symbols, the role of micro‐social environments has been insufficiently examined in studies exploring the antecedents of green consumption. Social comparison, a central feature of human social life, has been overlooked. Therefore, this research conducted five empirical studies to investigate the impact of social comparison on green product evaluations. We find that upward and downward comparisons positively influence consumers' attitudes, purchase intentions, and actual choices of green products. Notably, feelings of self‐threat mediate this effect in upward comparison situations, while authentic pride mediates this effect in downward comparison situations. Furthermore, the impact of social comparison on green product evaluations is moderated by consumers' self‐monitoring. Specifically, this effect is strengthened for consumers with high self‐monitoring and attenuated for those with low self‐monitoring. These findings offer novel perspectives on green consumption and marketing implications for managers.
... In our case, guilty gift-givers' sense of low power stemmed from interpersonal relationships and required alleviation, driving the selection of conspicuously branded gifts to restore power. These findings relate to compensatory consumption investigated in the literature (Gao, Wheeler, and Shiv 2009;Khandeparkar et al. 2024;Rucker and Galinsky 2008;Sivanathan and Pettit 2010). However, while compensatory consumption reflects self-directed consumption activities, our research explores compensatory gift-giving, highlighting another way to restore power, especially in an interpersonal context. ...
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Scant research has explored how the emotions of gift‐givers influence their gift selection, particularly negative emotions. Addressing this gap, this research examines how guilt impacts gift‐giving, capitalizing on the conceptual link between guilt, power, and size. Through four experiments, we demonstrate that, compared with gift‐givers in a control condition, guilty gift‐givers are more likely to choose conspicuously branded gifts—items with highly noticeable, large brand logos. We observe this effect using different scenarios and the autobiographical recall procedure to elicit guilt, as well as a variety of operationalizations of brand conspicuousness. We find that the sense of power and power restoration provided by the gift account for the results. Moreover, the preference for a conspicuously branded gift diminishes when guilty gift‐givers engage in reparative actions to alleviate their guilt prior to gift‐giving. This research contributes to the literature on guilt, power, and conspicuous consumption by revealing a novel consequence of guilt on consumer choice in gift‐giving contexts and expanding our understanding of conspicuous brand usage. The findings have practical implications for marketers, particularly in using guilt appeals and promoting conspicuously branded gifts. Finally, we suggest future research directions related to positive emotions and other outcomes of interest in gift‐giving.
... Resultantly, women internalize such treatment and act according to the wish of the male dominant society, which further downgrades the status of women in a society. Women dealt as commodities for selling things in exchange for using particular commodities (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). ...
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Objectification of women has been a concerning issue over the past years worldwide. Objectification usually emerged from the commodification and depiction of women through television advertisements. However, the process that helped the advertisers to secure more patronage on the intended item over the depiction of women is attractive. Therefore, the objective of the paper is to analyse the commodification and depiction of women in Pakistani television advertisements. The reviewed literature concluded that the way women are commodified and objectified in advertisements is totally against Pakistan's social system. Resultantly, such portrayal of women is a source of gender inequality, stereotyping, sexual, seductive, and provocative presentation of women that reinforces the objectification of women in society. In addition, the representation of women in a sexual manner in the advertisements destroys the value system of society in general. It is a widely accepted fact that the objectification of women is an ethical issue requiring further investigation to determine how women are portrayed in Pakistani advertisements. Keywords: commodification of women, depiction of women, objectification of women, television advertisements.
... As inferiority is an aversive psychological state [56], consumers are motivated to alleviate it and restore a sense of superiority. To compensate for this threat, lighten their unpleasant psychological state, and present a positive self-image, consumers choose to purchase goods, including through conspicuous consumption, that symbolize their higher social status [24,54,57,58]. Previous studies have found that in a consumption context, the superiority goal can be achieved by acquiring and/or displaying costly material possessions [59]. ...
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Previous studies have mainly focused on the impact of social media self-presentation on individuals’ happiness and mental health, whereas few have attended to its potential influence on consumer behavior. A mixed-method empirical study with an online survey (N = 408) and an experimental study (N = 160) investigated the effects of social media self-presentation on individuals’ conspicuous consumption in China. We found that consumers’ self-presentation behavior on social media promoted tendencies for social comparison, thereby enhancing their conspicuous consumption. However, compared with individuals using social media less often, self-presentation had a more significant impact on the social comparison tendencies of users who used social media more often. Our study explains why individuals’ self-presentation on social media increases their conspicuous consumption tendencies. The study results contribute to the existing knowledge of how consumers’ behavior on social media affects their product preferences.
... For instance, existing literature shows that self-gifting is primarily used in two contexts. First, in the case of personal failures, when negative self-focused feelings, aversive states (Luomala, 1998), and lower self-esteem increases self-gifting propensity, considering its therapeutic value (Cryder et al., 2008;Sherry, 1995;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). Second, in the context of personal achievements, when individuals are driven to self-reward as a way to celebrate their success (Faure & Mick, 1993;Sherry, 1995;Weisfeld-Spolter et al., 2015). ...
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When do consumers indulge in self‐gifting? While extant research predominantly explores self‐gifting as a coping mechanism in postchallenging phases, this research suggests an additional dimension: self‐gifting as a form of self‐reward. Drawing from the idea of stress‐related growth, this paper focuses on consumer behavior following a romantic breakup, investigating self‐gifting as a reward mechanism. Results from five studies consistently demonstrate that the severity of a breakup significant influences consumers' self‐gifting propensity in both intrinsic‐ and extrinsic‐rewarding consumption, driven by their heightened perceived deservingness. These effects are attenuated when individuals engage in ruminative thoughts about their tumultuous (vs. harmonious) breakups. These findings explain the nuances of self‐gifting behavior following a romantic breakup by establishing a theoretical link between personal failures (e.g., romantic breakups) and a sense of deservingness, which influences consumer's self‐gifting propensity as a self‐reward.
... The profound influence of societal factors on an individual's consumption behaviour underscores the intrinsic importance of comprehending conspicuous consumption and its link to the Veblen effect, an entrenched concept within economic discourse (Veblen, 1899). Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) validated the inclination of individuals to respond to societal pressures concerning their relative status through engagement in consumption, which signals status. This behavioural pattern, rooted in experimental psychology, serves as a foundational element of the utility function employed in our subsequent analysis. ...
