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Extraction of essential oils from five cinnamon leaves and identification of their volatile compound compositions
Abstract
Five cinnamon species, viz. Cinnamomum cassia, Cinnamomum zeylanicum, Cinnamomum tamala, Cinnamomum burmannii, Cinnamomum pauciflorum, were chosen to prepare essential oils by hydrodistillation and to identify and quantify their volatile compound compositions. C. cassia was determined to have the highest yield (1.54%) of essential oil, followed by C. zeylanicum, C. pauciflorum, C. burmannii and C. tamala. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) was used to identify and quantify the volatile compound composition. The results indicated the apparent difference in the volatile compound compositions of essential oils between species. The total numbers of volatile compounds identified from C. cassia, C. zeylanicum, C. tamala, C. burmannii and C. pauciflorum leaves were 22, 22, 13, 6 and 21, respectively. trans-Cinnamaldehyde was found in the essential oil of each species, which was also the major volatile component of C. cassia and C. burmannii leaves. Besides trans-cinnamaldehyde, 3-methoxy-1,2-propanediol was the main volatile compound of C. cassia leaf, while eugenol of C. zeylanicumand, C. pauciflorum and C. burmannii leaves, and 5-(2-propenyl)-1,3-benzodioxole of C. tamala leaf were also the main substances.Industrial relevanceThe essential oil of cinnamon is an important bioactive substance which has many disease prevention effects. In this work, five species of cinnamon leaves were chosen as materials to prepare the essential oils. The yield of essential oil was determined. The volatile compounds of essential oil were identified by GC/MS analysis. The results showed the significant difference of volatile compound composition between species. trans-Cinnamaldehyde was detected to exist in all the species tested as an important volatile component. This work is helpful for extensive development of this medicinal herb.
... In this study, the extraction of the cinnamon essential oil was carried out by hydrodistillation in a Clavenger-type apparatus in accordance with the method of Wang et al. (2009) with slight modification and using Soxhlet extraction in accordance with the method of Mustafa and Hilal (2004) using three different solvents which are dichloromethane (DCM), hexane and petroleum ether. The cinnamon essential oil was analyzed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) to determine the chemical compound especially the cinnamaldehyde. ...
... The cinnamon essential oil was extracted by using hydrodistilation with a Clevenger type apparatus (Wang et al., 2009) with slight modification. About 30 gm of precisely weighed of cinnamon bark powder has been put into 500 mL distillation flask with four boiling chip and 300 mL of distilled water was poured into the flask. ...
... Extraction of cinnamon essential oil was also carried out by hydrodistillation method with conditions at ambient pressure of 1 atm, at temperature of 80 ºC and extraction time of 6 hrs. Cinnamon essential oil obtained via this method showed slightly higher about 1.82 % compared to Wang et al., (2009) which reported about 0.78-1.54 % only. ...
The potential of Cinnamon essential oil as a natural insecticides and ants repellent was studied. Cinnamon cassia bark was extracted using hydrodistillation and soxhlet extraction method with three different solvents i. e. petroleum ether, hexane and dichloromethane. All extraction was carried out for 6 hours at 1 atm. The highest yield of cinnamon oil was obtained by soxhlet extraction in dichloromethane, followed by hexane and petroleum ether were 5.22 %, 3.84 % and 3.71 %, respectively. While only 1.82 % yields of cinnamon essential oil extracted when using hydrodistillation method. The volatile compounds of cinnamon essential oil were identified using GC-MS analysis. The results indicated that 9 major volatile compound were presence such as alcohols, aldehydes, alkenes, carboxylic acids, ether, ester and ketone in the cinnamon essential oil extracted by hydrodistillation. Trans-cinnamaldehyde was found to be the major volatile compound with the highest percentage of 86.67 % by soxhlet extraction using hexane. The repellency and insecticidal activity of cinnamon oil by hydrodistillation method obtained was directly exposed to specimen i.e., ants. The repellency and insecticidal activity of cinnamon essential oil was compared through different concentration of fabricated repellency paper. As a conclusion, solvent extraction shows an effective method on cinnamon essential oil extraction with positive insecticidal and repellent activity on ants.
... In literature, it has been reported that essential oils are very complex mixtures of compounds and many variations have been found in their chemical composition (Olukayode & Abiodun, 2024). According to Singh et al., (2018) and Wang et al., (2019), some variations in the chemical composition of distilled oils is considerably not only due to the existence of different subspecies, but can also be attributed to the varied agro-climatic condition (climatic, seasonal, geographic) of the regions, stage of maturity, adaptive metabolism of plants, distillation conditions, the plant part analyzed and some other factors. ...
The aim of the study was to characterize and determine the bioactive potentials of essential oils from selected Nigerian spices [Piper guineense (African black pepper), Afromomum danielli (African cardamom) and Afrostyrax lepidophyllus (country onion)] in Nigeria. Spices are popular among Nigerians, although most of the Nigerian spices grow in the wild. Some of these spices are lesser known owing to the localization of their usage and their under- utilization. Spices owe its biological and physiological to the presence of varying types of essential oils. The essential oils from these selected spices were extracted using steam distillation method and stored in a plastic container for analysis. The bioactive compounds present in the oils were identified using Gas Chromatography Mass Spectrometer (GC-MS). The results of the bioactive compounds of the EOs showed P. guineense had the least number of bioactive compounds (2-Octyl acetate, linalyl acetate, α-humulene, caryophyllene oxide, β-carophyllene, β-selinene, (E)-nerolidol and zingerone), followed by A. danielli (1,8-cineole, linalool, terpinen-4-ol, trans-(β)-ocimene, α-terpineol, carophyllene oxide, (Z)-linalool oxide (furanoid) and (E) linalool oxide (furanoid)), while A. lepidophyllus had the highest (1,2-benzenediol, 1,2-bis (trimethylsily) benzene, 1,4-phenylenebis (trimethyl), 2,2-dimethylpropanoic acid, 2-pyridinemethanamine, dimethyl trisulfide, disulfide, furan, methanamine, methyltris (trimethylsiloxane) silane, silicic acid and tetrasiloxane). The most abundant compound identified in P. guineense were 2-Octyl acetate and linalyl acetate which had relative abundance of 60.40% and 16.50% respectively. The most abundant compounds identified in A. danielli were 1,8-cineole and linalool with relative abundance of 37.20% and 31.30% respectively, while for A. lepidophyllus the most abundant was disulphide with the relative abundance of 52.30%. These bioactive compounds further suggest the antimicrobial and preservative properties of the oils.
... Research on natural compounds from plants suggests a potential practical alternative to synthetic fungicides [6][7][8][9][10][11] . Ocimum essential oils (EOs) and their components have been found very effective antimicrobial, eco-friendly biocontrol agents 36 . ...
Essential oils of basil herbs such as nyazbo or sweet basil (Ocimum basilicum), holy basil or tulsi (O. tenuiflorum), and African or clove basil (O. gratissimum) have traditionally been used for their therapeutic potential. These medicinal herbs are being cultivated and consumed globally, and the increasing demand for antimicrobial and antifungal natural products has led to the assessment of the potential of essential oils of medicinal plants to inhibit mycelial growth rather than synthetic fungicides. Thus, the present study explored natural alternatives to inhibit mycelial growth (Aspergilus flavus) and aflatoxin production. Linalool (25.40%), methyl chavicol (37.63%), and eugenol (39.52%) were identified as chief compounds in the EOs of O. basilicum, O. tenuiflorum, and O. gratissimum respectively. Ocimum tenuiflorum EO demonstrated the highest inhibitory activity at 0.75 µL mL− 1 against Aspergillus flavus and totally inhibited the synthesis of aflatoxin B1 (AFB1). The AFB2 production was completely inhibited at 0.25 µL mL− 1 by O. tenuiflorum EO, while O. basilicum and O. gratissimum EOs showed inhibition against AFB2 at 0.50 µL mL− 1, and 1.0 µL mL− 1, respectively. The present study suggests that EOs of basil herbs could be a potential natural alternative of synthetic fungicides to inhibit the fungal growth and aflatoxin production.
