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Looking and loving: The effects of mutual gaze on feelings of romantic love
Abstract
In two studies, subjects induced to exchange mutual unbroken gaze for 2 min with a stranger of the opposite sex reported increased feelings of passionate love for each other. In Study I, 96 subjects were run in the four combinations of gazing at the other's hands or eyes, or in a fifth condition in which the subject was asked to count the other's eye blinks. Subjects who were gazing at their partner's eyes, and whose partner was gazing back reported significantly higher feelings of affection than subjects in any other condition. They also reported greater liking than all subjects except those in the eye blink counting condition. In Study II, with 72 subjects, those who engaged in mutual gaze increased significantly their feelings of passionate love, dispositional love, and liking for their partner. This effect occurred only for subjects who were identified on a separate task as more likely to rely on cues from their own behavior in defining their attributes.
... Accurate gaze sensing is still a challenge in real-world conditions. This is in contrast to the significant importance of gaze in social interactions, where it serves as a building block in turn-taking and is connected to a variety of attributes, including leadership and attraction (Kendon, 1967;Kawase, 2014;Kellerman et al., 1989). The three basic ways of sensing gaze in human-human interactions are stationary eye-trackers, mobile eye trackers and gaze estimation from ambient cameras. ...
... Recording, processing, and interpreting nonverbal behaviour poses significant risks to user privacy. Nonverbal behaviour contains many different kinds of information users might not agree to share with other parties, including personality (Hoppe et al., 2018;Beyan et al., 2019b), emotions , attraction (Kellerman et al., 1989), or deception (Granhag and Strömwall, 2002). Furthermore, the aim of nonverbal behaviour analysis to support users in their daily lives implies that behaviour needs to be recorded in privacy-sensitive situations like conversations between couples, while studying with peers, or even during psychotherapy. ...
... Gaze is a central non-verbal cue in social interactions, being connected to many fundamental aspects in conversations, including turn-taking (Kendon, 1967), perception of affective state (Adams Jr and Kleck, 2003), attraction (Kellerman et al., 1989) and leadership (Capozzi et al., 2019;. One particularly important aspect of gaze in conversations is the presence of averted gaze, which has been shown to be connected to cognitive load (Glenberg et al., 1998), intimacy-modulation (Abele, 1986) and floor management (Kendon, 1967). ...
... Generally, subjects report that a film was funnier or shocks were more painful when they exaggerated their amusement or pain than when they muted their facial reactions (Kopel & Arkowitz, 1974;Kraut, 1982;Lanzetta, Biernat, & Kleck, 1982;Lanzetta, Cartwright-Smith, & Kleck, 1976;Zuckerman, Klorman, Larrance, & Speigel, 1981). Others try to "trick" participants into adopting a given emotional expression (Duclos et al., 1989;Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989;Laird, 1974;Laird, 1984;Laird, Wagener, Halal, & Szegda, 1982;Larsen, Kasimatis, & Frey, 1992;Strack, Martin, & Stepper, 1988). Others arrange things so subjects will unconsciously mimic others' emotional facial expressions (Hsee, Hatfield, Carlson, & Chemtob, 1990, 1993Hsee et al., 1992). ...
... In all three types of experiments, evidence for the Sherlock Holmes' contention that mimicry and feedback cause people to feel at least faint traces of the emotions another expresses is plentiful. Scholars find that people are affected by the facial expressions they adopt-be they happy or sad (Bush, Barr, McHugo, & Lanzetta, 1989;Hsee et al., 1990Hsee et al., , 1992Hsee et al., , 1993Laird et al., 1982;Larsen et al., 1992;Strack et al., 1988;Uchino, Hatfield, Carlson, & Chemtob, 1991), angry (Laird, 1984;Lanzetta & Orr, 1980), or expressing romantic love (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989). For more general reviews, see Adelmann and Zajonc (1989), Ekman et al. (1983), Hatfield et al. (1994), andLaird (1984). ...
... In this situation, participants were forced to exaggerate their facial reactions and, as predicted, emotion perception improved. (Additional evidence that Botox also shapes people's emotional experiences can be found in Finzi & Rosenthal, 2014) In a series of experiments, researchers have found that the link between facial expression and emotion is generally quite specific: When people produce a facial expression of fear, anger, sadness, or disgust, they are more likely to feel the emotion associated not just with any emotion, but with that specific expression -i.e., those who adopt a sad expression feel sad, not angry (Duclos et al., 1989;Duncan & Laird, 1977;Kellerman et al., 1989;Kleinke & Walton, 1982;Laird, 1974Laird, , 1984Laird & Bresler, 1992;Laird & Crosby, 1974;Laird et al., 1982;Larsen et al., 1992;McArthur, Solomon, & Jaffe, 1980;Rhodewalt & Comer, 1979;Rutledge & Hupka, 1985;Strack et al., 1988). ...
Recently, scholars from a wide variety of disciplines, using a variety of scientific techniques, have begun to study the influence of attention, facial mimicry, and social context on emotional contagion. In this paper we will review the classic evidence documenting the role of attention, facial mimicry, and feedback in sparking primitive emotional contagion. Then we will discuss the new evidence which scholars have amassed to help us better understand the role of facial mimicry in fostering contagion and the ability to “read” others’ thoughts, feelings, and emotions. Finally, we will briefly speculate as to where future research might be headed.
... Many functional appraisals are amplified if a target gazes directly at the perceiver rather than away. For instance, among adults in relationships, eye contact is associated with stronger romantic love [24]; and within mother-child relationships, eye contact is associated with stronger maternal oxytocin responses-indicative of stronger maternal bonds [25]. Given these findings it seems plausible that, if the perception of eyes exerts an especially powerful influence on appraisals of children's cuteness and vulnerability, this effect might occur, in part, because eyes provide the opportunity for eye contact. ...
... Although the 3 experiments provide evidence that subjective appraisals of human infants and puppy dogs are influenced especially strongly by the their eyes, it remains unclear exactly why this is so. Given previous evidence that eye gaze affects several other kinds of appraisals [14,[21][22][23][24]32]-and because gaze direction can only be perceived when eyes are visible-we designed Experiments 4 and 5 to test whether appraisals of human infants and puppy dogs were influenced by eye contact. ...
The present investigation tests: (i) whether the perception of an human infant’s eyes, relative to other facial features, especially strongly elicits “parental” responses (e.g., appraisals of cuteness and vulnerability); (ii) if, so, whether effects of the visual perception of eyes may be partially attributable to eye contact; (iii) whether the perception of non-human animals’ (puppy dogs’) eyes also especially strongly influence appraisals of their cuteness and vulnerability; and (iv) whether individual differences in caregiving motives moderate effects. Results from 5 experiments (total N = 1458 parents and non-parents) provided empirical evidence to evaluate these hypotheses: Appraisals of human infants were influenced especially strongly by the visual perception of human infants’ eyes (compared to other facial features); these effects do not appear to be attributable to eye contact; the visual perception of eyes influenced appraisals of puppy dogs, but not exactly in the same way that it influenced appraisals of human infants; and there was no consistent evidence of moderation by individual differences in caregiving motives. These results make novel contributions to several psychological literatures, including literatures on the motivational psychology of parental care and on person perception.
... During real-life interactions, social cues from the eyes are not only passively perceived but also reciprocated via mutual looks. In natural interactions, mutual looks are thought to signal social interest and serve as a foundation for shared attention 18 and prosocial behavior [18][19][20] . As a salient example of mutual looking behavior, eye-to-eye contact is preferred from early on in development 21 , associated with detecting communicative intent 22,23 , and eliciting positive emotions in observers 24 . ...
Human eyes convey a wealth of social information, with mutual looks representing one of the hallmark gaze communication behaviors. However, it remains relatively unknown if such reciprocal communication requires eye-to-eye contact or if general face-to-face looking is sufficient. To address this question, while recording looking behavior in live interacting dyads using dual mobile eye trackers, we analyzed how often participants engaged in mutual looks as a function of looking towards the top (i.e., the Eye region) and bottom half of the face (i.e., the Mouth region). We further examined how these different types of mutual looks during an interaction connected with later gaze-following behavior elicited in an individual experimental task. The results indicated that dyads engaged in mutual looks in various looking combinations (Eye-to-eye, Eye-to-mouth, and Mouth-to-Mouth) but proportionately spent little time in direct eye-to-eye gaze contact. However, the time spent in eye-to-eye contact significantly predicted the magnitude of later gaze following response elicited by the partner’s gaze direction. Thus, humans engage in looking patterns toward different face parts during interactions, with direct eye-to-eye looks occurring relatively infrequently; however, social messages relayed during eye-to-eye contact appear to carry key information that propagates to affect subsequent individual social behavior.
... The touch survey could be supported by observational techniques to additionally verify the strength of observed associations. The link between affectionate touch and love could further be examined in longitudinal studies to test whether higher frequency of touching contributes to more intense feelings of love (as observed, e.g., for eye gaze 75,76 ), especially because pleasantness of touch in close relationships seems to depend on continuous exposure to touch 77 . In summary, touch is an extremely prevalent behavior in romantic relationships 6 and people need more touch from a romantic partner than from other interaction partners 2 . ...