Article
This study delves into the intricate interplay between visible inequality, conspicuous consumption, and food consumption in Indian households. Leveraging data from the Consumer Pyramids Household Survey (CPHS) provides significant insights. Through empirical analyses, including panel data analysis and instrumental variable panel data analysis, this study supports the hypothesis that there exists a relationship between visible inequality and conspicuous consumption among Indian households. The positive coefficients linked to conspicuous consumption variability reinforce established theories concerning the impact of status perception on spending behaviour. This study reveals a noteworthy adverse effect of visible inequality on essential expenditures, particularly food consumption, highlighting the delicate balancing act that households navigate between status-driven spending and meeting fundamental needs. By employing instrumental variable regression models to address endogeneity concerns, this study robustly confirms the relationship between visible inequality and conspicuous consumption. This study emphasises the nuanced relationship between status-oriented spending, visible inequality, and essential expenses in Indian households.
... So far, there is no evidence of a brand logotypes-specific area, but considering the requirement is "images of ecologically meaningful categories" (Op de Beeck et al., 2019) for long, many theories and examples may be taken from marketing to support the clause. This is the case of the role brands have in self-construal (Sirgy, 1982;Belk, 1988;Elliott and Wattanasuwan, 1998;Escalas and Bettman, 2005;Swaminathan et al., 2007); brands are used to protect and repair the self (Sivanathan and Pettit, 2010), provide information about other individuals (Berger and Heath, 2007), promote the formation of social groups and their cohesiveness in the long-range (Reingen et al., 1984;Muñiz and O'Guinn, 2001;Cova and Cova, 2002;Veloutsou and Moutinho, 2009), and structure social relationships (Ahuvia, 2005). Hence, brands have a role in subjects' self-construal or integration into social groups. ...
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Introduction The research in consumer neuroscience has identified computational methods, particularly artificial intelligence (AI) and machine learning, as a significant frontier for advancement. Previously, we utilized functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and artificial neural networks (ANNs) to model brain processes related to brand preferences in a paradigm exempted from motor actions. In the current study, we revisit this data, introducing recent advancements in explainable artificial intelligence (xAI) to gain insights into this domain. By integrating fMRI data analysis, machine learning, and xAI, our study aims to search for functional brain networks that support brand perception and, ultimately, search for brain networks that disentangle between preferred and indifferent brands, focusing on the early processing stages. Methods We applied independent component analysis (ICA) to overcome the expected fMRI data’s high dimensionality, which raises hurdles in AI applications. We extracted pertinent features from the returned ICs. An ANN is then trained on this data, followed by pruning and retraining processes. We then apply explanation techniques, based on path-weights and Shapley values, to make the network more transparent, explainable, and interpretable, and to obtain insights into the underlying brain processes. Results The fully connected ANN model obtained an accuracy of 54.6%, which dropped to 50.4% after pruning. However, the retraining process allowed it to surpass the fully connected network, achieving an accuracy of 55.9%. The path-weights and Shapley-based analysis concludes that, regarding brand perception, the expected initial participation of the primary visual system is followed. Other brain areas participate in early processing and discriminate between preferred and indifferent brands, such as the cuneal and the lateral occipital cortices. Discussion The most important finding is that a split between processing brands|preferred from brands|indifferent may occur during early processing stages, still in the visual system. However, we found no evidence of a “decision pipeline” that would yield if a brand is preferred or indifferent. The results suggest the existence of a “tagging”-like process in parallel flows in the extrastriate. Network training dynamics aggregate specific processes within the hidden nodes by analyzing the model’s hidden layer. This yielded that some nodes contribute to both global brand appraisal and specific brand category classification, shedding light on the neural substrates of decision-making in response to brand stimuli.
... Consequently, upward social comparison could drive aspiration consumption behaviors (i.e., consumption driven by aspirations to keep up with the upper class, such as via status consumption) (Gupta & Srivastav, 2016;Sheth et al., 2011) due to self-enhancement motivations (Mandel et al., 2017;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). ...
Article
In China, WeChat has become an excellent place for Chinese tourists to share their travel products and experiences nowadays due to its wide audience, high usage rate, and immediacy. According to the 49th Statistical Report on the Development of the Internet in China, as of December 2021, the number of social media users in China reached 1.007 billion, accounting for 97.5% of the overall number of Internet users. 43.8% of users use WeChat to “share their lives or opinions”, indicating that WeChat is currently the most widely used and most representative Chinese social media in China. With the advent of the 5G era, WeChat and the products on its platform will further unleash the social value of WeChat, and the value it holds for the development and expansion of the travel market should not be underestimated. Several investigations have shown that the majority of adults are keen to travel to a destination because they are inspired by the travel products and other related content shared by their friends on social media, with a large proportion deciding to travel for reasons of benign envy (Yang Yi, 2020; Liu et al., 2018). Yet, few people know how the role of benign envy can drive travel intention, particularly in terms of intention to visit a tourist destination previously mentioned by WeChat friends. Meanwhile, the relationship between different types of travel product sharing on WeChat and travel intention has not been rigorously examined in research. To fill this research gap, this study aims to conduct an empirical investigation to attest to the travel product sharing-travel intention link. Specially, we investigate whether sharing travel products on WeChat can drive an individual’s destination travel intention through benign envy and how such benign envy can be triggered on social media.
... This has, in fact, been the trend in much of the larger extant psychological research. However, because all individuals have multiple intersecting identities, researchers have recently begun to focus on more complex and intricate questions involving intersecting identities (Biernat & Manis, 1994;Sesko & Biernat, 2010;Shields, 2008;Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010). For example, in the context of STEM, White females, whose minority status in STEM is based on a single identity (i.e., gender; single STEM minority), may have different STEM experiences from Latinas whose minority status in STEM is based on two identities (i.e., gender and ethnicity; double STEM minority). ...
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Past laboratory work has shown that exposure to similar peers who represent success in STEM (i.e., math-talented female peer role models) can bolster female college students’ math performance and STEM experiences. What is less clear is how students at intersecting identities of gender, ethnicity, and math identification differ in their similarity perceptions of female peer role models (PRMs) as well as how the PRMs’ ethnicity and background information (i.e., academic-related and personal-related) influences students’ similarity perceptions. In the current work, Latina and White female PRMs gave two presentations in college Calculus classes over the course of one semester. After the second presentation students completed quantitative and qualitative measures to assess perceived similarity with the PRMs. Across both measures results showed that (1) students generally perceived themselves to be similar to PRMs, (2) students felt more academically than personally similar to PRMs, (3) when the PRMs’ ethnicity matched the students’ ethnicity the academic-personal similarity difference was smaller, and (4) depending on students’ gender and level of math identification their similarity perceptions differed. Given PRM similarity has been shown to be a significant factor in the effectiveness of PRMs these findings emphasize the importance of considering students’ intersecting identities and PRM background information when attempting to highlight similarity with PRMs.
... Truong and McColl (2011) identified a strong relationship between self-esteem and the consumption of luxury goods. Sivanathan and Pettit (2010) discovered that people with a low level of self-esteem used conspicuous products for the purpose of changing their status. People in low-power positions are prone to engage in compensatory consumption (Rucker and Galinsky, 2008). ...