... In particular, the borneol-type essential oil is an important raw material for cosmetics and medicine due to the better permeability and antibacterial properties of borneol [23]. In the past few decades, the studies of C. burmannii mainly focused on the extraction, composition analysis of the compounds and biological activity [21,[24][25][26], but there is only limited research on gene regulation [27][28][29]. To some extent, this hindered the genetic improvement of the crop, and understanding the biological function of this crop is very important for further molecular breeding. ...
In recent years, the field of biology has witnessed a surge of interest in genomics research due to the advancements in biotechnology. Gene expression pattern analysis plays a crucial role in this research, as it enables us to understand the regulatory mechanism of gene expression and the associated biological processes. Real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (q-PCR) is an efficient method to analyze the gene expression patterns, for which accuracy relies on the standardized analysis of reference genes. However, numerous studies have shown that no reference gene is universal in all conditions, so screening a suitable reference gene under certain conditions is of great importance. Cinnamomum burmannii (C. burmannii) is rich in volatile components and has high medicinal and economic value. However, knowledge of the screening of reference genes for the gene expression analysis of C. burmannii is insufficient. Aiming at this problem, we evaluated and screened the reference genes in C. burmannii under different experimental conditions, including different abiotic stresses (Cold-treated, PEG-treated and Nacl-treated), different tissues, leaves at different developmental stages and different chemical types. In this study, different algorithms (∆Ct, geNorm, NormFinder and BestKeeper) were used to evaluate the stability of the candidate reference genes, and RefFinder further merged the output data to screen out the optimum reference gene under various experimental conditions in C. burmannii. The results showed that the optimal reference gene number for gene standardization was 2 under different experimental conditions. RPL27|RPS15 was the most suitable combination under the Nacl-treated and PEG-treated samples. RPL27|APT was the optimum combination under the Cold-treated samples. The optimal combinations of other samples were EF1α|ACT7 for different tissues, eIF-5A|Gllα for different borneol clones in C. burmannii, RPS15|ACT7 for leaves at different developmental stages and RPS15|TATA for all samples. Additionally, two terpenoid synthesis-related genes (CbWRKY4 and CbDXS2) were standardized to verify the feasibility of the selected reference genes under different experimental conditions. This study will be helpful for the subsequent molecular genetic mechanism study of C. burmannii.
... This plant species naturally occurred in Sri Lanka, India and Madagascar islands and widely used in the cooking of diverse ethnicity around the world . C. verum, especially its essential oil has been shown to possess several biological and pharmacological properties, including, antibacterial, antifungal, antidiabetic, astringent, antioxidant, anticancer, anti-inflammatory and antinociceptive activities (Ahmed et al., 2020;Gogoi et al., 2021;Wang et al., 2009). Taking the preceding facts into consideration, this study aimed to investigate the chemical composition of Cinnamomum verum essential oil (EO) and assess their antibacterial, antifungal and antioxidant properties. ...
This study aims to investigate the chemical composition, antibacterial, antifungal, and antioxidant properties of C. verum essential oil (EO). The antimicrobial potential of C. verum EO was examined against a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, molds, and yeasts, including Micrococcus luteus, Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli, Klebsiella aerogenes, Salmonella enterica, Penicillium expansum, Candida albicans, and Candida tropicalis. The results revealed that C. verum EO exhibited significant broad-spectrum antimicrobial efficacy against all examined microorganisms, with inhibition zones ranging from 32.36 ± 2.42 to 13.9 ± 1.47mm for bacteria and from 22.13 ± 2.25 to 15.26 ± 0.73 mm for fungi. Additionally, low values of minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), minimum bactericidal concentration (MBC), and minimum fungicidal concentration (MFC) ranging from 0.031 to 1.0 % (v/v) for bacteria and from 0.125 to 1.0 % (v/v) for fungi were obtained. The MBC/MIC and MFC/MIC ratios demonstrated that C. verum EO could potentially have bactericidal and fungicidal effects on microbial cells. Furthermore, the study also revealed that C. verum EO exhibited remarkable antioxidant activities using three complementary methods, namely DPPH, ABTS, and FRAP assays. The gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS) analysis of C. verum EO showed the presence of cinnamaldehyde dimethyl acetal (64.53%), cinnamic aldehyde (35.36%), and α-copaene (0.11%). In addition to the in vitro investigation, a computational analysis was carried out using molecular docking and ADMET analysis. The primary aim of the molecular docking study was to understand how the ligands interacted with the specific proteins involved in the biological activities under study. This analysis provided valua-ble information about the binding modes, affinities, and potential interactions between the ligands and the target proteins. On the other hand, the ADMET analysis focused on evaluating various pharmacoki-netic properties of C. verum EO, shedding light on its absorption, distribution, metabolism, and other relevant characteristics. In conclusion, the findings of this study indicate that C. verum EO possesses significant antimicrobial and antioxidant properties, making it a valuable source of natural preservatives and antimicrobial and antioxidant agents for use in various food products and drugs.
Keywords: Cinnamomum verum, essential oil, antibacterial, antifungal, antioxidant, computational study, molecular docking.
Essential oils (EOs) are the most valuable constituents of aromatic plants. EOs are used in various industries linked to their biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant, and anticancer activities. Nowadays, EOs are ingredients of many products, such as food preservatives and pharmaceuticals, to prevent and treat many health problems. They are also indispensable components in aromatherapy and cosmetic products. Moreover, EOs showed promising results as penetration enhancers for the improvement of bioavailability of many drugs. As science evolved, many modern techniques have been introduced for the extraction of EOs, such as supercritical fluid extraction, microwave-assisted extraction, pressurized liquid extraction, and ultrasonic extraction, besides the traditional ones. These methods are critical to preserving EOs efficacy and quality, where the EOs can be produced with different qualities and chemical compositions according to the utilized technique. In fact, the different composition of EOs, especially the major compounds, subsequently affects their biological activities and hence their applications. The proposed review provides a comprehensive overview of the current methodologies for the extraction of EOs, emphasizing their implications on both chemical composition and biological activity. The introduced up-to-date research findings present a holistic view of the extraction landscape and provide valuable insights that can guide future research and practical applications in various fields. Additionally, the importance of sustainability in extraction practices is highlighted, proposing eco-friendly methods that can preserve environmental safety, while ensuring high-quality EOs production.
Croton sylvaticus, a tropical African plant, is traditionally used to treat several diseases, including fever, inflammation, and malaria. Essential oils (EOs) from the plant’s leaves, roots, and trunk bark were obtained by hydrodistillation, and their chemical composition was analyzed by gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC-MS). The major constituents identified were virdiflorene (18.13 ± 0.46%) in root EO, (E)-β-caryophyllene (18.40 ± 0.60%) in trunk bark EO, and farnesyl acetone (15.26 ± 0.25%) in leaf EO. Notably, Cameroonian C. sylvaticus leaf EO exhibited a distinct and newly described chemotype with high levels of farnesyl acetone, β-copaene-4-α-ol, β-cadinene, α-humulene, and trans-longipinocarveol. In vitro testing revealed significant antiplasmodial activity against Plasmodium falciparum asexual (Pf3D7) and sexual (NF-54 strain) stages, with trunk bark EO showing the highest potency (IC50: 9.06 ± 2.15 µg/mL for Pf3D7 and 0.56 µg/mL for gametocytes). These findings support the traditional antimalarial use of C. sylvaticus and represent the first chemical profile and antiplasmodial efficacy report for its root and trunk bark EOs against both parasite stages. To the best of our knowledge, we also report for the first time the antiplasmodial activity of an EO that exerts significant activity against both the asexual and sexual forms of P. falciparum.