Touch is the primary way people communicate intimacy in romantic relationships, and affectionate touch behaviors such as stroking, hugging and kissing are universally observed in partnerships all over the world. Here, we explored the association of love and affectionate touch behaviors in romantic partnerships in two studies comprising 7880 participants. In the first study, we used a cross-cultural survey conducted in 37 countries to test whether love was universally associated with affectionate touch behaviors. In the second study, using a more fine-tuned touch behavior scale, we tested whether the frequency of affectionate touch behaviors was related to love in romantic partnerships. OPEN
... Wurden Versuchspersonen experimentell dazu gebracht, einen glücklichen Gesichtsausdruck zu zeigen, äußerten sie anschließend, sich glücklich zu fühlen; wurden sie dazu gebracht, einen traurigen Ausdruck zu produzieren, so äußerten sie anschließend, sich traurig zu fühlen (Duclos et al. 1989). Kellermann et al. (1989) fanden, dass Versuchspersonen, die dazu gebracht wurden, sich sehr lange und intensiv in die Augen zu sehen, Anzeichen von Verliebtheit entwickelten. Üblicherweise sehen sich Verliebte sehr lange und intensiv in die Augen. ...
Wir haben es in diesem Kapitel mit den Klassikern des Lernens zu tun: Pawlow und Skinner. Dabei schließen wir uns der These an, dass sich Pawlow geirrt hat. Der Hund hatte keinen Reflex, sondern eine Erwartungshaltung, und hat, weil er aktiv an seinem Essen interessiert war, gesabbert. Die Lerntheorie von Skinner ist kaum zu hinterfragen. Wir lernen durch Belohnung. Wir lernen aber auch durch Beobachtung, ohne eine Handlung selber ausgeführt zu haben. Das zeigt uns Bandura. Außerdem lernen wir den Ansatz von Hull kennen, wonach sich das Reaktionspotenzial einer Person auf einen Reiz aus einer Verknüpfung von Gewohnheit, Bedürfnisstärke, Reizstärke und sozialem Druck ergibt.
... Humans are hard-wired to connect with others and an important non-verbal strategy to form and maintain strong social ties with others humans is by making eye contact ( Emery, 2000 ;Hietanen, 2018 ;Kellerman et al., 1989 ). Receiving a direct gaze induces positive feelings and signals social inclusion, which fulfills our intrinsic need to belong, and to be literally 'seen' Hietanen et al., 2020 ;Kiilavuori et al., 2021 ;Kleinke, 1986 ). Eye contact constitutes one of the first acts of reciprocity between a parent and a child ( Robson, 1967 ), and is thought to be an important facilitator for a strong parent-child bond and secure attachment. ...
Eye contact is crucial for the formation and maintenance of social relationships, and plays a key role in facilitating a strong parent-child bond. However, the precise neural and affective mechanisms through which eye contact impacts on parent-child relationships remain elusive. We introduce a task to assess parents’ neural and affective responses to prolonged direct and averted gaze coming from their own child, and an unfamiliar child and adult. While in the scanner, 79 parents (n = 44 mothers and n = 35 fathers) were presented with prolonged (16-38 s) videos of their own child, an unfamiliar child, an unfamiliar adult, and themselves (i.e., targets), facing the camera with a direct or an averted gaze. We measured BOLD-responses and tracked parents’ eye movements during the videos and asked them to report on their mood and feelings of connectedness with the targets after each video. Parents reported improved mood and increased feelings of connectedness after prolonged exposure to direct versus averted gaze and these effects were amplified for unfamiliar targets compared to their own child, due to high affect and connectedness ratings after videos of their own child. Neuroimaging results showed that the sight of one's own child was associated with increased activity in middle occipital gyrus, fusiform gyrus and inferior frontal gyrus relative to seeing an unfamiliar child or adult. While we found no robust evidence of specific neural correlates of eye contact (i.e., contrast direct > averted gaze), an exploratory parametric analysis showed that dorsomedial prefrontal cortex (dmPFC) activity increased linearly with duration of eye contact (collapsed across all “other” targets). Eye contact-related dmPFC activity correlated positively with increases in feelings of connectedness, suggesting that this region may drive feelings of connectedness during prolonged eye contact with others. These results underline the importance of prolonged eye contact for affiliative processes and provide first insights into its neural correlates. This may pave the way for new research in individuals or pairs in whom affiliative processes are disrupted.
... The other documented flirting techniques deserve comment. Initiating eye contact may be another effective activity because sustained eye contact can lead to feelings of love (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989;Rubin, 1970) drawing the man's attention away from the other woman. Hugging may be effective because it may be seen as a tie-sign indicating possession (a bond has been formed) and because hugging releases oxytocin which also bonds individuals (Gouin et al., 2010), again drawing the man's attention away from the other woman. ...
Here we explored nonverbal actions women use to flirt competitively against each other for the purposes of accessing a mate. We also investigated the perceived effectiveness of these competitive flirting actions. Using act nomination, Study 1 (n = 91) yielded 11 actions (eye contact with the man, dancing in his line of sight, smiling at him, touching him, giggling at his jokes, butting in between the other woman and the man, showing distaste for her, brushing against him, hugging him, flirting with other men, waving to him) for competitive flirtation against other women. Actions that signal possession (e.g., tie-signs) were predicted to be perceived as the most effective. While other actions were included in Study 2 (n = 139), results showed the most effective actions were tie-signs: touching him, initiating eye contact, hugging him, giggling at his jokes, and butting in between him and the rival. These findings are discussed in terms of prior research.
... In giving a talk context, the behavioural cues between the speaker and the listener are expressed in form of backchanneling behaviours [17] and turn-taking behaviours [29] in which gaze, head nodding, and gesture behaviours are included. In case of gaze, it is asserted to be the means for expressing not only attention and interest [30] but also positive feelings like affection [31] to each other. During the interaction, the robot tracked the participants' face to create eye contact and averted its gaze from the participant from time to time to break eye contact, which is similar to human-human interaction and complied with the findings of the momentary fixation at their partner in face-to-face communication and collaborative task in the previous studies [24,32] For head nodding, it is asserted to be one of the obvious and prominent nonverbal behaviours that the interactional partner can easily perceive, representing attentiveness and acceptance to the interactional partner, [33,34]. ...
Many studies have been conducted to find approaches to overcome the Uncanny Valley. However, the focus on the influence of the robot’s appearance leaves a big missing part: the influence of the robot’s nonverbal behaviour. This impedes the complete exploration of the Uncanny Valley. In this study, we explored the Uncanny Valley from the viewpoint of the robot’s nonverbal behaviour in regard to the Uncanny Valley hypothesis. We observed a relationship between the participants’ ratings on human-likeness of the robot’s nonverbal behavior and affinity toward the robot’s nonverbal behavior, and define the point where the affinity toward the robot’s nonverbal behavior significantly drops down as the Uncanny Valley. In this study, an experiment of human–robot interaction was conducted. The participants were asked to interact with a robot with different nonverbal behaviours, ranging from 0 (no nonverbal behavior, speaking only) to 3 (gaze, head nodding, and gestures) combinations and to rate the perceived human-likeness and affinity toward the robot’s nonverbal behavior by using a questionnaire. Additionally, the participants’ fixation duration was measured during the experiment. The result showed a biphasic relationship between human-likeness and affinity rating results. A curve resembling the Uncanny Valley is found. The result was also supported by participants’ fixation duration. It showed that the participants had the longest fixation at the robot when the robot expressed the nonverbal behaviours that fall into the Uncanny Valley. This exploratory study provides evidence suggesting the existence of the Uncanny Valley from the viewpoint of the robot’s nonverbal behaviour.
... Moreover, past studies have demonstrated that increasing behavioral realism by augmenting social cues exhibited by avatars (e.g., eye gaze and facial expressions) can enhance collaboration and produce meaningful interactions [23][24][25] . It is important to note, however, that the nonverbal cues included in these studies often manipulated responsive behaviors (e.g., mutual gaze, nodding), which are associated with positive outcomes 26,27 . As such, it is uncertain if the purported benefits of behavioral realism were due to the addition of nonverbal cues or perceptions of favorable nonverbal behavior. ...
This study focuses on the individual and joint contributions of two nonverbal channels (i.e., face and upper body) in avatar mediated-virtual environments. 140 dyads were randomly assigned to communicate with each other via platforms that differentially activated or deactivated facial and bodily nonverbal cues. The availability of facial expressions had a positive effect on interpersonal outcomes. More specifically, dyads that were able to see their partner’s facial movements mapped onto their avatars liked each other more, formed more accurate impressions about their partners, and described their interaction experiences more positively compared to those unable to see facial movements. However, the latter was only true when their partner’s bodily gestures were also available and not when only facial movements were available. Dyads showed greater nonverbal synchrony when they could see their partner’s bodily and facial movements. This study also employed machine learning to explore whether nonverbal cues could predict interpersonal attraction. These classifiers predicted high and low interpersonal attraction at an accuracy rate of 65%. These findings highlight the relative significance of facial cues compared to bodily cues on interpersonal outcomes in virtual environments and lend insight into the potential of automatically tracked nonverbal cues to predict interpersonal attitudes.
... In humans, during the first phases of romantic interactions, the occurrence of EEC creates intimacy between the partners compared to those interactions without eye-contact (Croes et al., 2020). Romantic partners who frequently gaze at each other also report high levels of emotional engagement (Kellerman et al., 1989). However, direct naturalistic observation of EEC during intimate and spontaneous social interactions in humans, regardless of whether during sexual or platonic contexts, is difficult due to ethical and conventional constraints. ...