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The study aims to investigate the relationships among two socio-psychological and two marketing concepts. The survey method was used for data collection. 274 questionnaires were gained through convenience sampling. To test the model, structural equation modelling was applied. The results indicate that an individual who evaluate themselves highly are more concerned about public opinion regarding them. An individual who cares about him/her presence in society will use products that reflect his/her lifestyle and self. Consumers who make purchases that are congruent with their lifestyle and self are more brand conscious. When the literature is examined, there are either no or few articles investigating the influences of self-esteem and public self-consciousness on brand consciousness and symbolic consumption. Considering this issue, it is thought that this research is beneficial in terms of filling this gap. It is thought that researching this subject in Azerbaijan has an additional contribution.
... They thus obtain social prestige and status recognition by conspicuously purchasing expensive goods. Sivanathan and Pettit [48] put forward the intrinsic motivation of conspicuous consumption, i.e., consumers promote self-perception, enhance self-esteem, and promote the construction and improvement of their self-concept through conspicuous consumption. These results show that conspicuous consumption is also derived from both social-oriented and individualoriented motivations. ...
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This study examines the influences of live streaming servicescape on Chinese consumers' luxury purchase intention. Interestingly, for the sample without luxury purchase experience, the mediating effect of the perceived value of luxury goods is significant but effect of consumer trust is not. For the sample with luxury purchase experience, the result of mediating effect is just the opposite. The interaction between conspicuous consumption and live streaming servicescape plays a certain role in regulating the perceived value of luxury goods. These results show that luxury brands can adopt innovation in the live streaming servicescape for different types of consumers to promote live streaming marketing. This study enriches the servicescape theory of live streaming.
... This theory posits that low self-esteem or alignment with perceived higher-status groups may drive some individuals' xenocentric preferences (Jost and Banaji 1994;Jost and Burgess 2000). Such psychological dynamics might explain why certain consumers, especially in contexts of economic disparity, strongly prefer luxury or counterfeit goods to emulate higher social standing (Sivanathan and Pettit 2010;Mazzocco et al. 2012). SJT clarifies the underlying motives for such preferences and connects them with the broader phenomena of ego justification and group justification, which includes both ethnocentrism and Xenocentrism. ...
Article
This study examines psychological drivers influencing Turkish consumer choices, specifically Xenocentrism’s role in purchasing decisions. Analyzing data from 377 young, urban, educated respondents, the research explores the relationship between Xenocentrism, Animosity, and Product Judgment affecting the willingness to buy U.S. goods. Employing Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) and validated scales, the study challenges the conventional belief that Animosity toward a foreign country reduces purchase willingness. Findings indicate that Personal and National Animosity may coincide with or increase the propensity to purchase despite Product Judgments. This suggests a complex consumer decision-making paradigm, where Animosity is intertwined with identity assertion and perceived product quality. Results show Turkish consumers’ purchase intentions are grounded in product excellence, with perceived superiority shaping xenocentric buying preferences. The implications extend to rethinking consumer behavior models in emerging markets, accounting for the nuanced influences of Animosity, product evaluation, and global cultural narratives. This nuanced understanding of Xenocentrism contributes to the literature by delineating how consumer Animosity and global cultural narratives inform behavior in a post-truth world, providing actionable insights for both theorists and practitioners in the field.
... Social exclusion can have a profound impact on individual behavior [64]. As a psychological compensation mechanism, consumption can alleviate the discomfort caused by exclusion [5,65]. But as a kind of irrational behavior, impulsive buying behaviour will also bring many negative effects to individuals [6]. ...
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Social exclusion is a common phenomenon in modern social life that has significant negative effects on those who were excluded. The excluded may adopt strategic impulsive consumption behaviors in order to gain a sense of belonging and repair social relations, and the rapid development of online shopping platforms has intensified the occurrence of impulsive purchasing behaviors. Therefore, the internal mechanism between the two needs to be clarified. This study utilised SPSS 26.0, Mplus8.0 and HLM6.08 to analyse the data from 417 questionnaires, focused on exploring the internal mechanism between social exclusion and impulsive buying behaviour, and yielded the following conclusions. (1) Social exclusion is positively correlated with impulsive purchasing behaviour. (2) Relative deprivation plays a mediating role between social exclusion and impulsive buying behaviour. (3) The need to belong plays an intermediary role between social exclusion and impulsive buying behaviour. (4) Self-control plays a moderating role between social exclusion and impulsive buying behaviour. These conclusions could provide a basis for enterprises to formulate rational marketing strategies and create consumer demand.
... Especially when faced with an identity threat, individuals compensate for this threat indirectly through consumption and exaggerate the value of identityrelated material goods (Mandel et al., 2017). As a result, it is common for individuals to believe that by purchasing and using specific goods, they can serve to repair their selfimage and compensate for deficiencies in self-perception (Sivanathan & Pettit, 2010;Gao et al., 2009). In fact, given the constantly shifting meaning of material goods and the tenuous relationship between material goods and the self, relying on tangible resources to construct self-concept is inherently flawed, and it can result in an unstable and unconfident self-concept, further increasing self-uncertainty and thus decreasing SWB (Richins, 2017). ...
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Knowing oneself and the pursuit of well-being are the eternal themes of human society. Accordingly, the link between self-concept and subjective well-being (SWB) has been a hot topic of research in psychology. This study aims to examine the effect of low self-concept clarity (SCC) on SWB and the mediating role of materialism from the perspective of self-uncertainty, so as to enrich the research in related fields. In Study 1, we conducted a questionnaire survey of 531 adults to explore the relationship between low SCC, materialism, and SWB at the trait level. In Study 2, we experimentally manipulated low SCC and examined its effect on SWB and the mediating role of materialism. The results of the two studies showed that low SCC reduced SWB, and materialism played a mediating role in this relationship. This study reveals the internal mechanism of the influence of low SCC on SWB and enriches the related research on materialism.
... Orhun and Palazzolo argue that poor households make seemingly wasteful purchases, such as not buying frequently used items like toilet paper in bulk, because they cannot afford such intertemporal saving strategies (2019).4 For a study suggesting that conspicuous consumption by the poor is a response to perceived threats to one's self-integrity, seeSivanathan and Pettit, 2010. In her study based on in-depth interviews with 50 low-income families in the UK, Hamilton argues that poor individuals purchase expensive brands "to disguise poverty and portray a socially acceptable image" but, ironically, this causes further stigmatization (2012: 75). ...
