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Self-criticism, dependency, silencing the self, and loneliness: A test of a mediational model
Abstract
The current study extended recent research on the relational aspects of self-criticism and dependency by examining their association with individual differences in silencing the self and loneliness. A sample of 167 respondents (including 78 in current romantic relationships) were administered the McGill version of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ), the Silencing The Self Scale, and measures of loneliness and depression. The results indicated that self-criticism was associated with silencing the self, loneliness, and depression, while dependency was not associated significantly with loneliness. As expected, a mediational model confirmed that silencing the self mediated the link between self-criticism and loneliness, even after taking related individual differences in levels of depression into account. Our findings held generally for people in a current relationship or not in a current relationship, but certain findings highlighted the need to distinguish whether self-silencing is being evaluated within the context of a current relationship. Overall, our results point to self-silencing as a tendency that links depressive orientations and loneliness. The theoretical and practical implications of the associations among personality vulnerabilities, self-silencing, and loneliness are discussed.
... Self-silencing has been associated with excessive self-criticism and sensitivity to external feedback and public exposure (Jack, 1999). Awareness of differences and potential conflicts between the internally concealed versus the externally exposed self can motivate self-silences in interpersonal contexts (Besser et al., 2003). On the other hand, self-criticism can also contribute to a perceived need for interpersonal distance and withdrawal, connecting self-silencing with both actual and perceived loneliness (Besser et al., 2003). ...
... Awareness of differences and potential conflicts between the internally concealed versus the externally exposed self can motivate self-silences in interpersonal contexts (Besser et al., 2003). On the other hand, self-criticism can also contribute to a perceived need for interpersonal distance and withdrawal, connecting self-silencing with both actual and perceived loneliness (Besser et al., 2003). Another aspect of self-criticism relates to perfectionism, both self-assigned and socially prescribed, and self-silencing can be activated by either or both (Flett et al., 2007). ...
... Although considered useful in the creation and maintenance of safe intimate relationships, self-silencing leads to sacrificing aspects of self-esteem which contributes to a "loss of self" (Jack & Dill, 1992). In addition, the denial of one's own interests in favor of the interests of others can cause escalating loneliness and isolation, which challenges the sense of control and confidence (Besser et al., 2003). Several studies have found self-silence to be common in men as well, however, with significant gender differences (Duarte & Thompson, 1999;Kim, 2015). ...
Silence in the therapeutic encounter has multiple meanings and complex determinants and is often associated with early childhood trauma or neglect but may also be found in patients with character pathology, who try to exert a sense of control when they feel overwhelmed. Self-silencing is a form of nonverbal communication, which may be autonomic or culturally syntonic, serving as protection of independence and safety, see for example, where renunciation of self-interest is used interpersonally to preserve a relationship with a significant other. Loneliness and isolation arising from such impaired relatedness then increase vulnerability to suicide. Self-silencing often serves to manage intense affects but may also contribute to increased suicidal preoccupation when life circumstances overwhelm personality functioning and self-regulation becomes inundated by unbearable affective distress. Under such circumstances, patients may feel desperately isolated and alone but are still unable or unwilling to communicate their distress to others, including their therapists. Consequently, self-silencing may be unnoticed in the therapeutic relationship, both by the patient and by the psychotherapist. Suicidal action can serve as the ultimate fulfillment of a silencing of the self. In this article, we discuss the effect of self-silencing on therapeutic process and suicidal vulnerability.
... Seven studies [1,4,11,19,32,74,76] examined potential differences between autonomic and sociotropic personality styles in levels of loneliness, shame, guilt, embarrassment, interpersonal intimacy, self-punitiveness, anhedonia, hopelessness, insomnia, and anger. A positive and stronger association is reported between self-criticism and loneliness (r = 0.43, p < 0.0001; r = 0.62, P < 0.0001 for self-criticism for intimate and non-intimate relationship, respectively) [11]; (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) [74] and a smaller association between dependency and loneliness (r = 0.22, p < 0.05; r = 0.13, p = 0.22 for intimate and non-intimate relationships, respectively) [11], (r = 0.34, p < 0.01) [74]. ...
... Seven studies [1,4,11,19,32,74,76] examined potential differences between autonomic and sociotropic personality styles in levels of loneliness, shame, guilt, embarrassment, interpersonal intimacy, self-punitiveness, anhedonia, hopelessness, insomnia, and anger. A positive and stronger association is reported between self-criticism and loneliness (r = 0.43, p < 0.0001; r = 0.62, P < 0.0001 for self-criticism for intimate and non-intimate relationship, respectively) [11]; (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) [74] and a smaller association between dependency and loneliness (r = 0.22, p < 0.05; r = 0.13, p = 0.22 for intimate and non-intimate relationships, respectively) [11], (r = 0.34, p < 0.01) [74]. Regression analysis also revealed that self-criticism has a stronger effect in predicting loneliness (β = 0.22, t = 2.05, p < 0.04 and β = 0.46, t = 4.28, p < 0.0001, in intimate and non-intimate relationships groups, respectively) [11], (β = 0.63, t = 6.761, p < 0.05) [74] compared to dependency (β = 0.04, t = 0.43, p = 0.18 and β = 0.05, t = 0.65, p = 0.52, in intimate and non-intimate relationships) [11], (β = 0.29, t = 2.888, p < 0.05) [74]. ...