In humans, eye-to-eye contact (EEC) or mutual gazing is a reflexive predisposition occurring in intimate contexts. We investigated the role of EEC during bonobo socio-sexual contacts. Females engage in homosexual ventro-ventral, genito-genital rubbing (VVGGR) during which they embrace each other while rubbing part of their vulvae and, sometimes, clitoris. VVGGR facilitates conflict resolution, anxiety reduction and social bonding. We found that EEC was negatively affected by female bonding: the more the eye contact, the weaker the social relationship. This suggests that EEC promotes an intimate contact between the more unfamiliar subjects. Moreover , VVGGRs were successfully prolonged in presence of at least one event of EEC compared to VVGGRs during which none of the partners looked towards the other or only one looked at the other's face. EEC has been probably favoured by natural selection to enhance the cohesion between bonobo females, who can gain social power through socio-sexual contacts.
... Forskning (Kellerman et al 1989) har visat att en ögonkontakt mellan två personer kan skapa känslor av förälskelse. Det sägs bero på att det kemiska ämnet fenyletylamin produceras och sätter igång en "fight-or-flight-respons" i kroppen. ...
Everyone, but especially those who work in healthcare or who influences it, needs to be made aware of the consequences of a number of new trends that have to do with sexology as well as the results of recent medical research that is in some way related to sexology. Therefore, this book is mainly about new important knowledge that has been generated in research and outside research from 2015 to August 2020.Above all, research on women's sexual anatomy and physiology has provided significant new and important knowledge of women's sexuality from having previously much been neglected in research and has it in general been mystified and even been taboo ever since the days of Freud. The book is in Swedish and has, at the end of the book 513 references divided into 185 scientific articles and books and 328 non-fiction and other sources. Approximately 60% of the referenced publications in the book are published from 2018 to July 2020. Approximately 15% are from the period 2015 to 2017. Approximately 11% are from the period 2010 to 2014 and approximately 14% are from the period up to and including 2009.
The Swedish paper back book can be bought at stimuera.se
... Most intimate relationships of love and friendship are formed between people who find themselves near each other, even if their nearness was not the result of their choice, but chance, as evidenced by many studies (Festinger, Back, & Schachter, 1950;Newcomb, 1961;Rubin, 1973;Ebbesen, Kjos, & Konečni, 1976). It has even been proven (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989) that a long gaze into the eyes, even if artificially induced, increases feelings of attraction and affection. Also the fact that colleagues' estimation of their partners becomes more favourable in proportion to the length of contact (Saegert, Swap, & Zajonc, 1973) has been linked to Zajonc's contact hypothesis (Zajonc, 1968), which posits that we tend to like the people with whom we are in frequent contact. ...
... The influence of eye contact on the development of romantic feelings is well documented. Early relational research identified the impact of eye contact with others, finding that individuals could not only experience deep romantic feelings for others (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989), but also help couples strengthen their feelings of love for each other (Rubin, 1970). More recently, Olivarez, Hardie, and Blackburn (2018) found that in 703 romance novels, descriptions highlight the facial features, chin, mouth, tongue, and smile. ...
This exploratory study investigates how emerging adults (EAs) experience catching feelings. Applying the Stages of Change Model and Relational Receptivity Theory, this study investigates how EAs understand the cognitive and behavior changes leading up to commitment and how they process precontemplation surrounding catching feelings. Using focus group interviews, collegiate EAs ( N = 17) define catching feelings as the unintentional, unexpected, and surprisingly desirable development of romantic feelings for another person (commonly beginning face-to-face). When confronted with catching feelings, EAs must delineate their preconditions for catching feelings and work through decision-making processes. Implications for relationship readiness, communication, and commitment are discussed.
... In many animals, prolonged gaze is typically associated with aggression or intimidation (Emery, 2000;Skuse, 2003). In humans, sustained eye contact has been linked to expressing control/dominance or love/inclusion (Argyle et al., 1974;Kellerman et al., 1989;Hall et al., 2005; for a review, see Hietanen, 2018). Although there was no reason for participants in this study to convey emotional feelings, especially when they were clearly instructed to remain neutral, it is possible that some emotional processing was going on between the eyes. ...
Research shows that arousal is significantly enhanced while participants make eye contact with a live person compared to viewing a picture of direct or averted gaze. Recent research has pointed toward the potential for social interaction as a possible driving force behind the arousal enhancement. That is, eye gaze is not only a signal perceived but also a signal sent out in order to communicate with others. This study aimed to test this by having dyads engage in eye contact and averted gaze naturally, while wearing sunglasses, and while blindfolded; such that the gaze signals were clear, degraded, and blocked, respectively. Autonomic nervous system arousal was measured via skin conductance response and level. The results showed that dyads exhibited the highest degree of arousal (increased skin conductance) while making eye contact (send/receive) compared to send-only or receive-only gaze trials; however, this was only the case if eye contact was clear. Once gaze information became degraded (by sunglasses or blindfold), arousal significantly decreased and was no longer modulated by the sending and receiving of gaze. Therefore, the arousal enhancement observed during eye contact is not only caused by receiving gaze signals (the focus of previous research) and should be more accurately attributed to the subtle interplay between sending and receiving gaze signals.
... As is the goal in MPD therapy with individuals, all the many "alternative" personalities within humanity might need to accept, as well as experience, that they are vital aspects of a larger, indivisible, mind/body system. Psychological testing shows that individuals will often conform to the "will" of whatever group they are in 13,14 . Because what the majority of humanity now agrees to is 'separateness,' HCP suggests we may need to encourage large numbers of people to contemplate and experience a much deeper level of connection before we can expect any given individual to explore a more familiar manner of sharing with others. ...
The Human Connection (HC) Project has been created to reinforce the underlying
sense that human beings are innately psychologically and physiologically linked,
even when in widely-separated geographic locations. By presenting scientific
demonstrations of nervous system interactivity occurring among spatially separated
people in the form of ninety second news releases, the HC Project will offer an
alternative to the current scientific world view, in which humans are considered
physically isolated beings. The expectation is that our collective 'mind-set' can be
altered by successfully focusing international attention on undeniable images of
human interconnectedness.
Also, people will be taught how to increase a sense of connection, even under
informal conditions. To further this aim, educational methods --including workshops,
seminars and group biofeedback techniques-- are being developed for use in
families, schools and communities. These will involve, but not be limited to, people
engaged in sports, the arts, corporate management, public services, and
professional organizations. Such methods will explain and encourage more positive
forms of behavior and they will facilitate lasting experiences of interpersonal
alignment, group insight and creative cooperative activity. As educational programs
and media presentations become better equipped to explore human
interconnectedness, as an accessible resource, it is hypothesized that there will be a
gradual yet irreversible shift in the way people pay attention to themselves and
others.
... Combined with other verbal and nonverbal behaviors, they will eventually contribute to how we relate to someone. One classical example is the association of mutual eye-contact with romantic feelings [9]. There has been extensive research on the social effects of specific elementary gaze behaviors. ...
There are ongoing debates on whether learning involves the same mechanisms when it is mediated by social skills than when it is not [1]. Gaze cues serve as a strong communicative modality that is profoundly human. They have been shown to trigger automatic attentional orienting [2]. However, arrow cues have been shown to elicit similar effects [3]. Hence, gaze and arrow cues are often compared to investigate differences between social and non-social cognitive processes [4]. The present study sought to compare cued learning when the cue is provided by a social agent versus a nonsocial agent.
... Combined with other verbal and nonverbal behaviors, they will eventually contribute to how we relate to someone. One classical example is the association of mutual eye-contact with romantic feelings [9]. There has been extensive research on the social effects of specific elementary gaze behaviors. ...
Gaze acts as a powerful nonverbal behavior that conveys emotional meaning and provides access to others' mental states. The present study sought to investigate how observing others' gaze behaviors can influence one's judgment of personality traits. Twenty four participants were placed face-to-face with a virtual human, alternately female or male, which they had to address verbally. Participants were made to believe that the virtual human was reproducing in real-time the gaze movements of true individuals whom they could not see. In fact, a computer program enabled the virtual human to react to the gaze of the participants that was detected via an eye-tracker. The virtual human displayed four different types of gaze behaviors: high amount of direct gaze, low amount of direct gaze, gaze avoidance and gaze following. After being exposed to each type of gaze behavior, participants were asked to rate the virtual human according to the five factor model of personality. The results showed that increasing eye-contact yielded higher judgments of conscientiousness. Gaze following was appraised as favoring extraversion compared to gaze avoidance. Additionally, personality judgments appeared to be modulated by the gender of the virtual human, with more negative traits attributed to the virtual female.
... This section will present the premise for experiment 2 drawing on neuro-science and social psychology principals which emphasise the importance of "faces" to social interaction and building relationships (Bargiela-Chiappini and Haugh 2009;Goffman 2005;Cozolino 2004). Researchers Kellerman, Lewis, and Laird (1989) set out to explore the effects of consistent eye contact on feelings of romantic love. In two experiments, people were randomly paired into opposite sex couples and given the instructions to look at their partner's hands or eyes, or count eye blinks. ...