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The news media is a critical source of information for the public. However, it neglects the interests of the poor. In this paper, we explore why this happens, why it matters, and what might be done about it. As to why this happens, we identify two main reasons: because of the way that media is funded and because of the composition of its journalists and its sources. As to why this matters, we argue that this neglect is problematic for three main reasons: it deprives the poor of vital information; it contributes to public support for or acceptance of policies that harm the interests of the poor; and it undermines political equality. And as to what might be done about it, we suggest two proposals: proposals that change the composition of who makes the news and proposals that change how the media is funded.
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We present a stochastic dynamic model which can explain economic cycles. We show that the macroscopic description yields a complex dynamical landscape consisting of multiple stable fixed points, each corresponding to a split of the population into a large low and a small high income group. The stochastic fluctuations induce switching between the resulting metastable states and excitation oscillations just below a deterministic bifurcation. The shocks are caused by the decisions of a few agents who have a disproportionate influence over the macroscopic state of the economy due to the unequal distribution of wealth among the population. The fluctuations have a long-term effect on the growth of economic output and lead to business cycle oscillations exhibiting coherence resonance, where the correlation time is controlled by the population size which is inversely proportional to the noise intensity. Published by the American Physical Society 2025
Article
Purpose Considering the transformational impact of technological advances in modern retail on the consumer experience and the associated growth of experimental studies in consumer-centric supply chain management (SCM) research, this paper presents a practical overview of key steps in the design of scenario-based experiments (SBEs) in the context of retail SCM. Design/methodology/approach Following a conceptual approach, this paper discusses essential aspects in the designing process, including the connection to theory, vignette design considerations, experimental checks and ensuring managerial relevance. Findings This paper presents a resource for SCM researchers in their pursuit of designing rigorous, context-focused SBEs in consumer-centric retail SCM research. Major design considerations and potential pitfalls are highlighted. Practical implications A well-designed experiment, including its vignettes, manipulations and checks, offers strong potential to inform actionable guidance for managers in the feasibility, strategy design, customization and consumer segmentation of retail SCM strategies. Originality/value This paper connects the steps in the design of SBEs to consumer-centric retail SCM questions, supporting future research in this realm.
Article
Purpose The primary purpose of this exploratory paper is to propose a novel analytical framework for examining corruption from a behavioral perspective by highlighting multiple issues associated with consumerism. Design/methodology/approach This paper examines the relationship between excessive consumption activities and corrupt acts, drawing upon existing literature on corruption, consumerism and consumption, as well as multiple reports and cases of corruption and money laundering in Indonesia. With regard to corruption networks, this paper analyses the associated behavioral patterns and social dynamics by using the Fraud Triangle and the Fraud Elements Triangle frameworks to examine the phenomenon of living beyond one’s means. This paper also addresses the notion of sacredness in the context of consumer activities and how such sacredness plays a role in causing otherwise honest individuals to engage in corrupt acts. Findings The author established that corruption represents a complex societal issue that extends across several dimensions of society, encompassing both horizontal and vertical aspects. Consequently, addressing this problem poses significant challenges. Excessive consumption has been identified as one of the various behavioral concerns that are implicated in the widespread occurrence of corruption in many nations. Individuals who partake in excessive consumption play a role in shaping ethical norms that serve to legitimize and rationalize immoral behavior, therefore fostering a society marked by corruption. The act of engaging in excessive consumption is also associated with cases of money laundering offenses that are connected to corruption and several other illicit activities. The lifestyle of corrupt individuals is one of the primary behavioral concerns associated with corruption, as “living beyond means” is the most common behavioral red flag among occupational fraud offenders worldwide. The phenomenon of consumerism may also shape the minds of individuals as if it were an “implicit religion” due to the fact that it may generate human experiences that elicit highly positive emotions and satisfy certain sacredness-associated characteristics. The pursuit of transcendental experiences through the acquisition and consumption of sacred consumption objects may heighten the incentive to commit fraudulent acts such as corruption. Research limitations/implications This self-funded exploratory study uses document analysis to examine the corruption phenomenon in Indonesia. Future studies will benefit from in-depth interviews with former offenders and investigators of corruption. Practical implications This exploratory study contributes to advancing corruption prevention strategies. It does this by introducing a novel analytical framework that allows for the examination of several behavioral issues associated with consumerism, which have the potential to foster the proliferation of corruption. Originality/value This exploratory study highlights the importance of comprehending the intricacies of consumerism, namely, its adverse effects on the proliferation of corruption.
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Recent technological advancements have empowered nonhuman entities, such as virtual assistants and humanoid robots, to simulate human intelligence and behavior. This paper investigates how autonomous agents influence individuals' perceptions and behaviors toward others, particularly human employees. Our research reveals that the socio‐emotional capabilities of autonomous agents lead individuals to attribute a humanlike mind to these nonhuman entities. Perceiving a high level of humanlike mind in the nonhuman, autonomous agents affects perceptions of actual people through an assimilation process. Consequently, we observe “assimilation‐induced dehumanization”: the humanness judgment of actual people is assimilated toward the lower humanness judgment of autonomous agents, leading to various forms of mistreatment. We demonstrate that assimilation‐induced dehumanization is mitigated when autonomous agents possess capabilities incompatible with humans, leading to a contrast effect (Study 2), and when autonomous agents are perceived as having a high level of cognitive capability only, resulting in a lower level of mind perception of these agents (Study 3). Our findings hold across various types of autonomous agents (embodied: Studies 1–2 and disembodied: Studies 3–5), as well as in real and hypothetical consumer choices.
Article
Compensatory consumption theory posits that individuals tend to engage in status consumption as a response to experiencing upward social comparison. However, it is unclear whether upward social comparison can influence status consumption in four lifestyle domains: clothing, eating, living, and travelling. Therefore, we conducted two separate studies with a sample of Chinese consumers. In Study 1, we investigated the effects of upward social comparison on status consumption in four domains by comparing participants with a specific individual. In Study 2, we examined the effects of upward social comparison on status consumption in four domains by comparing participants with a group. Additionally, Study 2 examined the mediating role of perceived self‐improvement and perceived superiority. The results revealed that participants exhibited higher purchase intentions and preferences for status products and services in four consumption domains when exposed to upward social comparison. Furthermore, the results also indicated that perceived self‐improvement and perceived superiority mediated the positive effects of status consumption in four domains under upward social comparison. These findings contribute to the broader applicability of compensatory consumption theory.
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Compensatory consumption is a typical strategy used by consumers to alleviate feelings of self‐discrepancy. This phenomenon occurs in multiple contexts, and the related literature has experienced rapid and fragmented growth. This article presents a systematic review of 96 articles on compensatory consumption published in 42 journals over 26 years (from 1997 to 2023). Using the antecedents, decisions, and outcomes (ADO) model, we propose a framework that covers the entire compensatory consumption journey, linking an individual's types of discrepancy with the underlying mechanisms, coping strategies, and compensatory behaviors. We also explore the positive and negative outcomes of compensatory behaviors and the potential for the process to become a continuous compensation cycle. Our findings highlight four significant themes (antecedents, compensation strategies, outcomes, and methodologies) that need to be further investigated in future studies.