This study aims to evaluate the antioxidant and antimicrobial effects of garden cress seeds at various percentages (2, 5, and 7%) on the quality of beef burgers stored at 4 °C for 7, 14, and 21 days. The results showed that increasing the garden cress seeds percentage in the beef burger resulted in lower moisture content and higher ash content. Gas chromatography analysis revealed that cress seeds contained high levels of benzoic acid compounds (45.74%). The antioxidant percentages were 89.87% for the ABTS and 82.09% for the DPPH test. The peroxide values and aerobic counts in beef burgers increased significantly (p < 0.05) over time during storage but, significantly decreased (p < 0.05) with increasing the percentage of garden cress seeds. Sensory evaluation of beef burgers indicated a notable decline (p < 0.05) in overall acceptability with higher percentages of garden cress seeds. The texture, aroma, shape, and overall acceptability differed significantly between the control sample and those fortified with garden cress seeds. In conclusion, adding garden cress seeds powder in a 2%–7% ratio to beef burgers as a natural antioxidant can prolong their shelf life without affecting their taste or quality.
Pseudomonas aeruginosa causes nosocomial infections and chronic diseases. Cinnamomum cassia and Syzygium aromaticum are used natural antimicrobials. Essential oil (EO) from C. cassia (CCEO) and S. aromaticum (CEO) was characterized using GC-MS analysis. Eugenol (82.31%), eugenol acetate (10.57%), and β-caryophyllene (3.41%) were major constituents in CEO while cinnamaldehyde (88.18%), cinnamyl acetate (2.85%) and 2-methoxy cinnamaldehyde (1.77%) were main components in CCEO. The EOs and major constituents exhibited good antimicrobial activity against clinical strains of P. aeruginosa. Cinnamaldehyde exhibited the best antimicrobial effect with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC) as low as 0.031% ± 0.07% (v/v) and inhibition zones reaching 30 ± 0.5 mm diameter. Test samples showed antibiofilm activities against two culture types and seven clinical strains of P. aeruginosa at concentrations of 2MIC to MIC/4. CCEO and its major constituent cinnamaldehyde were more active, compared to CEO and its major constituent eugenol. Scanning electron microscopy images showed untreated colonies with well-developed biofilms while there was significant reduction of biofilms with distorted architecture and cell shrinkage upon treatment with test samples. In silico studies indicated great interactions between the major compounds, eugenol and cinnamaldehyde, with the receptor proteins of P. aeruginosa revealed by negative binding energies. Eugenol and cinnamaldehyde exhibited appreciable druglikeness.
Active, fully biobased film-forming dispersions (FFDs) with highly promising results for sliced soft bread preservation were successfully elaborated from carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) and chitosan (CH) using a simple method based on pH adjustments. They consisted of the association of polysaccharides and oleic acid (OL) added with cinnamon (CEO) or ginger (GEO) essential oils. The chemical compositions of the commercial essential oils were first determined via GC/MS, with less than 3% of compounds unidentified. The films obtained from FFDs were characterized by SEM, FTIR and DSC, indicating specific microstructures and some interactions between essential oils and the polymer matrix. CEO-based films exhibited higher antioxidant properties and a lower minimal inhibitory concentration in terms of antifungal properties. From experiments on sliced soft bread, the ginger-based films could increase the shelf life up to 20 days longer than that of the control. Even more promising, cinnamon-based films led to complete fungal inhibition in bread slices that was maintained beyond 60 days. Enumeration of the yeasts and molds for the FFD-coated breads revealed complete inhibition even after 15 days of storage with the FFDs containing the highest concentration of CEO.
Cinnamon (Cinnamomum cassia (L.) J.Presl) barks has been a regularly consumed dietary additive due to its rich flavor. Beyond nutritional aims, cinnamon components may present co-benefits during lifelong usage. Discovery...
Cinnamomum cassia Presl is a major food spice as well as traditional herbal medicine with anti-inflammatory, analgesic, and stomachic properties, which must be dried to preserve its quality, but mostly by using traditional, ineffective drying method. In order to find a scientific drying method by evaluating different drying methods that could influence the quality of C. cassia, ten indices were employed to evaluate different drying methods in C. cassia using the Analytic Hierarchy Process (AHP) method though calculating the total scores and ranking the priority. Four quality markers (Q-Markers) (coumarin, cinnamyl alcohol, cinnamaldehyde and o-methoxycinnamaldehyde) were isolated from the samples and analyzed by high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method under different drying methods. The results showed that various drying methods had multiple effects on the physicochemical qualities, essential oil content, and Q-Marker contents. Compared with other drying methods, oven-drying of 45 °C (45OD) maintained optimal levels of color and aroma, it also significantly shortened the drying time by 225 h than traditionally shade-drying (SHD) method with the drying rate (48.35 %), and obtained the highest essential oil content (3.05 %) and Q-Marker contents (30.23 mg g⁻¹). Furthermore, the ash content (4.22 %) were satisfied with the stipulation of Chinese pharmacopoeia in 45OD samples. Applying AHP allowed us to identify 45OD as the optimal drying method with the highest total score (9.00), followed by the traditional shade-drying (SHD) method (7.88). The present study is the first report to apply the AHP method for quality evaluation of drying processing in C. cassia. It can provide the theoretical basis for evaluating an excellent method for C. cassia drying processing, as well as the rational use of different drying methods to furtherly develop the high quality C. cassia industry.
The chemical profiles of essential oils (EOs) of 7 Cinnamomum species (C. sulphuratum, C. perotettii, C. verum, C. wightii, C. camphora, C. glanduliferum, and C. malabatrum) composed from assorted parts of Western Ghats were analyzed. The antioxidant, antibacterial, and larvicidal potentialities of 7 essential oils were also investigated. Cinnamomum verum was observed to have the maximum yield (1.96%) of EO followed by C. malabatrum (1.71%). GC-MS analysis of EOs reported the highest amount of eugenol (38.04%), shyobunol (13.31%) in C. verum, whereas C. perrottetii identified 14–42 phytocompounds including terpenes, sesquiterpenes, monoterpenes, diterpenes, and phenylpropanoids, esters, aldehydes, and fatty acids. In the antibacterial activity, the higher zone of inhibition of C. malabatrum showed against S. pyogenes (28 ± 2.5 mm) and E. faecalis (27 ± 1.24 mm) followed by C. verum has shown notable inhibition zone against K. pneumoniae (26 ± 1.15 mm) and S. flexneri (24.33 ± 0.88 mm), with MIC value against C. verum, showed MIC value (1.17 ± 0.34 μg/mL) against S. flexneri, S. pyogenes, and K. pneumonia. All the Cinnamomum oil samples exhibited appreciable antioxidant radical scavenging activities with IC50 values ranged 10.83–15.06 μg/mL. All the oil samples showed promising larvicidal activity against the late-third instar larvae of Aedes aegypti. Extending the present study with in vivo and in vitro animal studies will confirm the potentiality of Cinnamomum oils in the field of biomedicine to detect novel medicines.
This research aimed to assess the potential of active food packaging as an innovative approach to enhance the
quality of fresh food products. Specifically, our focus was on developing chitosan edible films combined with
rosemary nanoemulsion (Ch-RNE) and carvacrol nano-emulsion (Ch-CNE) as effective antibacterial food pack-
aging solutions. The efficacy of these films against artificially inoculated L. monocytogenes (NCTC 13372\ ATCC®
7644) as a Gram-positive bacterium, and S. enterica serovar Typhimurium (ATCC 14028) as a Gram-negative
bacterium, in ground meat was investigated. The size of the prepared nano-emulsions was characterized using
zeta sizer, FTIR and HRTEM. The MIC of both nano-emulsions against both pathogens was found to be 0.78 %
and 1.56 %. Filmogenic mixtures were casted using these concentrations, which were then dried and evaluated
for their physical and mechanical properties.