... Seven studies [1,4,11,19,32,74,76] examined potential differences between autonomic and sociotropic personality styles in levels of loneliness, shame, guilt, embarrassment, interpersonal intimacy, self-punitiveness, anhedonia, hopelessness, insomnia, and anger. A positive and stronger association is reported between self-criticism and loneliness (r = 0.43, p < 0.0001; r = 0.62, P < 0.0001 for self-criticism for intimate and non-intimate relationship, respectively) [11]; (r = 0.67, p < 0.01) [74] and a smaller association between dependency and loneliness (r = 0.22, p < 0.05; r = 0.13, p = 0.22 for intimate and non-intimate relationships, respectively) [11], (r = 0.34, p < 0.01) [74]. Regression analysis also revealed that self-criticism has a stronger effect in predicting loneliness (β = 0.22, t = 2.05, p < 0.04 and β = 0.46, t = 4.28, p < 0.0001, in intimate and non-intimate relationships groups, respectively) [11], (β = 0.63, t = 6.761, p < 0.05) [74] compared to dependency (β = 0.04, t = 0.43, p = 0.18 and β = 0.05, t = 0.65, p = 0.52, in intimate and non-intimate relationships) [11], (β = 0.29, t = 2.888, p < 0.05) [74]. ...
Sociotropy (anaclitic) and autonomy (introjective) are conceptualised as two personality dimensions that confer vulnerability to depression. According to Blatt and Beck’s theories, sociotropic individuals exhibit distinctive patterns of symptoms such as prominent anxiety, depressed mood, helplessness, crying and somatic concerns, while self-critical ones seem to exhibit a pattern of symptoms including prominent guilt, hopelessness, feelings of failure and worthlessness and other cognitive symptoms.
This systematic review was performed with the aim of investigating whether and to what extent psychological dimensions of anaclitic-sociotropic and introjective-autonomy are related to a specific core of depressive symptoms. The search was conducted in three databases (PubMed, PsycINFO and Scopus) and 27 articles were selected.
Results showed a weak association between somatic symptoms and dependent personality traits, while the relationship between self-criticism and cognitive symptomatology was significantly higher. These findings are discussed in the context of future research, necessary to corroborate the existence of a form of depression characterised by somatic features usually ignored by diagnostic criteria, essential to direct psychological treatments to these depressive personality differences.
... Once established, the specific instrument for measuring selfsilencing allowed the development of the empirical research upon its relationship with depression (e.g., Abrams et al., 2019;Ali & Toner, 2001;Besser et al., 2003;Carr et al.,1996;Cramer et al., 2005;Flett et al., 2007;Peleg-Sagy & Shahar, 2015;Thompson, 1995;Thomas & Bowker, 2013;Ussher & Perz, 2010). Even if studies generally confirmed a significant positive relationship, the magnitude of the effects varies from small (e.g., Ahmed & Iqbal, 2019) to medium (e.g., Drew et al., 2004) and even large ones (e.g., Ali & Toner, 2001). ...
... However, such possible mechanisms need further empirical investigation. Also, as far as the correlation between self-silencing and depression is concerned, even if several primary studies found similar magnitudes for men and women (Besser et al., 2003;Cramer et al., 2005;Duarte & Thompson, 1999;Smolak & Munstertieger, 2002;Uebelacker et al., 2003), to our knowledge, there is no integrative analysis so far that takes into consideration all studies which incorporated gender information and the effect size of the relationship between self-silencing and depression. ...
... As far as gender is concerned, its role as a moderator was not confirmed, our results being in line with previous research (Besser et al., 2003;Cramer et al., 2005;Duarte & Thompson, 1999;Smolak & Munstertieger, 2002;Uebelacker et al., 2003). Even if Jack's (1991) theory was conceived to explain depression among women, most of the studies could not find gender differences in mean scores of self-silencing or in the magnitude of the relationship between self-silencing and depression. ...
Introduction: Over time, several studies have provided knowledge about the relationship between self-silencing and depression. However, even if there is a tendency to obtain positive correlations, results ranging from null to large effects are rather variable, and until now no meta-analysis exists of these results, to our knowledge. Under these circumstances, the purpose of the present study is to quantitatively integrate existing results refecting the relationship between self-silencing and depression and to explore potential moderators of this relationship, in regards to conceptual aspects and characteristics of the samples. Methods: Our meta-analysis incorporates 31 published and 11 unpublished studies (with a total of 10,108 participants and 131 effect sizes), written in English, which statistically quantify the link between self-silencing and depression. For the analysis of the overall effect, specific meta-analytical procedures were used for heterogeneity, publication bias, and potential moderators. Results: There is an overall significant positive and medium correlation between self-silencing and depression (r = 0.391, p < 0.001). The heterogeneity of the results is partially explained by components of self-silencing, measured in each study and certain features of the samples such as age, sexual orientation, and level of education. Discussion: For researchers on this topic, our results offer a more precise input for computing sample sizes and also generate expectations of results as a function of specific methodological features. For practitioners, our results suggest the importance of approaching components of self-silence in counseling and therapy (with increased attention towards the externalized self-perception and the divided self) as mechanisms in depression (especially for younger and highly educated clients, and for non-heterosexuals).
... Yet, while self-critical monitoring may have evolved as a means to minimize rejection and ostracism, research suggests that highly self-critical individuals experience more negative interpersonal outcomes than less self-critical individuals. For example, more highly self-critical individuals report more impairment in romantic relationships (Lassri et al. 2018;Lassri and Shahar 2012;Martins et al. 2015), lower perceived social support (Dunkley et al. 2016;Dunkley et al. 2006;Mongrain 1998;Priel and Besser 2000), higher loneliness (Besser et al. 2003), and more interpersonal problems (Fichman et al. 1994). Their romantic partners also tend to report lower levels of relationship satisfaction (Hewitt et al. 2017) and tend to have more complaints about them (Whiffen and Aube 1999). ...
... Of all the hypothesized mediators, self-concealment had the strongest zero-order correlations with self-criticism and belonging, but was only marginally significant as a possible mediator in analyses. Overall, our results build on previous findings showing that self-critical people tend toward an interpersonal style characterized by a tendency to minimize the expression of distress (Besser et al. 2003;Richardson and Rice 2015), avoid the disclosure of imperfections (Chen et al. 2012), engage in fewer requests for social support (Mongrain 1998), and avoid future contact with people to whom they have self-disclosed (Bareket-Bojmel and Shahar 2011). While our cross-sectional mediational analyses cannot support causal conclusions, our study provides some of the first preliminary evidence that self-concealment may be part of the explanatory chain tying self-criticism to poorer interpersonal outcomes. ...