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The purpose of this study is to investigate how envy of others affects the conspicuous consumption and overspending habits of Instagram users. Additionally, the study aims to examine the effect of self-esteem and social norms on conspicuous consumption and overspending. This empirical study used a proposed model, which was tested through the distribution of questionnaires to a sample of 346 Turkish Instagram users. Path analyses were performed to validate the research hypothesis. The study findings elicited the effect of Instagram users’ envy towards others has a significant and positive effect on both conspicuous consumption and overspending. Additionally, the study found that injunctive norms, which reflect the perceived social approval or disapproval of others, have a direct and positive effect on conspicuous consumption. On the other hand, descriptive norms, representing the perception of others' actual behavior, did not have a direct effect on conspicuous consumption. Regarding self-esteem, the results did not support the hypothesis that self-esteem has a direct and positive effect on conspicuous consumption. Furthermore, the study found a significant and positive relationship between conspicuous consumption and overspending, indicating that individuals who engage in conspicuous consumption are more likely to exceed their budget limits and engage in impulsive buying behaviors.
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Çağımızın tartışmasız en önemli olgularından biri olan tüketimi anlayabilmek birçok disiplinin temel amaçları arasındadır. Tüketim motivasyonları, bireyleri satın alma davranışına götüren kişisel ve toplumsal sebepler çoğu araştırmanın birincil çabasını oluşturmaktadır. Bu çaba doğrultusunda gerçekleştirilen araştırmalar modern kapitalist dünya düzeni içerisinde bireylerin tüketim aracılığıyla, maddi sahiplik ile toplumsal statü ve prestij kazanma, kendilerine dair anlam aktarımı yapma, ideal olan “ben”i yansıtma motivasyonlarına sahip olduklarını ortaya koymaktadır. Öyle ki bireyler satın alma davranışını gerçek ihtiyaçlarından bağımsız arzularıyla şekillendirmekte, yaşamlarındaki olumsuz duyguları, kaygı ve stresi kronik satın alma eylemi ile çözmektedir. Mevcut çalışma ile tüketicilerin materyalist eğilimleri, prestij hassasiyetleri ve kompulsif satın alma davranışlarıyla ilgili çıkarımlar yapmak amaçlanmaktadır. Belirlenen amaç doğrultusunda 18 Eylül-21 Eylül, 2023 tarihleri arasında katılımcılara, Whatsapp, Instagram ve Linkedin aracılığıyla ulaşılmış ve 308 kişinin katılımı ile anket çalışması gerçekleştirilmiştir. Elde edilen veriler istatistiki analize tabi tutulmuş materyalist tuttum ve prestij hassasiyeti katılımcıların cinsiyet, yaş, gelir, eğitim düzeyi ve aktif çalışma hayatları bağımsız değişkenleri bağlamında incelenmiş aynı zamanda materyalist eğilimlerin ve prestij hassasiyetinin kompulsif satın alma davranışı üzerindeki etkisi analiz edilmiştir. Sonuçlara göre, materyalist tutumun yaşa ve eğitime göre istatistiki olarak anlamlı farklılık gösterdiği; prestij hassasiyetinin sadece eğitime göre istatistiki olarak anlamlı farklılık gösterdiği ve kompulsif tüketimin ise yaşa, cinsiyete ve gelir düzeyine göre istatistiki olarak anlamlı farklılık gösterdiği görülmüştür. Ayrıca, bireylerde materyalist tutum ve prestij hassasiyeti yüksekse, kompulsif satın alma davranışının da yüksek olacağı bulunmuştur. Extended Abstract Consumption in the modern world is among the oldest and fundamentallife actions. The new thing about consuming behavior, which is one of theoldest facts about human beings, is changing motivations. The first attempts to explain the consumption phenomenon were carried out by classical economists and it was stated that the primary variable that created consumption was the “need”. As changing economic conditions, productionstyles and differentiating policies have transformed societies, individuals’motivations to consume have also changed. While wants and desires take theplace of needs, products subject to consumption are evaluated according totheir symbolic benefits rather than functional benefits, and consumed goodsare seen as a part of the consumers’ identities. As consumption began to ruleand govern the societies, individuals have begun to position the commoditiest hey have acquired or purchased at the center of their lives. Individua lhappiness and pleasure through material possession, consumption, and self-realization success have become the basic motto of life. The concept ofmaterialism, which exist since the ancient times, has been exposed to differentdefinitions and examinations in the transformed society with the reforms inthe economy. Although some of these definitions consider materialism froma positive point of view, as a concept that contributes to the economy byincreasing consumption especially in developing societies; the generalconsensus is that materialism drives people into an endless consumptionfrenzy. Individuals who express themselves through “commodities” are in aconstant act of consumption. As a rising value, materialism conditionssocieties to consumption. Individuals who want to create their identities withthe product they have acquired or purchased are integrated into the system.While consumption is an action that takes place in parallel with a need andincome in its most basic form, changing conditions have transformed themeaning and sphere of influence of the concept. Individuals who provide theirexistence and identity through consumption, focus on the symbolic benefitwhich will be provided by the product and service they buy. The individualwho performs the purchasing behavior evaluates many variables at the sametime. In addition to needs, desires and expectations, price and price perceptionappear as important criterion. Consumers, who are aware that every productthey choose to consume will convey a meaning about themselves, tend to seethe price as a tool that will contribute to their status. In other words, the highprice of the product to be purchased, independent of the quality, will create a“classy” and "prestigious" perception of the individual in the minds of otherpeople. Prestige sensitivity is another important variable that affects thepurchasing decision of the modern consumer. So much so that, individualsoften prefer the expensive one consciously, rather than paying a small pricefor the product they will buy. The main motivation here is the prestige andreputation that the high price will "provide". Both concepts are closely related to compulsive consumption. Compulsive consumption can be summarized asthe consumer's out-of-control shopping, purchasing products or serviceswithout needing them. Compulsive buying may arise from individualcharacteristics as well as from the general situation prevailing in the society.Individuals conditioned to express themselves through commodities, showchronic and excessive buying behavior.The aim of our research is to determine whether the materialisticattitude and prestige sensitivity show a statistically significant differenceaccording to the independent variables and to examine the effect of materialistattitude and prestige sensitivity on compulsive buying. Also, in the context ofcompulsive buying, it is also aimed to determine the statistically significantdifferences that may exist according to the independent variables. In thisdirection, hypotheses were formed and tested statistically. Questionnairemethod was used for data collection. The questionnaire, which constitutes theresearch questions, was prepared in a single form consisting of two parts intotal. In the first part, there are 5 multiple-choice questions about thedemographic profiles of the participants; In the second part, there are 23statements about materialistic attitude, prestige sensitivity and compulsivebuying, which are suitable to be answered with a 5-point Likert scale. Carewas taken to prepare the questions in a way that could be easily understood bythe respondents by using clear statements. In this study, the reliability of theMaterialist Attitude scale was found to be "high" with Cronbach'sAlpha=0.786; The reliability of the Prestige Sensitivity scale was found to be"high" with Cronbach's Alpha=0.871, and the reliability of the CompulsivePurchase scale was found to be "high" with Cronbach’s Alpha=0.740. Simplerandom sampling method, which is one of the probability sampling methods,was used in the study. The number of respondents participating in the surveywas 308. According to the results of the research; materialist attitude differsstatistically significantly according to age and education; prestige sensitivitydifferes statistically only according to education variable, and compulsiveconsumption showed a statistically significant difference according to age,gender and income level. On the other hand, it has been found that if thematerialistic attitude and prestige sensitivity are high in individuals,compulsive buying behavior will also be high.