To achieve a circular textile industry – one that has closed complex resource loops at all stages of the lifecycle – collaboration is required between diverse stakeholders. Working with people from a broad set of backgrounds, cultures, training, professions, with different languages can be extremely challenging, and progress when working together for the first time can be slow. Traditionally, textile designers have been a silent link in the industry supply chain, but with the new challenges that collaboration brings that role is expanding. The research presented here poses this question: could textile designers play a more influential role, by using their unique methods and skills to support new collaborations working towards an industry where waste is more often utilised as a resource? The study focusses on practice-based design research undertaken by the authors –one with a background in textiles and the other in materials communication – to support the formation of effective working relationships between participants in the multidisciplinary consortium project: Trash-2-Cash. A series of experiments were conducted using photography, visual data mapping, silent meditation and drawing to bring participants closer together by focussing on faces. The authors conclude by proposing this approach as a new method for enabling shared understanding in a multi-disciplinary setting, starting with participants’ portraits and using design practice to build connections between the people within the collaboration. The authors suggest that this method inform internal communication and facilitation tools as well as external communication of the collaboration as part of a wider strategy to engage external non-specialist audiences in the work being undertaken. The approach may be of particular interest to research projects where designers are working with other disciplines for the first time.
... Also, gaze and head nodding behaviours are considered as nonverbal cues for both backchanneling 33 and turn-taking in communication 34 . Furthermore, gaze behaviour is asserted to be means for expressing not only attention and interest 35 but also positive feelings like affection 36 and many other social information as well 37,38 . Head nodding behaviour is also asserted to be one of obvious and prominent nonverbal behaviours that the interactional partner can easily perceive, representing attentiveness, understanding and acceptance to the interactional partner 39,40 . ...
At current state, although robotics technology has been immensely developed, the uncertainty to completely engage in human-robot interaction is still growing among people. Many current studies then started to concern about human factors that might influence human's likability like human's personality, and found that compatibility between human's and robot's personality (expressions of personality characteristics) can enhance human's likability. However, it is still unclear whether specific means and strategy of robot's nonverbal behaviours enhances likability from human with different personality traits and whether there is a relationship between robot's nonverbal behaviours and human's likability based on human's personality. In this study, we investigated and focused on the interaction via gaze and head nodding behaviours (mutual gaze convergence and head nodding synchrony) between introvert/extravert participants and robot in two communication strategies (Backchanneling and Turn-taking). Our findings reveal that the introvert participants are positively affected by backchanneling in robot's head nodding behaviour, which results in substantial head nodding synchrony whereas the extravert participants are positively influenced by turn-taking in gaze behaviour, which leads to significant mutual gaze convergence. This study demonstrates that there is a relationship between robot's nonverbal behaviour and human's likability based on human's personality.
... This section will present the premise for experiment 2 drawing on neuro-science and social psychology principals which emphasise the importance of 'faces' to social interaction and building relationships (Bargiela-Chiappini & Haugh 2009;Goffman 2005;Cozolino 2004). Researchers Kellerman, Lewis, and Laird (1989) set out to explore the effects of consistent eye contact on feelings of romantic love. In two experiments, people were randomly paired into opposite sex couples and given the instructions to look at their partner's hands or eyes, or count eye blinks. ...
To achieve a circular textile industry – one that has closed complex resource loops at all stages of the lifecycle – collaboration is required between diverse stakeholders. Working with people from different backgrounds, cultures, training, professions and with different languages can be extremely challenging, and progress when working together for the first time can be slow. This paper presents one approach taken by the authors who used textile design methods to help build a sense of trust and shared understanding amongst a group of EU project collaborators – scientists, designers and industry participants – during six of the mandatory project workshops which took place over a 14-month period towards the beginning of the project. Three experiments were conducted using the faces of the participants to create new insights around the roles, knowledge and expertise of the group; as well as being used to form the basis of the first co-created garment for the project.
... For astute observers, eyes hold a wealth of information about a person's emotions, mental states [1], identity [2], and focus of attention [3]. In a matter of minutes, reciprocal eye contact can invoke passionate feelings of love and affection between complete strangers [4], and eye contact between an infant and caregiver represents one of the earliest, most potent, social interactions necessary for developing attachment, and for the development of relationship maturity and emotional competencies later in life [5]. Surely, reciprocal eye gaze is one of the most powerful and meaningful social interactions humans share [6]. ...
A tendency to avoid eye contact is an early indicator of Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD), and difficulties with eye contact often persist throughout the lifespan. Eye contact difficulties may underlie social cognitive deficits in ASD, and can create significant social and occupational barriers. Thus, this topic has received substantial research and clinical attention. In this study, we used qualitative methods to analyze self-reported experiences with eye contact as described by teens and adults with self-declared ASD. Results suggest people with a self- declared ASD diagnosis experience adverse emotional and physiological reactions, feelings of being invaded, and sensory overload while making eye contact, in addition to difficulties understanding social nuances, and difficulties receiving and sending nonverbal information. Some data support existing mindblindness frameworks, and hyperarousal or hypoarousal theories of eye contact, but we also present novel findings unaccounted for by existing frameworks. Additionally, we highlight innovative strategies people with self-declared ASD have devised to overcome or cope with their eye contact difficulties.
... Since Charles Darwin stated in his study that nonverbal behavior reveals emotion 32 , many researchers started to investigate and pay more attention on the relationship between various internal states or emotions and Scientific RepoRts | 6:38261 | DOI: 10.1038/srep38261 nonverbal behaviors. According to the previous studies, they discovered that individual's nonverbal behaviors can convey and indicate individual's emotions or internal states, for instance, anger 41 , love 42 , interest and attention 38 , attitudes and interpersonal styles 43 , trust 44 , and coordination between interactants 29 . By applying the concept of emotion-nonverbal behavior relationship from the previous studies, we can infer prior knowledge as internal state and since we interest in human-human interaction instead of individual's nonverbal behavior, we infer the nonverbal-interactional behaviors, namely mutual gaze convergence and head nodding synchrony, as nonverbal behaviors between 2 interactants. ...
As prior knowledge is claimed to be an essential key to achieve effective education, we are interested in exploring whether prior knowledge enhances communication effectiveness. To demonstrate the effects of prior knowledge, mutual gaze convergence and head nodding synchrony are observed as indicators of communication effectiveness. We conducted an experiment on lecture task between lecturer and student under 2 conditions: prior knowledge and non-prior knowledge. The students in prior knowledge condition were provided the basic information about the lecture content and were assessed their understanding by the experimenter before starting the lecture while the students in non-prior knowledge had none. The result shows that the interaction in prior knowledge condition establishes significantly higher mutual gaze convergence (t(15.03) = 6.72, p < 0.0001; α = 0.05, n = 20) and head nodding synchrony (t(16.67) = 1.83, p = 0.04; α = 0.05, n = 19) compared to non-prior knowledge condition. This study reveals that prior knowledge facilitates mutual gaze convergence and head nodding synchrony. Furthermore, the interaction with and without prior knowledge can be evaluated by measuring or observing mutual gaze convergence and head nodding synchrony.
... Kellerman reported that the gazing behavior of people in relationships toward strangers of the opposite sex increased feelings of passion for each other [1]. We believe that feelings of love are also increased by communication devices that represent a partner and interacting affective behavior toward the device. ...
In this paper, we introduce a communication device which encourages users to establish a good relationship with others. We designed the device so that it allows users to virtually hug the person in the remote site through the medium. In this paper, we report that when a participant talks to his communication partner during their rest encounter while hugging the communication medium, he mistakenly feels as if they are establishing a good relationship and that he is being loved rather than just being liked. From this result, we discuss Active Co-Presence, a new method to enhance co-presence of people in remote through active behavior
... Henderson [2] and Just [3] asserted that gaze is the most significant, reliable, and observable indicator of mutual attentiveness. Moreover, many previous studies found that gazing conveys socially relevant information and mutual gazes in face-to-face communication can furthermore be interpreted as a modality of hostility, anger [4], romantic attraction [5], interest and attention [6]. ...
In human communication, mutual attentiveness between individuals is essential for social interaction. The most significant and reliable indicator of mutual attentiveness is gaze. Despite the availability of diverse exorbitant eye-tracking devices, all claim highly accurate gaze positioning, which exceeds the necessity for average researches and applications. We propose and alternative model for mutual gaze convergence detection using economical video capturing devices and straightforward techniques that can investigate natural gaze behaviors in human-human interaction. We conducted a task supposing lecture in face-to-face interaction and applied our model to investigate (1) average percentage of total mutual gaze convergence, (2) duration of mutual gaze convergence, (3) the domination relationship between lectures and students during short lectures, including (4) the effects of attention span, which claimed to last for 10-20 minutes, toward short lecture task (5 minutes). Our results showed that the average total mutual gaze convergence between the lecturer and the student is 52.82%. It reveals the fact that in both long and short lecture, humans have momentary gaze fixation at a particular direction. We also found out that attention span has effect on different durations of lecture task, resulting in different dominance between lecturer and student, be it student for long lecture and lecturer for short lecture. We believe that our developed model implementation and findings exhibit practical applicability and worthy of contribution to the communities of related research areas.
... To find out if the feeling of love can be manufactured in a short period of time, Kellerman, Lewis, and Laird (1989) conducted an unusual but groundbreaking experiment into the psychology of love. They asked volunteers to participate in a study about extra-sensory perception. ...