... While more equivocal, our results with self-concealment also parallel those of a previous study of a construct called self-silencing-the tendency to keep distress to oneself in an effort to improve relationships (Besser et al. 2003). In Besser et al. (2003), self-silencing mediated the relationship between self-criticism and higher loneliness, but the total mediational effect was much stronger than that observed in our study. ...
This paper focused on identifying patterns of emotional expression that may account for the relationship between self-criticism and social disconnection. In particular, the study examined whether self-criticism was related to three aspects of emotional openness and expressivity—increased expressive suppression, reduced expression of positive emotion, and increased self-concealment—and whether these variables, in turn, predicted lower levels of social belonging. Regressions and structural equation modeling were used to analyze self-report data from a community sample (N = 303). Results showed that self-criticism was associated with greater expressive suppression, more self-concealment, and reduced expression of positive emotion, even after controlling for depressive symptoms and the tendency to feel emotions intensely. Results were not supportive of our prediction that expressive suppression would mediate the relationship between self-criticism and lower levels of social belonging. However, a multiple mediator model showed that self-concealment and reduced expression of positive emotion, combined, partially mediated the relationship between self-criticism and social belonging. Overall, results were strongest that reduced expression of positive emotion mediates the relationship between self-criticism and lower feelings of belonging.
... Of all the hypothesized mediators, self-concealment had the strongest zero-order correlations with self-criticism and belonging, but was only marginally significant as a possible mediator in analyses. Overall, our results build on previous findings showing that self-critical people tend toward an interpersonal style characterized by a tendency to minimize the expression of distress (Besser et al., 2003;Richardson & Rice, 2015), avoid the disclosure of imperfections (Chen et al., 2012), engage in fewer requests for social support (Mongrain, 1998), and avoid future contact with people to whom they have self-disclosed (Bareket-Bojmel & Shahar, 2011). ...
... While more equivocal, our results with self-concealment also parallel those of a previous study of a construct called self-silencing-the tendency to keep distress to oneself in an effort to improve relationships (Besser et al., 2003). In Besser et al. (2003), self-silencing mediated the relationship between self-criticism and higher loneliness, but the total mediational effect was much stronger than that observed in our study. ...
... While more equivocal, our results with self-concealment also parallel those of a previous study of a construct called self-silencing-the tendency to keep distress to oneself in an effort to improve relationships (Besser et al., 2003). In Besser et al. (2003), self-silencing mediated the relationship between self-criticism and higher loneliness, but the total mediational effect was much stronger than that observed in our study. Perhaps the stronger mediational results have to do with self-silencing incorporating other interpersonal behaviors beyond self-concealment. ...
This study examined the association between self-criticism and the fulfillment of psychological needs. Informed by Self-Determination Theory, we tested the influence of participant self-criticism on the satisfaction of autonomy, relatedness, and competence needs among their peers. We also investigated whether the influence of relationship closeness on peer-reported need satisfaction was adversely influenced by self-criticism. We hypothesized that self-criticism would be associated with reduced peer-reported relationship need satisfaction and self-criticism would attenuate the relationship between closeness and need satisfaction variables. The study design was cross-sectional and included reports from 105 participants recruited from the community and at least one peer of their choosing (N = 174). Results indicated that self-criticism did not directly influence peer-reported relationship need satisfaction in any domain. However, associations between peer-reported relationship closeness and satisfaction of (a) overall needs and (b) relatedness needs were attenuated among highly self-critical participants. Additionally, self-criticism was associated with lower peer-reported relationship closeness. Results suggest that close relationship partners of highly self-critical individuals may not experience optimal psychological need satisfaction, particularly for relatedness needs, which may contextualize prior findings of reduced social support among highly self-critical individuals. Clinical implications and future directions are discussed.
... We anticipated that self-silencing would exhibit a negative direct association with intention and a negative indirect association with intention through the serial mediation paths of self-stigma→attitudes and self-stigma→PBC by a positive association with self-stigma. Women who self-silence may experience both more external and internal pressure to be perfect from others (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003) and seeking help would undermine the facade of perfection leading to more self-stigma. We also hypothesized that selfsilencing would be negatively associated with intention by fostering less favorable subjective norms. ...
... We also hypothesized that selfsilencing would be negatively associated with intention by fostering less favorable subjective norms. Research suggests that individuals who self-silence experience more loneliness because they are less likely to access social support (Besser et al., 2003). It seems possible that women who self-silence experience less perceived pressure to seek help because they do not seek relationship advice. ...
... Regarding the mediation paths involving self-stigma, women high in selfsilencing may feel shame concerning their relationship distress and be less willing to ask for help, choosing instead to conceal their distress in order to avoid further relationship conflict (Swim et al., 2010). Consistent with prior research, however, women who self-silence also experienced greater relationship dissatisfaction, meaning that this strategy comes at the cost of personal happiness (Besser et al., 2003). Women high in self-silencing perceived relationship health as their responsibility, but also believe that they should not express their needs, thus making them less likely to broach the topic of seeking relationship help (Jack & Dill, 1992). ...
Women face more negative health outcomes due to relationship distress, but little is understood about why heterosexual women do or do not seek couple therapy. The present study addressed this gap by using the theory of planned behavior (TPB) within an alternative SEM model testing framework to examine the links between relational schemas and intention to seek couple therapy in a sample of heterosexual women (N = 302) unhappy in their romantic relationships. Women who suppressed their own needs (i.e., self-silence), defined themselves in the context of important relationships (i.e., relational-interdependent self-construal), valued not asking for help (i.e., self-reliance), and preferred not to disclose their feelings (i.e., emotional control) were both less and more likely to intend to seek couple therapy. Results illustrate how relational schemas lead to conflicting messages (e.g., it is their responsibility but also shameful and a threat to the relationship) women receive around relationship help seeking.