This work aimed to identify the chemical compounds of Cinnamomum burmannii leaf essential oil (CBLEO) and to unravel the antibacterial mechanism of CBLEO at the molecular level for developing antimicrobials. CBLEO had 37 volatile compounds with abundant borneol (28.40%) and showed good potential to control foodborne pathogens, of which Staphylococcus aureus had the greatest inhibition zone diameter (28.72 mm) with the lowest values of minimum inhibitory concentration (1.0 μg/mL) and bactericidal concentration (2.0 μg/mL). To unravel the antibacterial action of CBLEO on S. aureus, a dynamic exploration of antibacterial growth, material leakage, ROS formation, protein oxidation, cell morphology, and interaction with genome DNA was conducted on S. aureus exposed to CBLEO at different doses (1/2–2×MIC) and times (0–24 h), indicating that CBLEO acts as an inducer for ROS production and the oxidative stress of S. aureus. To highlight the antibacterial action of CBLEO on S. aureus at the molecular level, we performed a comparative association of ROS accumulation with some key virulence-related gene (sigB/agrA/sarA/icaA/cidA/rsbU) transcription, protease production, and biofilm formation in S. aureus subjected to CBLEO at different levels and times, revealing that CBLEO-induced oxidative stress caused transcript suppression of virulence regulators (RsbU and SigB) and its targeted genes, causing a protease level increase destined for the biofilm formation and growth inhibition of S. aureus, which may be a key bactericidal action. Our findings provide valuable information for studying the antibacterial mechanism of essential oil against pathogens.
The aim of this paper was to obtain bioactive textiles suitable for skin applications using a polymeric bioactive system based on xanthan-propolis-cinnamon essential oil. Oil-in-water emulsion was immobilized by padding method on two weave fabrics made from 100% cotton yarns (V1) and 100% cotton yarns in warp direction blended with 80% cotton/20% SmartcelTM Sensitive in weft direction (V2). The functionalized textiles were characterized regarding their physical-mechanical characteristics, hydrophilicity, and antibacterial activity. Cell viability, membrane integrity, and inflammation status of the functionalized fabrics were evaluated on HaCaT human keratinocytes. Mass of both textile fabrics increased depending on the amount of immobilized emulsion that remained after the functionalization process. Slightly lower values of hydrophilicity were obtained for both fabrics that showed a wettability of 1.30 seconds. Water vapor permeability and air permeability had lower values compared to control. An antibacterial activitiy was observed for both samples against Escherichia coli and Staphylococcus aureus. The organization of filamentous actin in cells cultured in the presence of bioactive textiles was kept within the normal limits. V2 sample displayed good biocompatibility without skin irritation, recommending for further dressings and clothes with medical applications or daily usage.
Background
Cinnamomum cassia Presl, classified in the Lauraceae family, is widely used as a spice, but also in medicine, cosmetics, and food. Aroma is an important factor affecting the medicinal and flavoring properties of C. cassia, and is mainly determined by volatile organic compounds (VOCs); however, little is known about the composition of aromatic VOCs in C. cassia and their potential molecular regulatory mechanisms. Here, integrated transcriptomic and volatile metabolomic analyses were employed to provide insights into the formation regularity of aromatic VOCs in C. cassia bark at five different harvesting times.
Results
The bark thickness and volatile oil content were significantly increased along with the development of the bark. A total of 724 differentially accumulated volatiles (DAVs) were identified in the bark samples, most of which were terpenoids. Venn analysis of the top 100 VOCs in each period showed that twenty-eight aromatic VOCs were significantly accumulated in different harvesting times. The most abundant VOC, cinnamaldehyde, peaked at 120 months after planting (MAP) and dominated the aroma qualities. Five terpenoids, α-copaene, β-bourbonene, α-cubebene, α-funebrene, and δ-cadinene, that peaked at 240 MAP could also be important in creating C. cassia’s characteristic aroma. A list of 43,412 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) involved in the biosynthetic pathways of aromatic VOCs were identified, including phenylpropanoids, mevalonic acid (MVA) and methylerythritol phosphate (MEP). A gene-metabolite regulatory network for terpenoid and phenylpropanoid metabolism was constructed to show the key candidate structural genes and transcription factors involved in the biosynthesis of terpenoids and phenylpropanoids.
Conclusions
The results of our research revealed the composition and changes of aromatic VOCs in C. cassia bark at different harvesting stages, differentiated the characteristic aroma components of cinnamon, and illuminated the molecular mechanism of aroma formation. These foundational results will provide technical guidance for the quality breeding of C. cassia.
Hydrodistillation methods have been used to extract essential oils from medicinal and aromatic plants for decades. This article provides a cutting-edge review of the hydrodistillation methods used for essential oil extraction to assess their efficacy. Ten medicinal and aromatic plants were chosen for this evaluation. This investigation found the highest essential oil concentration in Clove buds (11.6%) and the lowest in Basil (1.1%). Hydrodistillation is the most effective method for extracting spices such as Cloves, Cumin, Ginger, Mentha, Dill seeds, Lemongrass, and Basil. Instead , steam distillation proved to be the most effective technique for extracting Lavender, Orange peels, and Eucalyptus. It has been revealed that ohmic-assisted hydrodistillation is the most effective and successful technique for essential oils extraction. Compared to other hydrodistilla-tion techniques, ohmic-assisted hydrodistillation uses the least energy. Consequently, it is the cleaner technology for essential oils extraction. Many researchers have successfully extracted essential oils using solar energy. Clove produced the most excellent yield, 55 mL/kg, while Peppermint produced the lowest yield, 0.49 mL/day, utilising solar energy-assisted hydrodistillation. Based on the study results, it is evident that the ohmic-assisted hydrodistillation system must be optimised for essential oils extraction since it can offer a higher yield in the shortest time.
α-guaiene is one of the primary sesquiterpene compounds used as a flavor and fragrance agent in patchouli oil. The fraction of patchouli oil that is rich in α-guaiene has been successfully isolated. In the present work, α-guaiene was isolated from crude patchouli oil through vacuum fractional distillation followed by GC-MS identification. Three important process parameters—feed volume, reflux ratio, and applied run pressure—were investigated and optimized using Box–Behnken design. The research methodology was an experimental laboratory using response surface methodology (RSM) with a feed volume level from 75 mL to 125 mL, a reflux ratio from 10:1 to 30:1, and an applied run pressure from 5 mmHg to 15 mmHg. The α-guaiene-enriched fraction was found in the first distillate fraction patchouli. The optimum condition that generated α-guaiene fraction at 44.70% purity was the treatment with a feed volume of 75 mL, a reflux ratio of 24:1, and applied run pressure of 14.80 mmHg. Results indicated that feed volume did not significantly affect the α-guaiene content, while the applied run pressure and reflux ratio used had a significant effect. A quadratic mathematical model with R2 0.861 and validation 96.14% was suitable for predicting the optimum α-guaiene fraction content during the vacuum fractional distillation process.
Cinnamon leaf essential oil extraction using steam distillation method is a time-consuming and energy-intensive process. Furthermore, a lower yield and a higher rate of product degradation are this method’s main drawbacks. Thus, the goal of this research is to optimize the extraction process parameters of cinnamon leaf essential oil in response to maximizing the yield while retaining quality by using response surface methodology (RSM). The application of extracted essential oil on minced beef to assess its preservative effect was also the other objective of this research. Extraction time (120–210 min), extraction temperature (105–115 ℃), and feed mass (300–600 g) were the chosen independent variables of the optimization experiment using central composite design (CCD). Furthermore, the extracted essential oil’s antibacterial and microbiological preservative activity on minced beef was evaluated. At extraction time of 175.43 min, extraction temperature of 105 °C, and a feed mass of 600 g, the optimum predicted value of cinnamon leaf essential oil yield and cinnamaldehyde concentration (% area) was 2.9% and 34.6%, respectively. Moreover, the second-order polynomial equation fits the experimental data for 20-run experimental data. The chemical composition of cinnamon leaf essential oil extracted at optimal conditions was dominated by eugenol (60.68%) and cinnamaldehyde (33.94%). Additionally, the optimally extracted cinnamon essential oil inhibited the growth of bacteria, particularly gram-positive bacteria. After twenty-one days of storage at 4 °C, total viable count of minced beef seasoned with cinnamon essential oil at concentration of 1.2% (v/v) was lower than 106 CFU/g. To conclude, optimized cinnamon leaf essential oil extraction process provides better yield while retaining its functional properties.