In 2005, the “Seduction Community” was brought to mainstream attention when Neil Strauss published his book “The Game: Penetrating the Secret Society of Pickup Artists”. Since beginning in the U.S. in the 1970’s, the community is dedicated to finding methods for success with women. Currently, in addition to a self-organised exchange of information via the Internet, there is a flourishing market of self-help literature and seminars promising to transform anybody into a woman-seducing Casanova. Helping others with their dating skills has become an industry that makes millions of Euros per year. So-called “flirt gurus” make their fortune with personal coaching, promising not just to change one’s relationship status but one’s whole life. The industry’s outrageous claims and the attention they’re currently garnering make it time to put their methods to the test. To see if there is a scientific foundation for the claims the industry makes, Andreas Baranowski compares its most common advice with current scientific findings. He investigates questions such as if it is really good to play hard to get, how to overcome approach anxiety, and if it is possible to get somebody to think he or she is in love with you.
... However, an important and interesting insight provided by social psychology is that an individual's behaviour can also affect his or her attitude, not just the reverse (Olson and Zanna 1993). An example can be found in two studies conducted by Kellerman et al. (1989). In these two studies, opposite sex strangers were induced to exchange mutual unbroken gaze for two minutes. ...
Many countries around the world desire their students to have a positive attitude toward their own nations. Although the task of fostering a positive student attitude toward country is an important one, it may not be easy to achieve. The goal of this chapter is to provide a brief review of the scholarly literature on citizenship education, followed by a theoretical discussion on promoting attitude change particularly via the theory of persuasion, as well as a discussion of a blended learning approach that incorporates the use of persuasive messages, Socratic questions, asynchronous online discussion forums, and personal reflections. This paper concludes with a brief description of a research project of two grade five classes in Singapore that attempted to promote positive student attitude toward their country. The results of our study suggested that the blended learning approach was able to instil a positive student attitude to their country. Finally, we discuss several important lessons learned that could inform the design of future instructional strategies in implementing blended learning for the purpose of citizenship education.
... Such an emotional theme may be difficult to identify with the widespread use of still photographs in research on the facial expressions of emotions. Perhaps the distinguishing cue for affection is gazing (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989;Rubin, 1970), a duration variable that is difficult to capture on photographs but that is probably applicable to other emotions, such as horror, which may well be a fear expression held for an extended period. ...
P. Shaver, I. Schwartz, D. Kirson, and C. O'Connor(1987) found that English emotion words fall into 25 categories of synonyms. To find emotion nomenclature universals, the authors used P. Shaver et aL's taxonomy in a sample of the world's languages and found that emotion categories were added in most languages in a relatively similar generalized sequence. Labeled first were the categories of anger and guilt; followed in Stage 2 by adoration, alarm, amusement, and depression; in Stage 3 by alienation, arousal, and agony; and ending with eagerness in Stage 4. The remaining 5 stages were derivatives of. Stages 1-4. Thus, in the folk taxonomy, Stages 1-4 are basic linguistic emotion categories. Motives for labeling emotions were driven possibly by the need to maintain social control, the identification of prototypical emotions elicited in interpersonal relationships, and the need for terms to identify intrapersonal emotions. Features of markedness theory were corroborated for English emotion terms.
... Depending on contexts and situations, direct gaze can be perceived as a sign of negative feelings towards the person that is being stared at, it can be interpreted as an expression of anger, threat, or hostility (Argyle & Cook, 1976; Hinde & Rowell, 1962). On the other hand, direct gaze can also convey positive signals, such as general interest, friendliness, or sexual attraction (Argyle & Cook, 1976; Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989; Kleinke, 1986; Macrae et al., 2002) There are other common beliefs about liars, such as they are nervous, they touch their noses, and their speech is flawed. However, the most prevalent stereotype about liars is they avoid direct eye contact. ...
... On a very basic level, gaze direction signals where someone is looking, and therefore where they are directing attention. When someone looks directly at us (direct gaze) it signals that they may be interested in social interaction–whether this is positive or negative in nature (Argyle and Cook, 1976 ;Kellerman et al., 1989 ;Kleinke, 1986 ;von Grunau and Anston, 1995). Likewise, when someone moves their gaze away from us and toward the periphery (averted gaze), it signals that they are attending to a potentially important event or stimulus in the environment. ...
A central source of socially meaningful signals is the face, which can be visually analyzed to understand a person's emotions, intentions, beliefs, and desires, along with information about that person's social status, approachability, age, and gender. This article reviews the neural basis of the perception of such signals in humans, focusing on facial expression and gaze, and touching on lesser-studied signals such as pupil dilation and blushing. It discusses the involvement of structures such as the insula, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala, and superior temporal gyrus, which are studied in some detail with respect to how they process social stimuli. It reveals that social perception also involves information from other modalities and depends on the context in which signals occur.
... how various factors can strengthen emotional bonds. For example, a classic study by Dutton andAron (1974) showed that male subjects were more likely to develop an attraction to female confederates under high-anxiety conditions (when crossing a rickety bridge) than under low-anxiety conditions (when crossing a stable bridge). An intriguing study by Kellerman, Lewis. & Laird ( 1989) showed that when two strangers gazed into each other's eyes for 2 minutes-making each other feel vulnerable by allowing each other to engage in what is often a "threat gesture"-they often developed marked feelings oflove for each other; no such increase occurred when they gazed at each other's hands. Other studies show that emotional bo ...
Two studies (N = 52) examined how love emerged in arranged marriages involving participants from 12 different countries of origin and 6 different religions. The first study (n = 30), mainly qualitative in design, found that self-reported love grew from a mean of 3.9 to 8.5 on a 10-point scale. A number of factors were identified that appeared to contribute to the growth of love, the most important of which was commitment. In the second study = 22), mainly quantitative in design, 36 factors that might contribute to the growth. of love were assessed, with participants indicating on a 13-point scale (from -6 to +6) whether each factor made their love grow weaker or stronger. Love grew from a mean of 5.1 to 9.2, and sacrifice and commitment emerged as the most powerful factors in strengthening love. These and other factors appear to work because they make people feel vulnerable in each other's presence, a hypothesis that is consistent with a growing body of laboratory research. The fact that love can grow in some arranged marriages-and that this process can apparently be analyzed and understood scientifically-raises the possibility that practices that are used to strengthen love in arranged marriages could be introduced into autonomous marriages in Western cultures, where love normally weakens over time.
... Direct gaze can be used to regulate conversation shifts [37] and to signal social interest [38]. Prolonged gaze or staring leads to avoidance behaviours [39], but in other contexts prolonged mutual gaze can be a sign of love and attraction [40]. These early studies demonstrate how the social meaning of a gaze cue changes radically depending on the context. ...
Direct gaze is an engaging and important social cue, but the meaning of direct gaze depends heavily on the surrounding context. This paper reviews some recent studies of direct gaze, to understand more about what neural and cognitive systems are engaged by this social cue and why. The data show that gaze can act as an arousal cue and can modulate actions, and can activate brain regions linked to theory of mind and self-related processing. However, all these results are strongly modulated by the social meaning of a gaze cue and by whether participants believe that another person is really watching them. The implications of these contextual effects and audience effects for our theories of gaze are considered. © 2015 The Author(s) Published by the Royal Society. All rights reserved.
... That training was designed to allow persons to become more comfortable with staring and with connecting with other people; and it permitted the trainees to reduce at least some of their defenses or resistances to staring, being stared at, and sharing a mutual gaze. In the course of their training, many trainees reported that their staring encounters became quite positive and pleasant interactions, and they expressed disappointment when the encounters ended (see Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989, for the sometimes powerful effects of sharing a mutual gaze). We speculate that similar processes may have occurred during remote staring: The trained subjects of Phase 2 may have missed the contact with, and the attention of, the starer (with whom they had become increasingly familiar during the course of the training), and may have become more relaxed and calm when that attention was provided, albeit in remote form, during the staring epochs of the experiment. ...
Reactions to an Unseen Gaze (Remote Attention):
A Review, with New Data on Autonomic Staring Detection
The Journal of Parapsychology
Braud, William, Shafer, Donna, Andrews, Sperry
Have you ever had the feeling that someone was staring at you from behind and, upon turning around, found you were correct? From time to time, most of us have had such a feeling, which appears to be a common part of the human experience. In surveys conducted in California (Coovet, 1913) as early as 1913, 68% to 86% of respondents reported having had the feeling of being watched or stared at on at least one occasion, and a more recent Australian survey (Williams, 1983) placed the figure at 74%. In a survey of San Antonio respondents recently completed as part of the present project, the figure was found to be approximately 94%. Despite its widespread occurrence and familiarity, the staring experience has been subjected to surprisingly little scientific scrutiny. Is the presumed ability to detect an unseen gaze merely a superstition, a cultural myth without real substance, an overinflation of coincidental occurrences, or a response to subtle sensory cues? Or, alternatively, could the experience be a valid indicator of an exceptional yet poorly understood human capability?
... Another study reported that couples in love make more eye contact overall than couples that were not in love (Rubin, 1970). Compellingly, strangers have reported feelings of passionate love after spending only 2-min engaged in unbroken eye contact (Kellerman et al., 1989). To account for these effects of eye contact and intimacy, Argyle and Dean (1965) proposed that the level of intimacy between strangers could be maintained by balancing four factors: eye contact, proximity, topic of conversation, and smiling. ...