... Given the emphasis throughout the pandemic on separation and the ability of people to cope with physical separation and social separation as well as evidence of substantially elevated levels of loneliness (see Kilgore et al. 2020), we recognized the current situation as a highly relevant context for potentially gaining new insight and understanding of the nature of loneliness and its correlates. Our interest in the associations between personality traits and loneliness goes back to earlier research on self-criticism, dependency, and loneliness (see Besser et al. 2003). Collectively, the results of various studies converge to suggest that both self-criticism and dependency are associated with elevated levels of loneliness, but stronger associations are found between self-criticism and loneliness (e.g., Besser et al. 2003). ...
... Our interest in the associations between personality traits and loneliness goes back to earlier research on self-criticism, dependency, and loneliness (see Besser et al. 2003). Collectively, the results of various studies converge to suggest that both self-criticism and dependency are associated with elevated levels of loneliness, but stronger associations are found between self-criticism and loneliness (e.g., Besser et al. 2003). These associations merit further consideration within the context of a situation that may be making feelings of loneliness both stronger and more salient. ...
The current research examined personality and individual difference factors associated with the perceived ability to adapt to the significant challenges accompanying the ongoing public health crisis concerning the COVID-19 pandemic. This cross-sectional study investigated the associations among self-reported adaptability to the pandemic and personality predispositions (dependency, self-criticism, mattering, and self-esteem), cognitive factors (positive, negative, and loneliness automatic thoughts), loneliness, distress, and mood states. A sample of 462 college students from Israel completed an online questionnaire after 10 weeks of social distancing during the COVID-19 pandemic. The results confirmed that personality vulnerability factors underscored by a negative sense of self (i.e., self-criticism and dependency) and individual difference factors reflecting self-esteem, feelings of mattering, and fear of not mattering are associated in meaningful ways with adaptability to the pandemic, loneliness, distress, negative mood states, and positive mood states. Most notably, higher self-reported adaptability to the pandemic is associated with lower dependency, self-criticism, and fear of not mattering, and higher levels of self-esteem and mattering. The findings attest to the central role of adaptability and related individual difference factors in acclimatizing to the numerous changes and challenges associated with the COVID-19 crisis. The theoretical and practical implications of our findings are discussed.
... Further, past studies among clinical and nonclinical populations have shown that self-criticism had a negative impact on both intrapersonal and interpersonal functioning. On the other hand, dependency had a negative impact only on intrapersonal functioning (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003), but was unrelated to interpersonal functioning (Dimitrovsky, Levy-Shiff, & Schattner-Zanany, 2002). Moreover, other studies have shown that these effects remained significant even after controlling for the levels of depressive symptoms (Besser et al., 2003). ...
... On the other hand, dependency had a negative impact only on intrapersonal functioning (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003), but was unrelated to interpersonal functioning (Dimitrovsky, Levy-Shiff, & Schattner-Zanany, 2002). Moreover, other studies have shown that these effects remained significant even after controlling for the levels of depressive symptoms (Besser et al., 2003). Previous research has shown that people with borderline personality traits and perfectionistic traits had impaired interpersonal relationship (Ducasse, Courtet, & Olie, 2014;Flett & Hewitt, 2002), which had been linked to the risk of psychological distress (i.e., suicide ideation and self-harm). ...
Rejection hypersensitivity has been considered to be the core feature of borderline personality disorder (BPD) patients. However, little is known about the possible developmental mechanisms that might explain the association between rejection sensitivity and BPD features. The current study investigated the mediating roles of adult attachment, need to belong, and self-criticism in the association between rejection sensitivity and BPD features in 256 healthy adults. Results indicated attachment anxiety, need to belong, and self-criticism mediated the association between rejection sensitivity and BPD features. However, attachment anxiety and self-criticism did not moderate the mediated association between rejection sensitivity and BPD features. The findings suggested that individuals with high rejection sensitivity were more likely to be anxiously attached to significant others, which might increase the desire to be accepted by others. To satisfy this elevated need to affiliate with others, they might become more self-critical which may contribute to high BPD features.
... [49] Associating loneliness to self; for instance, self-actualization and loneliness are negatively correlated, whereas self-criticism and loneliness are positively correlated. [50,51] Self-esteem is the most researched variable, and the literature reported loneliness and low self-esteem are negatively correlated. [52] This demonstrates that either lonely people lack high self-esteem or people who feel good about themselves do not feel lonely. ...
Research highlights transitioned-aged youths are disproportionately affected by loneliness, identifying this age group as a significant “hotspot” compared to other age groups. Globally, loneliness is considered the present-day pandemic of the technological era, causing psychological distress such as depression and anxiety. Using a Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analyses framework, this paper aimed to identify emerging themes in a systematic approach addressing social and family relationship factors for loneliness in transitioned-aged youth youth. The overarching thematic operation was guided by a research question: How do social and family relationship factors effect the loneliness and emotional wellbeing of transitioned-aged youth? Searches were conducted on APA PsycINFO, Scopus, PubMed, Cochrane Library, and Google electronic databases. From the included 65 articles, the unique findings of emerged themes were: “family relationships,” “impaired social and emotional connections,” “relational interactions and conflict,” “distress and loneliness,” “family engagement challenges in youth mental health,” “collectivism and loneliness,” “self and loneliness,” and “pathways of mental health services.” Social and family relationships are important factors for addressing loneliness during the formative years of youth. These are potential constructs and critically pertinent in understanding the underlying relational dynamics for effective intervention pathways.
... The activation of attachment needs in complex trauma leads the patient to criticize themselves, adopting a position of detachment or hostility and contempt towards the therapist, leading the latter to experience inadequacy, anger, and the instinct to reject the patient. For this reason, they are reluctant to self-disclose and may engage in strategies of positive self-presentation or self-silencing [25,26]; they may protect themselves from expected rejection by devaluing or withdrawing [27]. The patient may also become demanding, making unrealistic requests of the therapist that go beyond the therapeutic relationship itself. ...