Cinnamon is an important commodity for several countries. Among the more than 250 known species, four have the highest added values: C. zeylanicum sin. C. verum, C. burmannii, C. loureiroi, C. aromaticum. These varieties are responsible for approximately 90% of the world market for the production and sale of manufactured products, such as powder, bark, extracts, and essential oils, for food industries, pharmaceuticals, and cosmetics.KeywordsNatural productCinnamonSpiceSpeciesIndustry
Hydrodistillation (HD) systems have been popular for essential oils extraction from medicinal and aromatic plants for several decades. Nevertheless, they substantially consume thermal or electrical energy and have a visible carbon footprint on the environment. This article describes a state‐of‐the‐art review of the HD systems used for essential oil extraction to examine their effectiveness. From this study, it has been found that, for a microwave‐assisted system, the yield of an essential oil varies from 0.079% to 8.62%. The microwave‐assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) system yields 32% more than a conventional HD system. The average extraction time saved using the MAHD system is 67.17% compared with the traditional one. Ohmic‐assisted HD system is better than the microwave‐assisted and conventional HD system, with an 18.04% enhancement in the yield. During this study, it is also investigated that for the distillation system operating at atmospheric pressure, the extraction temperature ranges from 80°C to 120°C. This temperature can easily be attained in a solar hydrodistillation system. Several investigators have demonstrated the use of solar energy for essential oil extraction. However, these systems mostly use a concentrating collector, henceforth found bulky and expensive.
Non-communicable diseases, such as cardiovascular disease, cancer, diabetes, obesity, and hypertension, represent the cause of 60% of all deaths around the globe. With proper diet and natural dietary antioxidant supplements, these diseases can be prevented by up to 40% according to the British Nutrition Foundation.
This book provides a comprehensive overview of the literature on the health benefits of natural dietary antioxidant supplements. It presents state-of-the-art research and information as well as the global regulations, labelling, and health claims of natural dietary antioxidant supplements.
Written by expert authors, the wealth of research is arranged by disease type rather than by supplement type making it much more useful to the reader. Filling a gap in the literature, the book is aimed at researchers and professionals working in food chemistry, nutrition, and health benefits.
Several studies have reported the advantages of incorporating essential oils in hydrogel-based films for improving their physiochemical and antioxidant attributes. Cinnamon essential oil (CEO) has great potential in industrial and medicinal applications as an antimicrobial and antioxidant agent. The present study aimed to develop sodium alginate (SA) and acacia gum (AG) hydrogel-based films loaded with CEO. Scanning Electron Microscopy (SEM), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), Differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), and texture analysis (TA) were performed to analyze the structural, crystalline, chemical, thermal, and mechanical behaviour of the edible films that were loaded with CEO. Moreover, the transparency, thickness, barrier, thermal, and color parameters of the prepared hydrogel-based films loaded with CEO were also assessed. The study revealed that as the concentration of oil in the films was raised, the thickness and elongation at break (EAB) increased, while transparency, tensile strength (TS), water vapor permeability (WVP), and moisture content (MC) decreased. As the concentration of CEO increased, the hydrogel-based films demonstrated a significant improvement in their antioxidant properties. Incorporating CEO into the SA–AG composite edible films presents a promising strategy for producing hydrogel-based films with the potential to serve as food packaging materials.
Penelitian ini tentang minuman funsgsional yang berbahan dasar cascara dengan penambahan bubuk kayu manis. Penelitian ini bertujuan mengetahui pengaruh perbandingan kulit buah kopi dengan air serta pengaruh penambahan bubuk kayu manis terhadap sifat fisik dan kimia. Rancangan penelitian yang digunakan dalam penelitian ini adalah Rancangan Blok Lengkap (RBL) 2 faktor yaitu variasi perbandingan Cascara dan Air. Faktor A yaitu variasi Cascara dengan 3 taraf yaitu A1 = 200 g, A2 = 300 g, A3 = 400 g dan faktor B yaitu penambahan kayu manis dengan 3 taraf yaitu B1 = 2%, B2 = 4%, B3 = 8%. Analisis yang dilakukan adalah aktivitas antioksidan, phenol, pH, total padatan terlarut, total dan uji 0rganoleptik. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukan Variasi air dengan teh cascara berpengaruh nyata terhadap uji antioksidan, pH , total padatan terlarut, ,uji kesukaan warna dan rasa, tetapi tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap uji total asam, fenol dan uji kesukaan Aroma. Sedangkan variasi cascara penambahan kayu manis berpengaruh nyata terhadap uji fenol, pH, dan uji total padatan terlarut, tetapi tidak berpengaruh nyata terhadap aktivitas antioksidan, total asam, dan uji kesukaan aroma. Berdasarkan uji kesukaan organoleptik, perlakuan yang paling di sukai penelis adalah perlakuan cascara 400 g dengan penambahan bubuk kayu manis 8%, dengan nilah keseluruhan 5,35 (agak suka).
The purpose of this study was to modify plasticised PVC to obtain a material with antimicrobial properties and selected mechanical properties. Natural cassia oil (CO) was used to modify plasticised PVC materials. The modified material was produced by extrusion. The introduced modifier had a maximum concentration of 20 phr. Rheological and mechanical properties were evaluated, and the glass transition temperature was determined. The antioxidant and antimicrobial activity of the agar diffusion method was investigated by analysing the growth inhibition zones against Enterococcus faecalis and Listeria monocytogenes. A favourable effect of the cassia oil content on the increase in antioxidant activity of the developed polymeric materials was found with an increase in the modifier content and the duration of action (30 days). The largest growth restriction zones were observed for L. monocytogenes, i.e., they showed the highest sensitivity to the modified material. The simultaneous decrease in modulus of elasticity, increase in elongation at break, and decrease in Tg indicate that the modifier has a plasticising effect on PVC. The developed material may find application as an active and/or functional material, especially as an emitter of antimicrobial agents, in the packaging used to store minimally processed food.
Cinnamon ( Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume, syn C verum JS Presl, family Lauraceae) is an important spice and aromatic tree cultivated in Sri Lanka and India. On steam distillation, different parts of cinnamon yield volatile oils of varying composition. In the present investigation the profiles of essential oils isolated from tender twigs bearing reproductive parts, from pedicels of buds and flowers, from buds and flowers, from pedicels of fruits and from fruits were analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and GC/mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The essential oil yields of the different plant parts were: tender twigs, 0.40%; pedicels of buds and flowers, 0.36%; buds and flowers, 0.04%; pedicels of fruits, 0.33%; fruits, 0.32%. The tender twig oil was richer in α‐phellandrene (3.4%), limonene (1.6%) and ( E )‐cinnamaldehyde (4.0%). The volatile oils from pedicels were richer in neryl acetate (1.4–2.0%), ( E )‐cinnamyl acetate (58.1–64.5%) and β‐caryophyllene (9.6–11.1%). Higher amounts of ( Z )‐cinnamyl acetate (6.1%), α‐humulene (2.2%), δ‐cadinene (2.2%), humulene epoxide I (5.0%), α‐muurolol (4.9%) and α‐cadinol (2.4%) were observed in the oil of buds and flowers. The fruit oil showed greater concentrations of α‐pinene (4.2%), β‐pinene (1.9%) and linalool (27.4%). However, all the oils contained linalool (3.6–27.4%), ( E )‐cinnamyl acetate (22.0–64.5%) and β‐caryophyllene (6.9–11.1%) as their major compounds. This is the first report on the oil profiles of pedicels and of buds and flowers of cinnamon.