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In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2010 APA, all rights reserved)
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A review of the evidence for and against the proposition that self-serving biases affect attributions of causality indicates that there is little empirical support for the proposition in its most general form. Some support was found for the contention that individuals engage in self-enhancing attributions under conditions of success, but only minimal evidence suggested that individuals engage in self-protective attributions under conditions of failure. Moreover, it was proposed that the self-enhancing effect may not be due to motivational distortion, but rather to the tendency of people to (a) expect their behavior to produce success, (b) discern a closer covariation between behavior and outcomes in the case of increasing success than in the case of constant failure, and (c) misconstrue the meaning of contingency. (60 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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The theory of downward comparison posits that persons experiencing negative affect can enhance their subjective well-being through comparison with a less fortunate other, the process occurring on either a passive or active basis. The present author discusses the basic principle of downward comparison and its corollaries and suggests that these represent the motivational process for phenomena observed in several areas of social psychology. Evidence is considered from studies of the fear-affiliation effect, choice of others for social comparison, scapegoating, projection, aversive environmental events and attraction toward others, social prejudice, hostile aggression, and humor. It is shown that downward comparison principles encompass empirical evidence from these areas, account for nonreplications as well as confirmatory findings, and provide a theoretical basis for the relation among the various phenomena. (111 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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Tested the hypothesis that an experience that simply affirms a valued aspect of the self can eliminate dissonance and its accompanying cognitive changes. Three experiments were conducted using the conventional forced-compliance procedure. In Study 1, some of the 76 college student Ss were allowed to affirm an important, self-relevant value (by completing a self-relevant value scale) immediately after having written unrelated dissonant essays and prior to recording their attitudes on the postmeasure. Other Ss underwent an identical procedure but were selected so that the value affirmed by the scale was not part of their self-concept. The value scale eliminated dissonance-reducing attitude change among Ss for whom it was self-relevant but not among Ss for whom it was not self-relevant. This occurred even though the value scale could not resolve or reduce the objective importance of the dissonance-provoking inconsistency. Study 2, conducted with 24 Ss with a strong economic and political value orientation, showed that the self-affirmation effect was strong enough to prevent the reinstatement of dissonance. Study 3, testing generalizability with 24 Ss, replicated the effect by using a different attitude issue, a different value for affirmation, and a different measure of dissonance reduction. Results imply that a need for psychological consistency is not part of dissonance motivation and that salient, self-affirming cognitions may help objectify reactions to self-threatening information. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
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This article examines the measurement of short-lived (i.e., state) changes in self-esteem. A new scale is introduced that is sensitive to manipulations designed to temporarily alter self-esteem, and 5 studies are presented that support the scale's validity. The State Self-Esteem Scale (SSES) consists of 20 items modified from the widely used Janis-Field Feelings of Inadequacy Scale (Janis & Field, 1959). Psychometric analyses revealed that the SSES has 3 correlated factors: performance, social, and appearance self-esteem. Effects of naturally occurring and laboratory failure and of clinical treatment on SSES scores were examined; it was concluded that the SSES is sensitive to these sorts of manipulations. The scale has many potential uses, which include serving as a valid manipulation check index, measuring clinical change in self-esteem, and untangling the confounded relation between mood and self-esteem.
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Drawing on the motivated cognition literature, we examine how self-affirmation processes influence self-justification needs and escalation decisions. Study 1 found that individuals with a larger pool of affirmational resources (high self-esteem) reduced their escalation compared to those with fewer affirmational resources (low self-esteem). Study 2 extended these findings by demonstrating that individuals also de-escalated their commitments when they were provided an opportunity to affirm on an important value. Finally, Study 3 found that affirming on traits that were of low relevance (e.g., creativity) to an initial decision reduced escalation, but affirming on decision-relevant traits (e.g., decision-making ability) ironically increased escalation. Across three studies, using three instantiations of self-affirmations and two measures of escalation, the results highlight the potential benefits and costs of using self-affirmation as a vehicle to de-escalate commitment.
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The present research shows that when a confidently held self-view (e.g., "I am an exciting person") is temporarily cast in doubt, individuals are motivated to choose products that bolster their original self-view (e.g., choosing brands with exciting brand personalities). The findings across three studies suggest that subtle manipulations can temporarily "shake" one's self-view confidence, resulting in an increased propensity of choosing self-view-bolstering products in a subsequent choice task. The consequences of the "shaken self" for product choices are examined in different self-domains. The findings also suggest that the effects of the shaken self are attenuated when individuals have the opportunity to restore their self-view confidence prior to the final choice task. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
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This paper investigates the implications of social rewards on the allocation of talent in society and consequently on the process of economic growth. The authors consider two sources of heterogeneity among workers: nonwage income and innate ability. A greater emphasis on status may induce the 'wrong' individuals, that is, those with low ability and high wealth, to acquire schooling, causing workers with high ability and low wealth to leave the growth-enhancing industries. This crowding-out effect, taken alone, discourages growth. Growth may be enhanced by a more egalitarian distribution of wealth, which reduces the demand for status. Copyright 1996 by University of Chicago Press.
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Our possessions are a major contributor to and reflection of our identities. A variety of evidence is presented supporting this simple and compelling premise. Related streams of research are identified and drawn upon in developing this concept and implications are derived for consumer behavior. Because the construct of extended self involves consumer behavior rather than buyer behavior, it appears to be a much richer construct than previous formulations positing a relationship between self-concept and consumer brand choice.