Background: Patients with Complex Trauma (CT) may have an impaired ability to trust others and build intimate relationships due to non-integrated representations of self and others. This sometimes leads to an oscillation between needing and fearing intimacy in their adult relationships. This dynamic can occur in the therapeutic relationship, undermining the effectiveness of therapy and affecting the mental health of both the patient and the therapist. To date, no study has analyzed interpersonal patient-therapist dynamics in cases of CT. The present case aims to fill this gap by exploring relational cycles between the therapist and the patient during the therapeutic process in terms of goals and self-other beliefs. Methods: The methodology consisted of a shared and integrated reconstruction by the patient and therapist, both with clinical expertise in psychology, of the impasse in their therapeutic relationship. The reading was done through the lens of the cognitive model of Pathological Affective Dependence, a theory of traumatic relationships, by describing the primary interpersonal cycles occurring in the therapeutic relationship (altruistic, deontological, and vulnerable). Results: The condition of CT leads to several alliance breakdowns and specific interpersonal cycles, leading to new healing meanings for the patient and the relationship itself. Limitations: The study's main limitation is that it consists of a qualitative analysis of the therapeutic relationship without data that can quantify the clinically observed changes. Conclusions: This case report demonstrates how CT, PAD and the fear of intimacy can be risk factors for the therapeutic alliance and how the therapeutic relationship constitutes a fundamental tool for intervention effectiveness in patients who experience unmet primary needs.
... Jack and Ali (2010) concluded that self-silencing within relationships, in the context of inequality, is a key source of depression among women. Besser et al. (2003) reported a positive correlation between self-silencing and interpersonal reliance. Women in romantic relationships were also shown to be more dependent than both single women and men. ...
The present study investigated the relationship between self-silencing, co-dependency and mental wellbeing in married individuals. The objectives of this study were to explore the relationship between self-silencing, codependency and mental wellbeing in married individuals; and to investigate the mediating role of co-dependency between self-silencing and mental wellbeing in them. The total sample of the study comprised of 154 married individuals, including equal number of men and women, selected through convenient sampling strategy. The survey forms were sent online to the participants via interactive social media networks. Data was collected from the participants using the Mental Health Continuum Short Form, Self-Silencing Scale, and Spann Fischer Co-Dependency Scale. Pearson Product Moment correlation was computed which revealed a positive correlation between self-silencing and codependency, and a negative correlation between self-silencing, codependency and mental wellbeing in married individuals. Co-dependency was found to be the negative predictor of mental wellbeing. Moreover, co-dependency was found to be a significant mediator between self-silencing and mental wellbeing. These findings contribute to the behavioral sciences by providing evidence that the experience of self-silencing and co-dependency can negatively affect mental well-being of married individuals. As a result, it may impact their intimate marital bond.
... (Neff, 2003b;Blatt, D'Afflitti, & Quinlan, 1976;Reingenbach, 2009;Kirkpatrick, 2005). Similarly, Besser, Flett, and Davis (2003) observed in their research that people with a judgmental attitude toward themselves seek less social support and keep their distance from people. Accordingly, it can be interpreted that these people are more prone to loneliness. ...
The aim of this study is to examine the mediatory role of self-compassion in the relationship between social anxiety and loneliness among young adults. The study sample consisted of 356 young adults, 288 of whom were female (%80) and 68 of whom were male (%19.1). Participants had an average age of 24.05 which varied between 18 and 40 (SD=4.58). “Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale”, “Self-compassion Scale”, “UCLA Loneliness Scale” and the demographic information form were used in the study. Regression analyses were primarily applied, and it was discovered that social anxiety predicted loneliness positively; on the other hand, self-compassion predicted it negatively. For mediatory analysis, SPSS PROCESS Program was employed. According to the results of mediatory analyses, self-compassion has a partial mediation role in the relationship between social anxiety and loneliness.
... romantic partners of high self-critics (HSCs) tend to report lower levels of relationship satisfaction (Habke et al., 1997;Hewitt et al., 1995) and other close relationship partners of HSCs appear to benefit less from their relationships with HSCs than relationship partners of low self-critics (Lear et al., 2020). Similarly, HSCs report lower satisfaction and greater impairment in their romantic relationships (Lassri et al., 2016(Lassri et al., , 2018Lassri & Shahar, 2012;Zuroff & Duncan, 1999), lower perceived social support (Dunkley et al., 2006;Mongrain, 1998;Priel & Besser, 2000), higher loneliness (Besser et al., 2003;Dunkley et al., 2006), and less enjoyment of social interactions (Zuroff et al., 1995). As belonging and social connectedness are among the most important predictors of psychological well-being, gaining a better understanding of how highly self-critical people may undermine connectedness in their relationships may be an important step toward improving the lives of highly selfcritical people. ...
Research suggests the link between self-criticism and low social belonging is partially explained by lower expression of positive emotions (Luoma & Chwyl, 2020), however, it is not well understood why high self-critics (HSCs) express less positive emotions. The purpose of this study is to investigate the underlying mechanisms that might explain this reduced expression of positive emotions. Participants were recruited from an adult, community sample (N = 303). Participants came to the laboratory and were shown two short videos intended to reflect two different situations where social bonding might be possible, caregiving in response to another’s distress and responding with friendship/cooperation responses to another’s positive affect. They completed questionnaires pre- and post-video. We hypothesized that HSCs would respond to both videos with more negative emotions compared to low self-critics (LSCs) and would report more negative emotions in response to the caregiving stimulus compared to the friendship/cooperation stimulus. We further predicted HSCs would use more expressive suppression (ES) as an emotion regulation strategy and that their use of ES would be partially explained by increased negative emotions. Hypotheses were partially supported. Participants’ level of self-criticism positively predicted expressive suppression as well as negative emotions in response to both videos. HSCs reported higher shame across both videos, while low self-critics (LSC) reported variable shame across videos. HSCs’ increased use of ES was partially explained by their increase in negative emotions. These findings suggest HSCs may be using ES in response to contextually incongruent emotions. Clinical implications include providing HSCs with corrective emotional experiences in social-bonding contexts and helping them express their incongruent negative emotions in a safe setting.