© 2002 Society of Chemical Industry
Phlomis species from the Lamiaceae family are widely distributed in Turkey. In this study, the essential oils of Phlomis russeliana (Sims.) Bentham and Phlomis grandiflora H.S. Thompson var. grandiflora collected from North and Southern parts of Turkey, were obtained by hydrodistillation of the aerial parts. The essential oils were subsequently analysed by gas chromatography (GC) and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry (GC/MS). The major constituents of P. russeliana essential oil were identified as sesquiterpenes β-caryophyllene (23%), germacrene-D (15%), and caryophyllene oxide (8%). Analysis of P. grandiflora var. grandiflora oil also showed oxygenated sesquiterpenes such as β-eudesmol (42%) and α-eudesmol (16%) as major constituents.Furthermore, essential oils were tested in vitro against common food borne bacteria such as Aeromonas hydrophila, Bacillus cereus, Escherichia coli O157:H7, Listeria monocytogenes, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Staphylococcus aureus, Salmonella typhimurium, Yersinia enterocolitica, and the anaerobic pathogen Clostridium perfringens using the micro-broth dilution assay. When compared with antimicrobial standards weak to moderate (125 to >1000 μg/ml) minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC) were observed. The results show that Phlomis essential oils might be an alternative to conventional antimicrobials in various foods.
The growth-inhibiting activity of Cinnamomum cassia (Blume) bark-derived materials toward five intestinal bacteria was examined using an impregnated paper disk method and compared with that of tetracycline and chloramphenicol, as well as four commercially available compounds (cinnamyl alcohol, trans-cinnamic acid, eugenol, and salicylaldehyde). The biologically active component of C. cassia bark was characterized as cinnamaldehyde by spectral analysis. The growth responses varied with each bacterial strain tested. In a test using 1 and 0.5 mg/disks, cinnamaldehyde revealed potent inhibition against Clostridium perfringensand Bacteroides fragilis. At 1 and 0.5 mg/disk, growth of Bifidobacterium bifidum was significantly inhibited, whereas weak or no inhibitory activity was obtained against Bifidobacterium longum or Lactobacillus acidophilus. The inhibitory effect was much more pronounced in Cl. perfringens, B. fragilis, and Bi. bifidum, compared to Bi. longum or L. acidophilus. Salicylaldehyde exhibited moderate growth-inhibiting activity, but little or no inhibition was observed from treatments with cinnamyl alcohol, trans-cinnamic acid, and eugenol. In contrast, tetracycline and chloramphenicol significantly inhibited growth of all test bacteria as low as 0.01 mg/disk. These results may be an indication of at least one of the pharmacological actions of C. cassia bark.
To investigate patterns of gene expression in soybean (Glycine max) and Phytophthora sojae during an infection time course, we constructed a 4,896-gene microarray of host and pathogen cDNA transcripts. Analysis of rRNA from soybean and P. sojae was used to estimate the ratio of host and pathogen RNA present in mixed samples. Large changes in this ratio occurred between 12 and 24 h after infection, reflecting the rapid growth and proliferation of the pathogen within host tissues. From the microarray analysis, soybean genes that were identified as strongly upregulated during infection included those encoding enzymes of phytoalexin biosynthesis and defense and pathogenesis-related proteins. Expression of these genes generally peaked at 24 h after infection. Selected lipoxygenases and peroxidases were among the most strongly downregulated soybean genes during the course of infection. The number of pathogen genes expressed during infection reached a maximum at 24 h. The results show that it is possible to use a single microarray to simultaneously probe gene expression in two interacting organisms. The patterns of gene expression we observed in soybean and P. sojae support the hypothesis that the pathogen transits from biotrophy to necrotrophy between 12 and 24 h after infection.
To identify genes required for the hypersensitive response (HR), we performed expression profiling of tomato plants mounting a synchronized HR, followed by functional analysis of differentially expressed genes. By cDNA-AFLP analysis, the expression profile of tomato plants containing both the Cf-4 resistance gene against Cladosporium fulvum and the matching Avr4 avirulence gene of this fungus was compared with that of control plants. About 1% of the transcript-derived fragments (442 out of 50,000) were derived from a differentially expressed gene. Based on their sequence and expression, 192 fragments, referred to as Avr4-responsive tomato (ART) fragments, were selected for VIGS (virus-induced gene silencing) in Cf-4-transgenic Nicotiana benthamiana. Inoculated plants were analyzed for compromised HR by agroinfiltration of either the C. fulvum Avr4 gene or the Inf1 gene of Phytophthora infestans, which invokes a HR in wild-type N. benthamiana. VIGS using 15 of the ART fragments resulted in a compromised HR, whereas VIGS with fragments of ART genes encoding HSP90, a nuclear GTPase, an L19 ribosomal protein, and most interestingly, a nucleotide binding-leucine rich repeat (NB-LRR)-type protein severely suppressed the HR induced both by Avr4 and Inf1. Requirement of an NB-LRR protein (designated NRC1, for NB-LRR protein required for HR-associated cell death 1) for Cf resistance protein function as well as Inf1-mediated HR suggests a convergence of signaling pathways and supports the recent observation that NB-LRR proteins play a role in signal transduction cascades downstream of resistance proteins.
Puccinia striiformis is a plant pathogenic fungus causing stripe rust, one of the most important diseases on cereal crops and grasses worldwide. However, little is know about its genome and genes involved in the biology and pathogenicity of the pathogen. We initiated the functional genomic research of the fungus by constructing a full-length cDNA and determined functions of the first group of genes by sequence comparison of cDNA clones to genes reported in other fungi.
A full-length cDNA library, consisting of 42,240 clones with an average cDNA insert of 1.9 kb, was constructed using urediniospores of race PST-78 of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici. From 196 sequenced cDNA clones, we determined functions of 73 clones (37.2%). In addition, 36 clones (18.4%) had significant homology to hypothetical proteins, 37 clones (18.9%) had some homology to genes in other fungi, and the remaining 50 clones (25.5%) did not produce any hits. From the 73 clones with functions, we identified 51 different genes encoding protein products that are involved in amino acid metabolism, cell defense, cell cycle, cell signaling, cell structure and growth, energy cycle, lipid and nucleotide metabolism, protein modification, ribosomal protein complex, sugar metabolism, transcription factor, transport metabolism, and virulence/infection.
The full-length cDNA library is useful in identifying functional genes of P. striiformis.
The oomycete Plasmopara viticola (Berk. and Curt.) Berl. and de Toni causes downy mildew in grapevine (Vitis vinifera L.). This pathogen is strictly biotrophic, thus completely dependent on living host cells for its survival. The molecular basis of compatibility and disease development in this system is poorly understood. We have carried out a large-scale cDNA-AFLP analysis to identify grapevine and P. viticola genes associated with the infection process.
We carried out cDNA-AFLP analysis on artificially infected leaves of the susceptible cultivar Riesling at the oil spot stage, on water-treated leaves and on a sample of pure sporangia as controls. Selective amplifications with 128 primer combinations allowed the visualization of about 7000 transcript-derived fragments (TDFs) in infected leaves, 1196 of which (17%) were differentially expressed. We sequenced 984 fragments, 804 of which were identified as grapevine transcripts after homology searching, while 96 were homologous to sequences in Phytophthora spp. databases and were attributed to P. viticola. There were 82 orphan TDFs. Many grapevine genes spanning almost all functional categories were downregulated during infection, especially genes involved in photosynthesis. Grapevine genes homologous to known resistance genes also tended to be repressed, as were several resistance gene analogs and carbonic anhydrase (recently implicated in pathogen resistance). In contrast, genes encoding cytoskeletal components, enzymes of the phenylpropanoid and beta-oxidation pathways, and pathogenesis related proteins were primarily upregulated during infection. The majority of P. viticola transcripts expressed in planta showed homology to genes of unknown function or to genomic Phytophthora sequences, but genes related to metabolism, energy production, transport and signal transduction were also identified.
This study provides the first global catalogue of grapevine and P. viticola genes expressed during infection, together with their functional annotations. This will help to elucidate the molecular basis of the infection process and identify genes and chemicals that could help to inhibit the pathogen.
Puccinia striiformis f. sp. tritici is an obligate biotrophic pathogen that causes leaf stripe rust on wheat. Although it is critical to understand molecular mechanisms of pathogenesis in the wheat stripe rust fungus for developing novel disease management strategies, little is known about its genome and gene functions due to difficulties in molecular studies with this important pathogen. To identify genes expressed during early infection stages, in this study we constructed a cDNA library with RNA isolated from urediniospores of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici germinated for 10 h.