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It is suggested that characters which develop through mate preference confer handicaps on the selected individuals in their survival. These handicaps are of use to the selecting sex since they test the quality of the mate. The size of characters selected in this way serve as marks of quality. The understanding that a handicap, which tests for quality, can evolve as a consequence of its advantage to the individual, may provide an explanation for many puzzling evolutionary problems. Such an interpretation may provide an alternative to other hypotheses which assumed complicated selective mechanisms, such as group selection or kin selection, which do not act directly on the individual.
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It is proposed that motivation may affect reasoning through reliance on a biased set of cognitive processes--that is, strategies for accessing, constructing, and evaluating beliefs. The motivation to be accurate enhances use of those beliefs and strategies that are considered most appropriate, whereas the motivation to arrive at particular conclusions enhances use of those that are considered most likely to yield the desired conclusion. There is considerable evidence that people are more likely to arrive at conclusions that they want to arrive at, but their ability to do so is constrained by their ability to construct seemingly reasonable justifications for these conclusions. These ideas can account for a wide variety of research concerned with motivated reasoning.
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Many prominent theorists have argued that accurate perceptions of the self, the world, and the future are essential for mental health. Yet considerable research evidence suggests that overly positive self-evaluations, exaggerated perceptions of control or mastery, and unrealistic optimism are characteristic of normal human thought. Moreover, these illusions appear to promote other criteria of mental health, including the ability to care about others, the ability to be happy or contented, and the ability to engage in productive and creative work. These strategies may succeed, in large part, because both the social world and cognitive-processing mechanisms impose filters on incoming information that distort it in a positive direction; negative information may be isolated and represented in as unthreatening a manner as possible. These positive illusions may be especially useful when an individual receives negative feedback or is otherwise threatened and may be especially adaptive under these circumstances.
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We consider the problem of setting approximate confidence intervals for a single parameter θ in a multiparameter family. The standard approximate intervals based on maximum likelihood theory, , can be quite misleading. In practice, tricks based on transformations, bias corrections, and so forth, are often used to improve their accuracy. The bootstrap confidence intervals discussed in this article automatically incorporate such tricks without requiring the statistician to think them through for each new application, at the price of a considerable increase in computational effort. The new intervals incorporate an improvement over previously suggested methods, which results in second-order correctness in a wide variety of problems. In addition to parametric families, bootstrap intervals are also developed for nonparametric situations.
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The literature on the relationship of social class to self-esteem is riddled with contradictions, showing positive, null, and inverse relationships. Two studies examinig this relationship are compared-one, a sample of children aged 8-18; the other, a sample of adults aged 18-65. The results indicate virtually no association for younger children, a modest association for adolescents, and a moderate association for adults. Four principles of self-esteem development are advanced to account for these conditional relations-social comparison processes, reflected appraisals, self-perception theory, and psychological centrality. It is suggested that these principles apply equally to adults and children and that the identical principles help to explain why social class should have different effects on the self-esteem of children and adults.
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The present work examines how experiencing high versus low power creates qualitatively distinct psychological motives that produce unique consumption patterns. Based on accumulating evidence that states of power increase focus on one’s own internal desires, we propose that high power will lead to a greater preference for products that are viewed as offering utility (e.g., performance, quality) to the individual. In contrast, extending past research showing that powerlessness fosters a compensatory motive to restore power; we demonstrate that the powerless prefer visible or conspicuous consumption that signals status to others. Regardless of whether high and low power were measured, episodically primed, or structurally manipulated, and regardless of how consumption patterns were measured (e.g., purchasing intentions, consumer attitudes, or creation of one’s own advertising slogan), five experiments support a parsimonious model for how different levels of power impact consumer behavior. Given the pervasiveness of everyday fluctuations in power, and the governing role of consumption in everyday life, these findings have potentially broad implications, from tailored advertising to different market segments to understanding the rise in consumer debt.
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For a class of social actions such as seeking a job, the socioeconomic standings of the contact (social resources) an individual uses will probably be very important in achieving a desired result. Drawing upon data from a sample of working males aged 21-64 in the metropolitan area of Albany-Troy-Schenectady, New York, we found that the job seeker's personal resources (initially his family background, but more importantly later his educational and occupational achievements) as well as his use of weak ties affect his ability to reach a contact of high status. The contact's status, in turn, has a strong and direct effect on the prestige of the attained job. As job experience increases, a person relies more on constructed rather than ascribed relations and the strong tie between his contact and the hiring firm becomes increasingly important.
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Previous studies which examine the theory linking social resources to instrumental action have focused on a particular activated set of social ties in order to assess the effects of social resources on a specific action (finding a job or finding a stranger). However, the theory also implies that an individual's access to such social resources is contingent upon his/her social position as well as the nature of the social ties used. Assuming positions in the occupational structure represent resources, this paper reports a study designed to examine access to occupations through social ties.Data tend to support two major propositions in the theory. The strength of positions (as indicated by father's occupation) as well as the strength of ties (as indicated by the nature of the tie being a relative, friend or acquaintance) affect one's access to high-prestige occupations and affect the range of occupations accessed. Higher original positions and weaker ties (friends and acquaintances rather than relatives) provide better access to white-collar or more prestigious occupations, and, as a consequence, provide access to a wider range of occupations. Weaker ties provide better access to social resources than stronger ties, especially for those whose original positions are relatively low. There is also some evidence that friends, as opposed to relatives and acquaintances, may provide the widest access to different positions in the occupational structure. However, this finding is tentative since access through acquaintances may have been underestimated due to the particular measure used and to the possibility of a recall problem.
Chapter
This chapter provides an overview of self-affirmation theory. Self-affirmation theory asserts that the overall goal of the self-system is to protect an image of its self-integrity, of its moral and adaptive adequacy. When this image of self-integrity is threatened, people respond in such a way as to restore self-worth. The chapter illustrates how self-affirmation affects not only people's cognitive responses to threatening information and events, but also their physiological adaptations and actual behavior. It examines the ways in which self-affirmations reduce threats to the self at the collective level, such as when people confront threatening information about their groups. It reviews factors that qualify or limit the effectiveness of self-affirmations, including situations where affirmations backfire, and lead to greater defensiveness and discrimination. The chapter discusses the connection of self-affirmations theory to other motivational theories of self-defense and reviews relevant theoretical and empirical advances. It concludes with a discussion of the implications of self-affirmations theory for interpersonal relationships and coping.