... First, in finding an adoptee community, both in person and online, the lack of trust and communicative breakdowns that had marked so much of my life dissipated. It is well-established that marginalized groups often engage in self-silencing (Besser et al., 2003;Hondzel, 2007), or what Dotson (2011) refers to as "testimonial smothering," and that doing so is positively correlated with feelings of loneliness, depression, and fears of rejection (London et al., 2012). When a person feels like their testimony will not only be listened to, but will be understood, on the other hand, self-silencing is far less likely. ...
Though studies showing a causal relationship between adoption and trauma are scarce, there is enough cross-disciplinary research to suggest such a connection. Likewise, there are many adult adopted persons, like myself, who see their adoption narratives as traumatic in one way or another. Mental health outcomes for adopted people also indicate adoption might be a source of and not just a preventative measure against trauma. In this paper, I utilize an autoethnographic approach to highlight the relationship between infant adoption and what I refer to as “latent traumatic memories.” Recounting several major life events that led to traumatic upheavals in my understanding of my own identity as an adopted person, I then relate my story to current research on trauma experienced very early in life and how it is remembered implicitly in the body. My account, I argue, highlights the need to further research adopted people's evolving views about their adoption and how and to what extent certain events in adulthood precipitate the rediscovery of latent trauma.
... Silencing the Self Scale (Jack & Dill, 1992) This scale is a 31-item measure rated on a 5 point Likert type scale (1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree) which assesses selfsilencing and consists of four factors: silencing the self, externalized self-perception, care as self-sacrifice, and divided self. Since the scales have been found to be highly inter-correlated (Jack & Dill, 1992) and results of previous confirmatory factor analyses indicated that participants' responses to the Silencing the Self Scale (STSS) were not clearly consistent with the STSS subscales (Remen et al., 2002), an overall scale score was used in the current study as was done previously (e.g., Besser et al., 2003;Remen et al., 2002). This scale has been administered to early and mid-adolescents (Harper et al., 2006;Thomas & Bowker, 2015). ...
The current study employed a mediation model to explore the contribution of mother–adolescent daughter (N = 208, Mage = 15.02) parentification and difficulties in separation–individuation to these adolescent girls’ authenticity/true self and self-silencing. Specifically, the model examined whether mother–daughter separation–individuation would mediate the relationships between mother–daughter parentification and motives for false-self behaviors and authenticity, which in turn would mediate the links between mother–daughter separation–individuation and self-silencing. The findings indicated that parentification was positively correlated with girls’ difficulties in separation–individuation, which in turn was negatively correlated with girls’ authenticity, and through it, was positively correlated with girls’ self-silencing. These findings highlight the negative consequences of parentification on girls’ self-system and point to the role of difficulties in separation–individuation and authenticity as mechanisms through which parentification contributes to Israeli adolescent girls’ self-silencing. These results are discussed in terms of attachment theory and developmental psychopathology.
... The theory holds that female's concept of self is based on their involvement in close relationships with valued others and when efforts to sustain or establish these relationships fail, their sense of self esteem and identity can be damaged. The theory explains that how silencing their voices led to a loss of self, guilt, hopelessness [16][17][18] and frustration over emotions of connement and self-betrayal . It is to be noted that silencing of self is somewhat ingrained in the social [19] structure and the gender norms formed by it. ...
Background:Jack's self silencing theory is consequential in postulating how females form concepts about self, based on their relationships with valued others and if an attempt at it fails, then an extreme set of cognitive schemas ensues. These schemas are named as silencing of self. Jack has conjectured that silencing of self has purpose in manifestation and maintenance of depression. The manner in which it plays a role is different for both males and females, where initial theory and a plethora of research have found it to be higher in the later than in the former, while some have had contrary ndings. The existing pool of research does not give explorations of these variables in an Indian context. Therefore this study is a humble effort to make these inquisitions. Method: The study was conducted on the patients undergoing treatment for depression in Dayanand Medical College and Hospital. The study was undertaken involving 100 cases of depression and 100 healthy volunteers as controls after obtaining ethical clearance and informed consent of all the study subjects. Information was collected via predesigned questionnaires. All statistical calculations were done using SPSS 21 version statistical program for Microsoft Windows. Conclusion: Results showed that depressed subjects showed higher silencing of self as compared to their non-depressed counter parts. Overall, males showed higher silencing of self as compared to females.
... According to Singer and Klimecki (2014) severe self-criticism activates the sympathetic nervous system and further stimulates the physiological and psychological stress response which lead to impairment of mental health and wellbeing. As the higher self-reported adaptability to the pandemic is linked with lower self-criticism (Besser et al., 2003), the need to study this phenomenon even increases in COVID-19 pandemic (Besser et al., 2020) because of widely used lockdowns to prevent the new virus from spreading. Previous quantitative studies of self-criticism (e.g., Halamová, Kanovský et al., 2019;Kanovský et al., 2020) suggest that self-criticism is widely and cross-culturally recognised phenomenon. ...