In contrast to non-human primate eyes, which have a dark sclera surrounding a dark iris, human eyes have a white sclera that surrounds a dark iris. This high contrast morphology allows humans to determine quickly and easily where others are looking and infer what they are attending to. In recent years an enormous body of work has used photos and schematic images of faces to study these aspects of social attention, e.g., the selection of the eyes of others and the shift of attention to where those eyes are directed. However, evolutionary theory holds that humans did not develop a high contrast morphology simply to use the eyes of others as attentional cues; rather they sacrificed camouflage for communication, that is, to signal their thoughts and intentions to others. In the present study we demonstrate the importance of this by taking as our starting point the hypothesis that a cornerstone of non-verbal communication is the eye contact between individuals and the time that it is held. In a single simple study we show experimentally that the effect of eye contact can be quickly and profoundly altered merely by having participants, who had never met before, play a game in a cooperative or competitive manner. After the game participants were asked to make eye contact for a prolonged period of time (10 min). Those who had played the game cooperatively found this terribly difficult to do, repeatedly talking and breaking gaze. In contrast, those who had played the game competitively were able to stare quietly at each other for a sustained period. Collectively these data demonstrate that when looking at the eyes of a real person one both acquires and signals information to the other person. This duality of gaze is critical to non-verbal communication, with the nature of that communication shaped by the relationship between individuals, e.g., cooperative or competitive.
... For example, people who are induced to adopt facial expressions or postures of various emotions feel the corresponding emotions (Duclos et al., 1989). People feel romantic attraction if they exchange mutual gazes (Kellerman, Lewis, & Laird, 1989;Williams & Kleinke, 1993). Increases in arousal lead to increases in intensity of experiences of fear, anger, and passionate love (see Laird & Bresler, 1992, for a review). ...
Self-perception theory (Bem, 1972; Laird, 1974) holds that acting "as if" one feels something will result in that feeling. Whereas other studies have examined effects of emotional expression on immediate emotional experience, this study investigated the more lasting influence of practised expressions. Participants repeatedly produced the facial expressions and postures associated with either Happiness , Sadness or Anger. Subsequently, participants responsive to their bodily, personal cues felt more of the emotions they practised, even though they were no longer performing the expressive behaviour. In a separate procedure, they recalled more life events with an emotional content associated with their training. No mood changes occurred for participants responsive to situational cues.
... Powerful eye contact immediately stimulates strong feelings of affection. This was proved once and for all in a study called "The Effects of Mutual Gaze on Feelings of Romantic Love." 14 Researchers put forty-eight men and women who didn't know each other in a big room. They gave them directions on how much eye contact to have with their partners during casual conversation. ...
To fulfill the promise of the title, How to Make Anyone Fall in Love with You offers 85 techniques based on scientific studies into the nature of romantic love.
Es gibt kaum ein psychologisches Konzept, das so vielfältig behandelt worden ist wie das der Emotion. Gemeinsam ist den vorliegenden Ansätzen die Annahme innerer Erregung, d. h. einer sogenannten affektiven Reaktion und subjektiver Empfindungen. Wir stellen 4 ausgewählte Konzepte dar: a) Duffy (1934, 1962), b) Izard (1999), dabei gehen wir auch auf Aristoteles ein; c) Scherer (1990, S. 2–38) sowie d) Schachter und Singer (1962). Nach dem letzten Ansatz sind Emotionen die kognitiven Interpretationen, die wir uns selber für unsere Erregung geben. Wir können uns diese Erregung nicht objektiv erklären, sondern sind auf Informationen angewiesen.
Chapter 19 investigates the conceptual mappings of conventional figurative expressions, specifically idioms and collocations containing the body-part term nwun “eye(s)” in Korean. Working within the framework of conceptual metaphor theory (Lakoff and Johnson 1980), the study explores the types of conceptual shift that give rise to extended meanings and discusses how extension mechanisms draw on shared features between source and target domains. Common Korean expressions involving the eyes involve vision, persons, time, events/processes, perception (e.g., attention, attraction, interest, judgment), mind activities (e.g., thinking, knowing, understanding), and emotions (e.g., anger, avarice, surprise). These figurative expressions are motivated by the basic experiences of eye behavior, eye appearance, and vision, as well as by our interactions with people and environments. The findings of this study contribute to our understanding of the influence of embodiment in language in general and in Korean in particular.
This chapter “Love Concepts, Their Diverse Contents, and Definitions” analyzes the complex conceptual reality and phenomenology of many things, which we call love and other closely related constructs. Among those are the basic and complex units of subjective internal experience of love, such as sensations, appraisals, emotions, moods, attitudes, traits, and values, which represent a multilevel structure of love experience. Among those are the units of objective external reality of love, such as expressions, actions, interactions, behaviors, relationships, and love as evolving process. The chapter also highlights the need for theoretical clarity in conceptual and operational definitions of what love is in a particular study. Various types of scientific definitions are possible. The distinctions between individual and relationship levels of love, as well as between personal and cultural models of love, are important to include.KeywordsComplexity of loveLove as a fuzzy conceptVarieties of loveLove constructsLove meaningsLove typesPlanes of loveLove as emotionsLove as emotional processesLove as moodsLove as habitsLove as dispositionsLove as attitudesLove as traitsLove as actionsLove as relationshipsLove as cultural ideasLove as values
This article describes the parent-child dialogue role-play created in Imago Relationship Therapy, its psychodramatic effectiveness and its application in couples therapy. Four couples in therapy conducted the parent-child dialogue with each other, each couple twice. To assess helpful and hindering aspects, couples filled out the HAT (Helpful Aspects of Therapy) questionnaire after completing the parent-child dialogue and took part in a semi-structured interview. This article presents the findings of this study, and interprets and discusses them with reference to the therapeutic processes connected with the concrete psycho and couples’ dynamics.
In this study, the two authors focus on the analysis of Gianfranco Rosi's documentary film Fire At Sea in which a child, just as a contemporary Virgil, becomes the narrator of an emblematic historical context and peculiar socio-cultural dynamics. The setting of the island of Lampedusa and Rosi's characters are symbolically used to reflect on the human tragedy in the Mediterranean Sea and question its relational outcomes on an exis-tential level: meetings, clashes, rejection, indifference, recognition, care. This research aims to provide a double reading of this filmic narration by taking into account the dialogical relation between representation and ethics. The film is interpreted through the lens of chil-dren's literature and of collective imagery analysis, thus exploring its narrative dimension from the point of view of philosophy of education and its axiological reflections.
Background
Although long‐term social challenges following traumatic brain injury (TBI) are well documented, the challenges of establishing new relationships following TBI are less understood.
Aims
To examine how the type of non‐verbal cues produced by an unfamiliar communication partner impacts feelings of relationship closeness by people with and without TBI.
Methods & Procedures
In this quasi‐experimental comparative mixed‐group design, participants included 12 male heterosexual adults with moderate/severe TBI and 10 typical comparison peers. An adaptation of the Relationship Closeness Induction Task (RCIT), a 29‐item questionnaire, was completed by all participants to induce relationship closeness through reciprocal self‐disclosure during conversation. Participants completed the RCIT three separate times in counterbalanced order. Conversational partners for the RCIT were three female actors trained to convey similar verbal answers to the RCIT questions, but to produce different non‐verbal cues: solicitation (i.e., flirting), neutral and rejecting. Following each conversation, the participants completed a 10‐item Likert‐type questionnaire about the experience.
Outcomes & Results
Between‐ and within‐group non‐parametric statistical analysis of Likert questions showed non‐significant differences between the two participant groups such that both groups consistently rated the female actor who used flirting non‐verbal cues higher than the actor who used rejecting non‐verbal cues.
Conclusions & Implications
These results suggest a small sample of heterosexual males with TBI interpret non‐verbal relationship cues in real‐time conversations with unfamiliar partners as well as comparison peers. Clinical implications include the need to consider real‐time conversation in assessment and treatment planning for social communication goals related to cognitive–communication impairment.
This research examines how Hollywood's female star images as celebrity feminist were created. The research focuses in particular on Watson's star image as celebrity feminist and the models of her feminism in the character she played in Beauty and The Beast (2017). This research uses Richard Dyer's stars as images, it looks at stars as a social phenomenon indicates that, no matter where one chooses to put the emphasis in terms of the stars' place in the production/consumption dialectic of the cinema, that place can still only be fully understood ideologically. Charles Sanders Peirce's semiotic is used as methodology for analyzing star images and their specific signification as realized in film texts related to postfeminist sensibility. The analysis of these materials demonstrates the relationship between Watson's image and Beauty and The Beast as her star-vehicle. It both maximizes Emma Watson's star image as a celebrity feminist by highlighting the postfeminist sensibility with key elements: choice, self-empowerment, success and freedom. Elements of choice are shown by consciously choosing traditional femininity by choosing heterosexual relationships, choosing to do housework, and choosing to look beautiful and sexy. The personal empowerment elements are shown through Watson's passion for reading books that make her a smart woman, her stylish fashion and self-care that cost a lot of money. Elements of success are seen by her successful career, being rich so she does not have financial anxiety and successfully finding true love. These quests for success is demonstrated by being independence and self-determination. The elements of freedom are shown by the adventurous spirit which makes the books as medium of freedom. In addition, freedom is also shown as something that can not be achieved by women without the help of men.