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This paper shows that, consistent with a signaling-by-consuming model à la Veblen, income elasticities can be predicted from the visibility of consumer expenditures. We outline a stylized conspicuous consumption model where income elasticity is endogenously predicted to be higher if a good is visible and lower if it is not. We then develop a survey-based measure of expenditure visibility, ranking different expenditures by how noticeable they are to others. Finally, we show that our visibility measure predicts up to one-third of the observed variation in elasticities across consumption categories in U.S. data. © 2011 The President and Fellows of Harvard College and the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
Book
'Conspicuous consumption of valuable goods is a means of reputability to the gentleman of leisure.' In The Theory of the Leisure Class Thorstein Veblen sets out 'to discuss the place and value of the leisure class as an economic factor in modern life'. In so doing he produced a landmark study of affluent American society that exposes, with brilliant ruthlessness, the habits of production and waste that link invidious business tactics and barbaric social behaviour. Veblen's analysis of the evolutionary process sees greed as the overriding motive in the modern economy; with an impartial gaze he examines the human cost paid when social institutions exploit the consumption of unessential goods for the sake of personal profit. Fashion, beauty, animals, sports, the home, the clergy, scholars - all are assessed for their true usefulness and found wanting. The targets of Veblen's coruscating satire are as evident today as they were a century ago, and his book still has the power to shock and enlighten. Veblen's uncompromising arguments and the influential literary force of his writing are assessed in Martha Banta's Introduction.
Article
Assuming that the utility of each agent depends on its relative wealth position in the society, this paper constructs an endogenous growth model. It is shown that even if the subjective discount rates differ across agents, there exists a unique balanced growth equilibrium in which each agent owns a positive share of the world wealth. It is also shown that if the agents are identical then an increase in savings incentives always raises the long run growth rate but if they are heterogeneous then an increase in savings incentives may lower the long run growth rate.
Article
Nearly all applied work in consumer demand assumes that the preference functions of individuals are independent, thereby ruling out status consumption and other inter-personal comparison motivations. Surprisingly, the validity of the “independence” assumption has not been tested. However, it is feasible to conduct tests which differentiate between status-motivated demand and consumer demand in which no status motivations are present. This paper provides such a test, which is based on the fact status consumption ordinarily occurs only with publically visible products. We investigate brand buying patterns among four cosmetics product, and find, as hypothesized, that visible status goods have a lower price-quality correlation (i.e., a higher status premium) and that the pattern of brand buying favors higher-priced (i.e., status) brands. We also find, as expected, that income and occupational status are positively associated with the propensity to engage in status-purchasing, as are urban and suburban residence, and being a Caucasian.PsycINFO classification: 3900
Article
We present a model of endogenous growth in which a desire for social status lead individuals to care about their relative wealth. The growth rate of the economy is socially optimal if the status motive is sufficiently important, but the presence of status seeking may also lead to excessive growth.
Article
Abstract This essay traces the development of the research enterprise, known as the social resources theory, which formulated and tested a number of propositions concerning the relationships between embedded resources in social networks and socioeconomic attainment. This enterprise, seen in the light of social capital, has accumulated a substantial body of research literature and supported the proposition that social capital, in terms of both access and mobilization of embedded resources, enhances the chances of attaining better statuses. Further, social capital is contingent on initial positions in the social hierarchies as well as on extensity of social ties. The essay concludes with a discussion of remaining critical issues and future research directions for this research enterprise.
Article
The authors examined social class differences in 2 aspects of the sense of control (mastery and perceived constraints) in 3 national probability samples of men and women ages 25-75 years (N1 = 1,014; N2 = 1,195; N3 = 3,485). Participants with lower income had lower perceived mastery and higher perceived constraints, as well as poorer health. Results of hierarchical multiple regression analyses showed that for all income groups, higher perceived mastery and lower perceived constraints were related to better health, greater life satisfaction, and lower depressive symptoms. However, control beliefs played a moderating role; participants in the lowest income group with a high sense of control showed levels of health and well-being comparable with the higher income groups. The results provided some evidence that psychosocial variables such as sense of control may be useful in understanding social class differences in health.
Article
Using nationally representative data on consumption, we show that Blacks and Hispanics devote larger shares of their expenditure bundles to visible goods (clothing, jewelry, and cars) than do comparable Whites. These differences exist among virtually all subpopulations, are relatively constant over time, and are economically large. Although racial differences in utility preference parameters might account for a portion of these consumption differences, we emphasize instead a model of status seeking in which conspicuous consumption is used as a costly indicator of a household's economic position. Using merged data on race- and state-level income, we demonstrate that a key prediction of the status-signaling model—that visible consumption should be declining in reference group income—is strongly borne out in the data for each racial group. Moreover, we show that accounting for differences in reference group income characteristics explains most of the racial difference in visible consumption.
Article
Three experiments examine how power affects consumers' spending propensities. By integrating literatures suggesting that (a) powerlessness is aversive, (b) status is one basis of power, and (c) products can signal status, the authors argue that low power fosters a desire to acquire products associated with status to compensate for lacking power. Supporting this compensatory hypothesis, results show that low power increased consumers' willingness to pay for auction items and consumers' reservation prices in negotiations but only when products were status related. The link between powerlessness and compensatory consumption has broad implications both for consumers' health and well-being and for understanding the psychological state of power. (c) 2008 by JOURNAL OF CONSUMER RESEARCH, Inc..
Article
As technology has simplified meeting basic needs, humans have cultivated increasingly psychological avenues for occupying their consumption energies, moving from consuming food to consuming concepts; we propose that consideration of such "conceptual consumption" is essential for understanding human consumption. We first review how four classes of conceptual consumption-consuming expectancies, goals, fluency, and regulatory fit-impact physical consumption. Next, we benchmark the power of conceptual consumption against physical consumption, reviewing research in which people forgo positive physical consumption-and even choose negative physical consumption-in order to engage in conceptual consumption. Finally, we outline how conceptual consumption informs research examining both preference formation and virtual consumption, and how it may be used to augment efforts to enhance consumer welfare.
Article
Hypotheses involving mediation are common in the behavioral sciences. Mediation exists when a predictor affects a dependent variable indirectly through at least one intervening variable, or mediator. Methods to assess mediation involving multiple simultaneous mediators have received little attention in the methodological literature despite a clear need. We provide an overview of simple and multiple mediation and explore three approaches that can be used to investigate indirect processes, as well as methods for contrasting two or more mediators within a single model. We present an illustrative example, assessing and contrasting potential mediators of the relationship between the helpfulness of socialization agents and job satisfaction. We also provide SAS and SPSS macros, as well as Mplus and LISREL syntax, to facilitate the use of these methods in applications.
Article
In recent studies of the structure of affect, positive and negative affect have consistently emerged as two dominant and relatively independent dimensions. A number of mood scales have been created to measure these factors; however, many existing measures are inadequate, showing low reliability or poor convergent or discriminant validity. To fill the need for reliable and valid Positive Affect and Negative Affect scales that are also brief and easy to administer, we developed two 10-item mood scales that comprise the Positive and Negative Affect Schedule (PANAS). The scales are shown to be highly internally consistent, largely uncorrelated, and stable at appropriate levels over a 2-month time period. Normative data and factorial and external evidence of convergent and discriminant validity for the scales are also presented.