Level of self-criticism has a significant impact on people’s psychopathology because severe self-criticism activates the sympathetic nervous system, and that further stimulates the physiological and psychological stress response which lead to impairment of mental health and wellbeing (Singer & Klimecki, 2014). Therefore, self-criticism is widely studied, but authors use mainly quantitative approaches which allow generalisation of knowledge but do not allow in-depth insights into the phenomenon. Hence our research aim was to identify the kinds of statements individuals utter when self-criticizing using the two-chair dialogue technique which enable to expose inward dialogues people lead with their self-critical parts. Out of 80 participants, the 20 most expressive participants were selected for the analysis: 15 women and 5 men (M = 27.7; SD 7.60). The data were analysed using Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR; Hill et al., 1997) with three members of a core team and one auditor. We identified three domains of self-criticism – Emotional (mainly inadequacy, fear, contempt, and disgust), Behavioural (mainly hurting and neglecting others, stating one’s shortcomings and motivating oneself), and Cognitive (primarily generalized judgements about one’s negative traits and reactions, perceived judgements by others or based on comparisons with others, and judgements relating to criticized situations and the effects of these). Expanding on the qualitative knowledge in the area of self-criticism would make for better planning and the provision of better treatment for highly self-critical people by mental health professionals.
... The reason underlying the dependent person's efforts to satisfy the person s/he depends on is the motivation to carry on the relationship (Fiori et al., 2008), that is the dependent individual's maintenance of support from that person, preserving and continuing the support depends on (Pincus and Wilson, 2001) satisfying that person. Dependent individuals' desire to obtain knowledge about the people they are dependent on can be explained by their sensitivity to the existence of people who have the possibility to support and help them in the future (Bornstein et al., 1996) and their active search for others in order to cope with their hostile emotions of loneliness (Besser et al., 2003). ...
The aim of the present study is to identify the prototype of the concept of dependency in interpersonal relations in Turkish culture. Data were collected from young adults studying at university. The sample comprised 252 participants whose ages ranged between 17 and 35 and who were studying on different programs at university. Of the participants, 155 (61%) were female and 97 were male (39%) students. The scenario sample used in the prototype analyses was used as the data collection instrument. The data were analyzed by means of a prototype analysis method in order to identify the concept of dependency in interpersonal relationships and dependent relationships. As a result of the prototype analysis, three different head categories and 71 features were identified. The tables demonstrate these features in rank order in terms of representing the category in the best way. These categories are defined as, a) interpersonal dependency, b) dependent individuals' characteristics and c) indicators of a dependent relationship. Showing love, trust building and giving arm emerged as the prototype of interpersonal dependency concept. Inability to act by oneself, anxiety, lack of confidence, self-denial and being open to indoctrination emerged as the prototype of dependent personal characteristics. Inability to live without the dependable person, feeling the constant need to be near him/her, desire to satisfy him/her, placing that person in the center of one's life, and the need to be informed about that person also emerged as the prototype of a dependent relationship. It was found out that the prototype of dependency in interpersonal relationships and the prototype of dependent relationship indicators comprise both positive and negative characteristics. It is observed that the prototype of dependent individual characteristics is generally perceived negatively.
... Vanhalst et al. (2015) reported that adolescents who were chronically lonely viewed inclusion into groups as due to the situation, while exclusion from others was seen as caused by internal and stable characteristics. In adults, loneliness increases rates of mortality (Holt-Lunstad et al., 2015) and correlates positively with shyness (Cheek & Busch, 1981;Jackson et al., 2000), depressive characteristics (Besser et al., 2003), social anxiety (Jackson, 2007) and neuroticism (Saklofske & Yackulic, 1989;Saklofske et al., 1986;Stokes, 1985). Loneliness has also been found to correlate negatively with extraversion, self-esteem (de Jong-Gierveld, 1987), self-confidence (Cheng & Furnham, 2002), acceptance of others (Levin & Stokes, 1986) and mattering (Flett et al., 2016). ...
Loneliness is related to mental and somatic health outcomes, including borderline personality disorder. Here, we analyze the sources of variation that are responsible for the relationship between borderline personality features (including four dimensions, affective instability, identity disturbance, negative relationships, self-harm and a total score) and loneliness. Using genetically informative data from two large nonclinical samples of adult twin pairs from Australia and the Netherlands (N = 11,329), we estimate the phenotypic, genetic and environmental correlations between self-reported borderline personality features and loneliness. Individual differences in borderline personality and loneliness were best explained by additive genetic factors with heritability estimates h2 = 41% for the borderline personality total score and h2 = 36% for loneliness, with the remaining variation explained by environmental influences that were not shared by twins from the same pair. Genetic and environmental factors influencing borderline personality (total score and four subscales separately) were also partial causes of loneliness. The correlation between loneliness and the borderline personality total score was rph = .51. The genetic correlation was estimated at rg = .64 and the environmental correlation at re = .40. Our study suggests common etiological factors in loneliness and borderline personality features.
... Codependency is directly associated with low self-esteem and self-confidence (Cullen & Carr, 1999;Lindley, Giordano, & Hammer, 1999;Springer, Britt, & Schlenker, 1998;Wells, Glickauf-Hughes, & Jones, 1999), depression (Cullen & Carr, 1999;Fischer, Spann, & Crawford, 1991;Hughes-Hammer, Martsolf, & Zeller, 1998), anxiety (Cullen & Carr, 1999;Fischer et al., 1991;Springer et al., 1998), negative affectivity (Gotham & Sher, 1995), shameproneness (Wells et al., 1999), self-defeating personality characteristics (Wells, Glickauf-Hughes, & Bruss, 1998;Wells, Hill, Brack, Brack, & Firestone, 2006), borderline and dependent personality characteristics (Hoenigmann-Lion & Whitehead, 2006;Wells et al., 1998), and narcissistic personality disorder and covert narcissism (Irwin, 1995;Wells et al., 2006). Although not as much research has been conducted on the psychological correlates of self-silencing, it has been discovered that self-silencing is related to low self-esteem (Haemmerlie, Montgomery, Williams, & Winborn, 2001), depression (Cramer, Gallant, & Langlois, 2005;Flett, Besser, Hewitt, & Davis, 2007;Haemmerlie et al., 2001;Jack & Dill, 1992;Page, Stevens, & Galvin, 1996;Thompson, 1995), anxiety (Haemmerlie et al., 2001), selfblame and self-criticism (Ali et al., 2000;Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003), perfectionism (Flett et al., 2007), and neuroticism (Witte, Sherman, & Flynn, 2001). ...