The well-known other-race effect in face recognition has been widely studied, both for its
theoretical insights into the nature of face expertise and because of its social and forensic
importance. Here we demonstrate an other-race effect for the perception of a very simple
visual signal provided by the eyes, namely gaze direction. In Study 1, Caucasian and Asian
participants living in Australia both showed greater perceptual sensitivity to detect direct
gaze in own-race than other-race faces. In Study 2, Asian (Chinese) participants living in
Australia and Asian (Chinese) participants living in Hong Kong both showed this other-race
effect, but Caucasian participants did not. Despite this inconsistency, meta-analysis revealed
a significant other-race effect when results for all five participant groups from corresponding
conditions in the two studies were combined. These results demonstrate a new other-race
effect for the perception of the simple, but socially potent, cue of direct gaze. When identical
morphed-race eyes were inserted into the faces, removing race-specific eye cues, no otherrace
effect was found (with one exception). Thus the balance of evidence implicated
perceptual expertise, rather than social motivation, in the other-race effect for detecting direct
gaze.
Es gibt kaum ein psychologisches Konzept, das so vielfältig behandelt worden ist wie das der Emotion. Gemeinsam ist den vorliegenden Ansätzen die Annahme innerer Erregung, d. h. einer sogenannten affektiven Reaktion und subjektiver Empfindungen. Wir stellen vier ausgewählte Konzepte dar: a) Duffy (1934,1962), b) Izard (1994), dabei gehen wir auch auf Aristoteles ein; c) Scherer (1990, S. 2–38) sowie d) Schachter und Singer (1962). Nach dem letzten Ansatz sind Emotionen die kognitiven Interpretationen, die wir uns selber für unsere Erregung geben. Wir können uns diese Erregung nicht objektiv erklären, sondern sind auf Informationen angewiesen.
The results of numerous experimental studies have provided ample evidence for William James' theory that emotional conduct is a sufficient condition for the occurrence of emotional feelings. Two further questions are addressed in the study reported in this paper. First, critics have speculated that the effects of peripheral feedback from expressive bodily movement may lead to generalized diffuse pleasant or unpleasant experiences, rather than the specific emotional feelings consistent with James' position. Second if the Jamesian account is correct, then the simultaneous combination of multiple, consistent solaces of expressive bodily feedback should result in greater magnitudes of emotional response than those caused by separate, individual sources. The results of the present study replicate those of the only other study (Duclos et al., 1989) which has demonstrated specific effects of expressive behaviors on corresponding emotional feelings. It was also possible to demonstrate, via correlational analyses, that those people who are responsive to their expressions tend to be responsive to their postures as well, since subjects in this study received manipulations of their facial expressions mid their bodily, postures. The results of this study also indicate that matching combinations of facial expressions and bodily postures result in more powerful feelings of the corresponding emotional feelings than do either expressions or postures alone. Copyright (C) 1999 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
The volume presents the results of interdisciplinary research involving linguistic, literary, historical, and religious studies. The contributors show how fundamental emotions are presented, perceived, and evaluated in cultures that are the subject of their interest. The attention is focused on the coding of emotions in Asian and African languages and literature, as well as on the manifestation of emotions in customs, beliefs, music, and other ‘fine’ arts. The regions of interest are: Arab countries from the Middle East, Turkey, Iran, Japan, Korea, India, West and East Africa. The issue of emotions is also analyzed from the historical perspective, as the book also contains papers based on Hittite and Sanskrit sources.
Recent research suggests that deliberate manipulation of expressive behaviours might self-regulate emotional experiences. Eighty people were first induced to adopt emotional expressions in a successfully disguised procedure that identified whether their feelings were affected by their expressive behaviour when they were unaware of the nature and purpose of that behaviour. They then deliberately attempted to change emotional feelings by adopting or inhibiting emotional behaviours, or by focusing on or being distracted from situational cues for emotion. Participants more responsive to their own behaviour in the disguised procedure felt more intensely when they adopted emotional behaviours, and less intensely when they inhibited those behaviours. In contrast, people identified as unresponsive to their own emotional behaviour were most affected by deliberate focus on or distraction from emotional thoughts. The effectiveness of techniques for emotional self-regulation depends on a match with characteristics of the person.
In Exp I, 60 undergraduates' mood responses to manipulated expressions were assessed. Ss then read 2 passages of the same emotional content, either anger-provoking editorials or humorous selections by Woody Allen. Later, one selection was recalled while frowning and the other while smiling. In the self-produced cue group (i.e., those whose mood was affected in the original assessment), recall was significantly better for the editorials when frowning and for the Woody Allen stories when smiling. In the nonself cue group, expressions did not affect recall. In Exp II, 20 undergraduates heard and recalled 3 kinds of sentences—angry, sad, or fearful—in the same 3 expressions. Again, only in the self-produced cue group was recall significantly better when sentence and expression were consistent. Findings indicate that these effects are due to mood rather than expression and to the match between expression and content at the time of recall. (31 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
10 published studies indicating that manipulated facial expressions do produce corresponding emotional experience are contrasted with R. Tourangeau and P. C. Ellsworth's (see record
1981-00499-001) failure to demonstrate this relation. Six other studies using a different but theoretically consistent paradigm also demonstrate facial feedback effects. Related results in many of these 16 studies effectively rule out experimental demand as an explanation and instead suggest similarities in process between facial feedback and hunger, attitude change, and self-evaluation. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
85 male passersby were contacted either on a fear-arousing suspension bridge or a non-fear-arousing bridge by an attractive female interviewer who asked them to fill out questionnaires containing Thematic Apperception Test (TAT) pictures. Sexual content of stories written by Ss on the fear-arousing bridge and tendency of these Ss to attempt postexperimental contact with the interviewer were both significantly greater. No significant differences between bridges were obtained on either measure for Ss contacted by a male interviewer. A 2nd study using 34 males involved a similar field setting and attempted to clarify findings of Study 1. A 3rd study in a laboratory setting manipulated anticipated shock to 80 male undergraduates and an attractive female confederate independently. Anticipation of own shock but not anticipation of shock to confederate increased sexual imagery scores on the TAT and attraction to the confederate. (26 ref)
Conducted 2 experiments with a total of 77 undergraduates which required them to "smile" and "frown" without awareness of the nature of their expressions. Ss reported feeling more angry when frowning and more happy when smiling. Ss also reported that cartoons viewed while they were smiling were more humorous than cartoons viewed while they were frowning. Results are interpreted as indicating that an individual's expressive behavior mediates the quality of his emotional experience. (19 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Two studies were conducted to investigate weight differences in emotional responsiveness to proprioceptive and pictorial stimuli. Contrary to past evidence that overweight persons are more emotional than normals, the emotional state of normal-weight subjects fluctuated with manipulations of their facial expression, whereas that of overweight subjects did not respond to these proprioceptive cues. Furthermore, whereas past research employing affectively loaded pictures had found overweight persons to be more emotionally responsive than normals to these external stimuli, no weight differences were obtained in the present studies, which employed less polarized pictures. Implications of these findings for generalizations about weight differences in emotionality are discussed.
Male and female subjects were placed together in pairs for 10 min to get to know each other and talk about anything they wished. After the conversation, an experimenter gave the participants false feedback about the amount of gaze between them during the conversation. One subject (designated Self) was reported by the experimenter to have gazed at the Other at a higher level than usual for most people, at an average level, or at a lower level than usual for most people. After the conversation and the false feedback manipulation, subjects evaluated each other on a rating form. Results of the experiment showed that females gave males the most favorable ratings when they had ostensibly gazed at the males at a high level. Males were most favorable toward females when they thought they had given the females low levels of gaze. When considering the gaze of the other person, both male and female subjects rated a low gazing partner as least attentive and a high gazing partner as most sincere. Males rated low gazing females as least attractive. Females rated males with high reported gaze as least attractive. The research was discussed in terms of Bem's theory that attitudes are a function rather than a cause of behavior. Results were integrated with past research and suggestions for further study were made.