A total of 4798 ESTs were sequenced from the germinated urediniospore library and assembled into 315 contigs and 803 singletons. About 23.9% and 13.3% of the resulting 1118 unisequences were homologous to functionally characterized proteins and hypothetical proteins, respectively. The rest 62.8% unisequences had no significant homologs in GenBank. Several of these ESTs shared significant homology with known fungal pathogenicity or virulence factors, such as HESP767 of the flax rust and PMK1, GAS1, and GAS2 of the rice blast fungus. We selected six ESTs (Ps28, Ps85, Ps87, Ps259, Ps261, and Ps159) for assaying their expression patterns during urediniospore germination and wheat infection by quantitative real-time PCR. All of them had the highest transcript level in germinated urediniospores and a much less transcript level in un-germinated urediniospores and infected wheat tissues (1-7 dpi). The transcript level of Ps159 increased at later infection stages (6-7 dpi). Our data indicated that these genes were highly expressed in germinated urediniospores and may play important roles in fungal-plant interactions during early infection stages in the wheat stripe rust fungus.
Genes expressed in germinated urediniospores of P. striiformis f. sp. tritici were identified by EST analysis. Six of them were confirmed by quantitative real-time PCR assays to be highly expressed in germinated urediniospores.
The leaf oil of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume grown in Little Andaman was analysed by GC and GC–MS. Forty-seven constituents, representing 99.96% of the oil, were identified. The main constituents of the oil were eugenol (76.60%), linalool (8.5%) and piperitone (3.31%). The composition of the oil is comparable to cinnamon leaf oil produced in Bangalore and Hyderabad (south India) in terms of eugenol and linalool contents. Copyright © 2001 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Red‐cooked beef is a very popular food in China. The sensory characteristics and flavor compounds of red‐cooked beef were investigated in the present study. Through the single‐factor analysis of sensory score, it was changed under different cooking conditions, including pH value, cooking temperature and time. Response surface methodology and quantitative descriptive analysis were applied to investigate the effects of pH value, cooking temperature and time on the sensory score of red‐cooked beef flavor. A suitable range for each factor (5–8 for pH value, 90–110C for cooking temperature and 1.5–2.5 h for cooking time) was chosen for building a mathematical regressive model. The mathematical model representing the sensory score of red‐cooked beef flavor as a function of the independent variables within the region under investigation was expressed by the equation as follows: Y = 76.86 − 0.51 X 1 − 4.14 X 2 + 0.47 X 3 + 0.054 X 1 X 2 − 0.041 X 1 X 3 + 0.049 X 2 X 3 − 4.83 , where Y was the sensory score, and X 1 , X 2 and X 3 were the coded variables of pH value, cooking temperature and time, respectively. The optimal conditions to obtain the highest sensory score were 6.42 of pH value, 97.4C and 2.05 h, respectively. Under these optimal conditions, the experimental value agreed with the predicted one by analysis ofvariance. The potent flavor compounds of red‐cooked beef were extracted by headspace solid phase micro‐extraction technique, and 99 volatile compounds were detected using gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry, which consisted of 23 aldehydes, 12 ketones, 10 esters, 11 alcohols, 15 carboxylic acids, 2 sulfur‐containing compounds, 9 heterocyclic compounds, 12 alkanes and 5 alkenes.
PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS
Response surface methodology is a statistical method that has shown significant advantages in application of food process. In the present study, this methodology was employed to investigate the effects of pH value, cooking temperature and time on the sensory characteristics of red‐cooked beef flavor. A mathematical regressive model was built with a good fitness, and the optimal cooking conditions were predicted. The flavor compounds of red‐cooked beef cooked under the optimal conditions were identified by gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry. Twenty‐three aldehydes, 12 ketones, 10 esters, 11 alcohols, 15 carboxylic acids, 2 sulfur‐containing compounds, 9 heterocyclic compounds, 12 alkanes and 5 alkenes were found contributing to the red‐cooked beef flavor.
Microwave-assisted hydrodistillation (MAHD) is an advanced hydrodistillation (HD) technique utilizing a microwave oven in the extraction process. MAHD of essential oils from the aerial parts (tops) of Thymus vulgaris L. (common thyme) was studied and the results were compared with those of the conventional HD in terms of extraction time, extraction yield/efficiency, chemical composition, quality of the essential oils and cost of the operation. MAHD was superior in terms of saving energy and extraction time (75min, compared to 4h in HD). Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) of thyme leaves undergone HD and MAHD provided evidences as to a sudden rupture of essential oil glands with MAHD. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of the extracted essential oils indicated that the use of microwave irradiation did not adversely influence the composition of the essential oils. MAHD was found to be a green technology.
Copyright © 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Applicability of solvent-free microwave extraction (SFME) in the extraction of essential oil from Origanum vulgare L. was examined and the effects of microwave power and extraction time on the yield and composition of the product were investigated. Specific gravity and refractive index of the essential oil and its solubility in alcohol were also examined. Hydrodistillation was performed as control. GC–MS/FID was used for the determination and quantification of aroma compounds in the essential oils. SFME offered significantly higher essential oil yields (0.054 mL/g) as compared to hydrodistillation (0.048 mL/g). When 622 W microwave power was used in SFME, conventional process time was reduced by 80%. The main aroma compound of oregano essential oil was found to be thymol (650–750 mg/mL). No significant differences were obtained in the compositions and physical properties of oregano essential oils obtained by SFME and hydrodistillation.
Kakkon-to is composed of seven medicinal herbs and exhibited novel antipyretic activity by suppressing interleukin-1alpha production responsive to interferon in a murine intranasal influenza virus infection model. Using this model, antipyretic compounds with such novel biological activities were characterized from the herbs. The organic solvent-extractable fractions of Cinnamomum cassia among the herbs showed antipyretic activity. We selected six antipyretic compounds from 48 cinnamyl derivatives and related compounds that may be mainly involved in the fractions. Their antipyretic activity was significantly correlated with interleukin-1alpha regulatory activity. Four of them suppressed interleukin-1alpha production to a basal level and showed different mode of antipyretic action from that of aspirin in interleukin-1alpha-injected mice. Structure-bioactivity relationship of the four suggested that an ester bond played an important role for both antipyretic and interleukin-1alpha regulatory activities. These compounds may be useful in analyzing interleukin-1alpha-producing cells in fever production and the mechanism of defervescence by suppressing interferon-induced interleukin-1alpha production.
To evaluate the possible effects on insulin function, 49 herb, spice, and medicinal plant extracts were tested in the insulin-dependent utilization of glucose using a rat epididymal adipocyte assay. Cinnamon was the most bioactive product followed by witch hazel, green and black teas, allspice, bay leaves, nutmeg, cloves, mushrooms, and brewer's yeast. The glucose oxidation enhancing bioactivity was lost from cinnamon, tea, witch hazel, cloves, bay leaf and allspice by poly(vinylpyrrolidone) (PVP) treatment, indicating that the active phytochemicals are likely to be phenolic in nature. The activity of sage, mushrooms, and brewers's yeast was not removed by PVP. Some products such as Korean ginseng, flaxseed meal, and basil have been reported to be effective antidiabetic agents; however, they were only marginally active in our assay. Our technique measures direct stimulation of cellular glucose metabolism, so it may be that the active phytochemicals in these plants improve glucose metabolism via other mechanisms or that this in vitro screening is not a reliable predictor of hypoglycemic effects in vivo for some products. In summary, the positive effects of specific plant extracts on insulin activity suggest a possible role of these plants in improving glucose and insulin metabolism.
These studies investigated the ability of a hydroxychalcone from cinnamon to function as an insulin mimetic in 3T3-LI adipocytes.