76 undergraduates were administered a fear survey and were designated self-produced cue responders (their reports of emotional state were affected by manipulation of their facial expressions), and 37 were designated situational cue responders (they were unaffected by expression manipulations). As predicted, the situational cue group was less afraid of snakes and electric shocks when given a placebo described as a relaxer and more afraid when given an arouser placebo. Ss more responsive to self-produced cues showed the reverse placebo effect and were more afraid when given a relaxer placebo and less afraid when given an arouser. (43 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Two studies provide evidence that misattribution of arousal facilitates romantic attraction. In Exp I, arousal of 54 male undergraduates was manipulated through exercise. Arousal Ss liked an attractive female confederate more and an unattractive female less than did controls. In Exp II, arousal of 66 Ss was manipulated in a positive (comedy tape) or negative (mutilation tape) way; other Ss heard a nonarousing tape (textbook excerpt). Results replicate the interaction found in Exp I: Valence of initial arousal did not affect attraction to the confederate. Salience of plausible labels for arousal is hypothesized to mediate the misattribution effect. (15 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Replies to R. Tourangeau and P. C. Ellsworth (see record
1981-00499-001), who tested a hypothesis about the role of voluntarily innervated facial responses in the experience of emotion and disconfirmed that hypothesis. The present author's theory would also have predicted that their hypothesis would be disconfirmed. The value of the technique of voluntary simulation of facial responses for the study of innate affects is seriously questioned. (5 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Reinforcement principles have been widely accepted as predictive of "liking" between individuals. The present paper takes the position that other diverse forms of attraction, including human "love" and infrahuman bonding, are likewise best explained in reinforcement terms. Although research that demonstrates increased romantic attraction under aversive circumstances has been interpreted as contradictory to reinforcement principles and, instead, consistent with a Schachterian misattribution view of romantic attraction, difficulties with the misattribution explanation are seen to exist. The studies reviewed did not attempt to disguise the actual sources of arousal and failed to take into account the possibility that the presence of the rated person may have reduced fear or anxiety. Several aspects of the data support a fear-reduction model over the misattribution model. An alternative formulation, consistent with reinforcement principles, is proposed as more parsimonious in explaining all available data. Literature on emotional bonding in subhumans is also reviewed to support the position taken in the present paper, and the potential adaptive significance of increased bonding under aversive circumstances is discussed. (48 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Research on the effects of emotional feelings on memory (e.g., H. C. Ellis and P. W. Ashbrook; see record
1990-18812-001) suggests that feelings may be cognitions. The same conclusion has emerged from the research on the self-perception process by which feelings arise from behavior. Compared with the conventional view, the mood–memory view of emotional experience promises more straightforward understanding of the interactions among emotions and other kinds of cognitions. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Applies social psychological research on interpersonal attraction to the real-life contexts of friendship, mate selection, and intergroup relations. Creation of a love and liking scale is described and results of administration to dating couples are included. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
HYPOTHESIZES THAT MERE REPEATED EXPOSURE OF THE INDIVIDUAL TO A STIMULUS OBJECT ENHANCES HIS ATTITUDE TOWARD IT. BY "MERE" EXPOSURE IS MEANT A CONDITION MAKING THE STIMULUS ACCESSIBLE TO PERCEPTION. SUPPORT FOR THE HYPOTHESIS CONSISTS OF 4 TYPES OF EVIDENCE, PRESENTED AND REVIEWED: (1) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF WORDS AND WORD FREQUENCY, (2) THE EFFECT OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE UPON THE AFFECTIVE CONNOTATION OF NONSENSE WORDS AND SYMBOLS, (3) THE CORRELATION BETWEEN WORD FREQUENCY AND THE ATTITUDE TO THEIR REFERENTS, AND (4) THE EFFECTS OF EXPERIMENTALLY MANIPULATED FREQUENCY OF EXPOSURE ON ATTITUDE. THE RELEVANCE FOR THE EXPOSURE-ATTITUDE HYPOTHESIS OF THE EXPLORATION THEORY AND OF THE SEMANTIC SATIATION FINDINGS WERE EXAMINED. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2006 APA, all rights reserved).
Based on previous research demonstrating that salience of a plausible cause increases the likelihood of causal attribution (S. E. Taylor & S. T. Fiske, in J. Berkowitz (Ed.), Advances in Experimental Social Psychology (Vol. 11), New York: Academic Press, 1978) it was predicted that salience of plausible causes of arousal would affect romantic attraction. Male subjects were differentially aroused by running in place. Aroused subjects were particularly likely to be attracted to an attractive female confederate if they expected to meet her (high salience of confederate) and if cues associated with the running in place were minimized (low salience of exercise). Though results are consistent with a misatribution of arousal hypothesis, it is suggested that emotion schemata are a potentially more useful explanation.
This study investigated the interaction between physiological arousal and situation-derived cognitions in the determination of feeling states that is proposed in Schachter's theory of emotions. The degree of bodily arousal was varied by disguised oral administration of a placebo or the sympathicomimetic agent ephedrine. The situational circumstances were varied by instructions offering cues for (a) no emotions ('neutral' control), or the feeling states called (b) 'anger', (c) 'happiness', and (d) anxiety'. The subjects were 72 male students. The dependent variables were blood pressure, heart rate, a list of bodily symptoms, and an adjective check list. The results within the 'anger' and 'happiness' condition were in accordance with Schachter's theory: depending on the type of situation, ephedrine-induced arousal either decreased or increased positive descriptions of mood. The emotional effects of the 'anxiety' condition, however, were independent of the drug-induced arousal level. Contrary to Schachter's theory, anxiety reactions occured also in a state of low physiological arousal and did not increase with increasing arousal.
Two experiments examined the effects of high-intensity (95 dB [A]) noise on ongoing and postnoise aggressive behavior. In Experiment 1, subjects were angered or treated in a neutral manner and given an opportunity to aggress against another subject while being exposed to high-intensity (95 dB) or low-intensity (55 dB) noise. Results indicated that high-intensity noise facilitated aggression for previously angered individuals. Experiment 2 examined postnoise aggression in which subjects completed a math task under high-intensity noise with or without perceived control over the noise. In comparison to a no-noise control, it was found that angered subjects with no control revealed an increase in aggression, whereas perceived-control subjects were no different from no-noise subjects. Results are discussed in terms of the recent Glass and Singer work on noise and task performance and the effects of perceived control on mediating the effects of stressful conditions.
Male subjects were interviewed by female interviewers who gazed constantly, intermittently, or not at all. Experimental subjects were reinforced with green light feedback whenever they gazed at the interviewers and were punished with red light feedback when they averted gaze for more than 6 seconds. Control subjects received noncontingent green and red light feedback. Although gaze of experimental subjects toward the interviewers was increased significantly, their attitudes toward the interviewers remained the same. This was probably because the subjects did not discriminate that their gazing behavior had changed. Subjects gave the most unfavorable reactions to the nongazing interviewers, rating them as least attractive, giving them the shortest answers, and sitting farthest from them during the debriefing session. Subjects did not discriminate between high and low attractive interviewers, except that the latter were rated disproportionately low on attentiveness if they did not gaze. Interviewers with high rates of talking were preferred over interviewers with low rates of talking. It was concluded that interpersonal attraction is related to gaze and physical attractiveness through a number of mediating variables which will have to be isolated more specifically in future research.
A theory of emotional expression, ignored since 1906, holds that facial muscles act as ligatures on facial blood vessels and
thereby regulate cerebral blood flow, which, in turn, influences subjective feeling. The theory, developed by Israel Waynbaum,
a French physician, hypothesizes the subjective experience of emotions as following facial expression rather than preceding
it. It answers Darwin's question of why different muscles contract or relax in different emotions better than Darwin's own
theory. When restated in terms of contemporary neurophysiological knowledge, it explains and organizes several ill-understood
emotional processes and phenomena.
A THEORY OF SELF-PERCEPTION IS PROPOSED TO PROVIDE AN ALTERNATIVE INTERPRETATION FOR SEVERAL OF THE MAJOR PHENOMENA EMBRACED BY FESTINGER'S THEORY OF COGNITIVE DISSONANCE AND TO EXPLICATE SOME OF THE SECONDARY PATTERNS OF DATA THAT HAVE APPEARED IN DISSONANCE EXPERIMENTS. IT IS SUGGESTED THAT THE ATTITUDE STATEMENTS WHICH COMPRISE THE MAJOR DEPENDENT VARIABLES IN DISSONANCE EXPERIMENTS MAY BE REGARDED AS INTERPERSONAL JUDGMENTS IN WHICH THE O AND THE OBSERVED HAPPEN TO BE THE SAME INDIVIDUAL AND THAT IT IS UNNECESSARY TO POSTULATE AN AVERSIVE MOTIVATIONAL DRIVE TOWARD CONSISTENCY TO ACCOUNT FOR THE ATTITUDE CHANGE PHENOMENA OBSERVED. SUPPORTING EXPERIMENTS ARE PRESENTED, AND METATHEORETICAL CONTRASTS BETWEEN THE "RADICAL" BEHAVIORAL APPROACH UTILIZED AND THE PHENOMENOLOGICAL APPROACH TYPIFIED BY DISSONANCE THEORY ARE DISCUSSED. (2 P. REF.)
Reports initial results of an attempt to introduce and validate a social-psychological construct of romantic love. Starting with the assumption that love is an interpersonal attitude, an internally consistent paper-and-pencil love scale was developed. The conception of romantic love included 3 components: affiliative and dependent need, a predisposition to help, and an orientation of exclusiveness and absorption. The 13-item love-scale scores were only moderately correlated with scores on a parallel 13-item scale of "liking," which reflected a more traditional conception of interpersonal attraction. The validity of the love scale was assessed in a questionnaire study with 158 undergraduate dating couples and a laboratory experiment with 79 undergraduate dating couples. On the basis of the emerging conception of love, it was predicted that college dating couples who loved each other a great deal (as categorized by their love-scale scores) would spend more time gazing into one another's eyes than would couples who loved each other to a lesser degree. The prediction was confirmed. (22 ref.)
It is suggested that emotional states may be considered a function of a state of physiological arousal and of a cognition appropriate to this state of arousal. From this follows these propositions: (a) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has no immediate explanation, he will label this state and describe his feelings in terms of the cognitions available to him (b) Given a state of physiological arousal for which an individual has a completely appropriate explanation, no evaluative needs will arise and the individual is unlikely to label his feelings in terms of the alternative cognitions available. (c) Given the same cognitive circumstances, the individual will react emotionally or describe his feelings as emotions only to the extent that he experiences a state of physiological arousal. An experiment is described which, together with the results of other studies, supports these propositions.
Research with the mood adjective checklist Affect: Measurement of awareness and pe&rmance
- V Nowlis
Nowlis, V. (1966). Research with the mood adjective checklist. In S. Tomkins & C. E. Izard (Eds.), Affect: Measurement of awareness and pe&rmance. New York: Springer.
Adrenaline makes the heart grow fonder
- Walster
Cognitive, social and physiological determinants of emotional state
- Schachter
Attribution and misattribution of excitatory reactions
- Zillman