Comparative experiments were performed with the cinnamon methylhydroxychalcone polymer and insulin with regard to glucose uptake, glycogen synthesis. phosphatidylinositol-3-kinase dependency, glycogen synthase activation and glycogen synthase kinase-3beta activity. The phosphorylation state of the insulin receptor was also investigated.
MHCP treatment stimulated glucose uptake and glycogen synthesis to a similar level as insulin. Glycogen synthesis was inhibited by both wortmannin and LY294002, inhibitors directed against the PI-3-kinase. In addition, MHCP treatment activated glycogen synthase and inhibited glycogen synthase kinase-3beta activities, known effects of insulin treatment. Analysis of the insulin receptor demonstrated that the receptor was phosphorylated upon exposure to the MHCP. This supports that the insulin cascade was triggered by MHCP. Along with comparing MHCP to insulin, experiments were done with MHCP and insulin combined. The responses observed using the dual treatment were greater than additive, indicating synergism between the two compounds.
Together, these results demonstrate that the MHCP is an effective mimetic of insulin. MHCP may be useful in the treatment of insulin resistance and in the study of the pathways leading to glucose utilization in cells.
Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume is an important spice and aromatic crop having wide applications in flavoring, perfumery, beverages, and medicines. The steam-distilled volatile oil from cinnamon fruit stalks was analyzed with GC and GC-MS. It showed the presence of hydrocarbons (44.7%) and oxygenated compounds (52.6%). Twenty-seven compounds constituting ca. 95.98% of the volatile oil were characterized. (E)-Cinnamyl acetate (36.59%) and (E)-caryophyllene (22.36%) are found to be major compounds. The volatile oil was screened for its potential as an antioxidant by using in vitro models, such as the beta-carotene-linoleate and phosphomolybdenum complex method. The volatile oil showed 55.94% and 66.9% antioxidant activity at 100 and 200 ppm concentration, respectively. Also, the volatile oil showed good antioxidant capacity, using the formation of the phosphomolybdenum complex. A comparison of the chemical composition of the volatile oil was made with that of buds, flowers, and fruits. This is the first report on the chemical composition of volatile oil of the fruit stalks of this species and its antioxidant activity.
The essential oils isolated from nine geographical provenances of indigenous cinnamon (Cinnamomum osmophloeum Kaneh.) leaves were examined by GC-MS and their chemical constituents were compared. According to GC-MS and cluster analyses the leaf essential oils of the nine provenances and their relative contents were classified into six chemotypes-cinnamaldehyde type, cinnamaldehyde/cinnamyl acetate type, cinnamyl acetate type, linalool type, camphor type and mixed type. In addition, the antifungal activities of leaf essential oils and their constituents from six chemotypes of indigenous cinnamon were investigated in this study. Results from the antifungal tests demonstrated that the leaf essential oils of cinnamaldehyde type and cinnamaldehyde/cinnamyl acetate type had an excellent inhibitory effect against white-rot fungi, Trametes versicolor and Lenzites betulina and brown-rot fungus Laetiporus sulphureus. The antifungal indices of leaf essential oils from these two chemotypes at the level of 200 micro/ml against T. versicolor, L. betulina and L. sulphureus were all 100%. Among them, the IC(50) (50% of inhibitory concentrations) value of the essential oil of cinnamaldehyde type leaf against L. sulphureus was 52-59microg/ml. Cinnamaldehyde possessed the strongest antifungal activities in comparison with other constituents of the essential oils from cinnamaldehyde type leaf, at the level of 100microg/ml its antifungal indices against T. versicolor, L. betulina and L. sulphureus were 100%. The IC50 values of cinnamaldehyde against T. versicolor, L. betulina and L. sulphureus were 73, 74 and 73microg/ml, respectively.
Cinnamon has been shown to potentiate the insulin effect through upregulation of the glucose uptake in cultured adipocytes. In the present study, we evaluated the effect of the cinnamon extract on the insulin action in awaked rats by the euglycemic clamp and further analyzed possible changes in insulin signaling occurred in skeletal muscle. The rats were divided into saline and cinnamon extract (30 and 300 mg/kg BW-doses: C30 and C300) oral administration groups. After 3-weeks, cinnamon extract treated rats showed a significantly higher glucose infusion rate (GIR) at 3 mU/kg per min insulin infusions compared with controls (118 and 146% of controls for C30 and C300, respectively). At 30 mU/kg per min insulin infusions, the GIR in C300 rats was increased 17% over controls. There were no significant differences in insulin receptor (IR)-beta, IR substrate (IRS)-1, and phosphatidylinositol (PI) 3-kinase protein content between C300 rats and controls. However, the skeletal muscle insulin-stimulated IR-beta and the IRS-1 tyrosine phosphorylation levels in C300 rats were 18 and 33% higher, respectively, added to 41% higher IRS-1/PI 3-kinase association. These results suggest that the cinnamon extract would improve insulin action via increasing glucose uptake in vivo, at least in part through enhancing the insulin-signaling pathway in skeletal muscle.
The antioxidant, antifungal and antibacterial potentials of volatile oils and oleoresin of Cinnamomum zeylanicum Blume (leaf and bark) were investigated in the present study. The oleoresins have shown excellent activity for the inhibition of primary and secondary oxidation products in mustard oil added at the concentration of 0.02% which were evaluated using peroxide, thiobarbituric acid, p-anisidine and carbonyl values. Moreover, it was further supported by other complementary antioxidant assays such as ferric thiocyanate method in linoleic acid system, reducing power, chelating and scavenging effects on 1,1'-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl (DPPH) and hydroxyl radicals. In antimicrobial investigations, using inverted petriplate and food poison techniques, the leaf and bark volatile oils has been found to be highly effective against all the tested fungi except Aspergillus ochraceus. However, leaf oleoresin has shown inhibition only for Penicillium citrinum whereas bark oleoresin has caused complete mycelial zone inhibition for Aspergillus flavus and A. ochraceus along with Aspergillus niger, Aspergillus terreus, P. citrinum and Penicillium viridicatum at 6 microL. Using agar well diffusion method, leaf volatile oil and oleoresin have shown better results in comparison with bark volatile oil, oleoresin and commercial bactericide, i.e., ampicillin. Gas chromatographic-mass spectroscopy studies on leaf volatile oil and oleoresin resulted in the identification of 19 and 25 components, which accounts for the 99.4% and 97.1%, respectively of the total amount and the major component was eugenol with 87.3% and 87.2%, respectively. The analysis of cinnamon bark volatile oil showed the presence of 13 components accounting for 100% of the total amount. (E)-cinnamaldehyde was found as the major component along with delta-cadinene (0.9%), whereas its bark oleoresin showed the presence of 17 components accounting for 92.3% of the total amount. The major components were (E)-cinnamaldehyde (49.9%), along with several other components.
An elevated plus maze (EPM) test was used to determine if the 5-HT1A, GABAA, and benzodiazepine receptors play a role in the anxiolytic-like effects of a 50% EtOH extract of Cinnamomum cassia (C. cassia) in mice. A single treatment with C. cassia (750 mg/kg, p.o.) significantly increased the number of entries into and the time spent in the open arms of the EPM compared with the controls. A repeated treatment with C. cassia (100 mg/kg, 5 days, p.o.) significantly increased the time spent in the open arms of the EPM. Moreover, WAY 100635, (+)-bicuculline, and flumazenil blocked the effect of C. cassia. However, there were no changes in the locomotor activity and horizontal wire test observed in any group compared with the controls. Taken together, these results show that C. cassia has no adverse effects, such as myorelaxant effects, and might be an effective anxiolytic agent by regulating the serotonergic and GABAergic system.
Essential oil composition of Cinnamon zeylanicum Blume leaves from little Andaman
- V K Raina
- S K Srivastava
- K K Aggraval
- S Ramesh
- S Kumar
Raina, V. K., Srivastava, S. K., Aggraval, K. K., Ramesh, S., & Kumar, S. (2001). Essential oil
composition of Cinnamon zeylanicum Blume leaves from little Andaman, India.
Flavour Fragrance Journal, 16, 374−376.