... Different approaches to ward off overwhelming affects may preserve a sense of internal mastery and control, or shield against anticipated threats and injuries (Kernberg, 1992;Krystal, 1998;Ronningstam & Maltsberger, 1998;Schore, 1994). Such strategies can include self-silencing and distancing (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003), which are associated with perfectionist ideals, superior attitudes, and a self-demand for internal control. In addition, self-silencing can include effective suppression and compartmentalization, especially with regards to anger, hostility, and rage. ...
Suicides in narcissistic personality disorder (NPD) have been associated with suddenness, determination, and high risk for lethal outcome. In addition, major mental illness, which is typically associated with suicidality, may not be present. The aim of this article is to identify and discuss certain conditions and characteristics in pathological narcissism, especially those related to emotion processing, self-esteem regulation, and internal control, which jointly contribute to the specific characteristics of suicides in NPD. Hypervigilance and emotion intolerance can challenge self-esteem, and readily evoke intolerable internal subjective experiences of failure and entrapment, which contribute to sudden and drastic decisions to end life. Glorification of death, dying, and afterlife, can also serve as instigation for initiating suicide. On the other hand thoughts of suicide can also serve an organizing and controlling function in people with NPD and prevent suicidal intents and actions. © 2018 The American Academy of Psychodynamic Psychiatry and Psychoanalysis.
... Distress disclosure also predicts perceived social support, which plays an important role in protecting the individual from psychosocial stress (Heinrichs et al. 2003;Hyde et al. 2011;Kahn and Hessling 2001). Despite the apparent benefits of distress disclosure, some individuals tend to avoid disclosing their emotional distress to others, prohibiting them from seeking out social support when needed (Besser et al. 2003;Richardson and Rice 2015). Encouraging distress disclosure, especially Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12671-017-0792-0) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users. ...
Disclosure of personal distress is linked to important interpersonal and intrapersonal benefits. However, people who tend to view self-disclosure as being risky are likely to conceal their feelings and forgo opportunities to receive valuable social support. One such group of people may be those who fear receiving compassion. The current study of 85 female undergraduates investigated (a) whether fear of receiving compassion would predict decreased distress disclosure and (b) whether inducing a self-compassionate mindset could help to temper the association between fear of receiving compassion and perceived risks of revealing one’s distress to others. Participants completed self-report questionnaires to measure trait-like fears of receiving compassion as well as general distress disclosure tendencies. They were then enrolled in a laboratory experiment in which they recalled a personal past negative experience and were randomly assigned to write about it in a self-compassionate, self-esteem enhancing, or non-directive way. Finally, they rated how risky disclosing their experience would feel and disclosed the event in a written letter to another person. At a trait level, results indicated that the more participants feared receiving compassion, the less they tended to disclose. Moreover, self-compassion training—but neither of the comparison conditions—significantly weakened the positive link between fear of receiving compassion and perceived risks of distress disclosure. These novel findings suggest that practicing self-compassion could help to neutralize the maladaptive relationship between fear of receiving compassion and perceived risk of disclosure.
... In one analysis of the psychometric properties of various revisions to the DEQ, Desmet et al. (2007) linked the three Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II; Beck, Steer, & Brown, 1996) subscales (somatic, cognitive, and affective) with the two DEQ dimensions by comparing six versions of the DEQ (the original DEQ and five shortened versions) in a sample that consisted of clinical and nonclinical participants, and found positive relations in the total sample with both self-criticism (rs from .42-.67.) and dependency (rs from .17-.47). Different empirical research contributions, including longitudinal (Besser, 2004;Besser, Priel, Flett, & Wiznitzer, 2007;Besser, Vliegen, Luyten, & Blatt, 2008;Oasi, 2015;Yao, Fang, Zhu, & Zuroff, 2009), cross-sectional (e.g., Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003;Besser & Priel, 2003, 2005Campos, Besser, & Blatt, 2010), and experimental studies (e.g., Besser, Guez, & Priel, 2008;Franche & Dobson, 1992), have established that high levels of dependency, self-criticism, or both render individuals more vulnerable to depression. This vulnerability effect has also been highlighted by several meta-analysis studies (Blatt, 2004;Nietzel & Harris, 1990). ...
The Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) is a self-report measure that assesses self-criticism and
dependency, 2 personality traits that confer vulnerability to depression (Blatt, 2004). Over several decades,
different, shortened versions of the DEQ have been constructed to offer an alternative to the complex
scoring procedure of the original DEQ. This study explores the factor structure as well as the construct and
convergent validity of the DEQ by comparing a clinical and nonclinical sample. We also compared the
original DEQ with 5 shortened versions. There were 621 participants (358 university students and 263
outpatients). Fit indexes for models of the original DEQ did not meet minimum fit criteria. Moreover, the
only versions with satisfactory fit were the Theoretical Depressive Experiences Questionnaire–21 (TDEQ–
21) and the Theoretical Depressive Experiences Questionnaire–12 (TDEQ–12), which also showed
acceptable construct and convergent validity. Finally, the diagnostic and clinical applicability of the DEQ is
discussed.
... Our results are also consistent with previous research and the C/I model of dependency (Bornstein, 2011) suggesting that maladaptive dependency predicts increased vulnerability for depressive symptoms (Blatt, 2004;Bornstein, 1992). Our results build on prior findings suggesting that silencing the self (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003), as well as negative relationship events and ambivalence over expression of emotions (Mongrain & Zuroff, 1994) mediate the relationship between overdependence and depressive symptoms. Furthermore, our findings with respect to cognitive schema characterized by the obverse of a self-critical schema (i.e. ...
Depression is highly prevalent among college students and is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Dependency is among the known personality traits that predict an elevated risk for depression. Prior research has focused on the depressogenic role of self-critical thoughts among destructive overdependent (DO) individuals but has not considered other internal processes (such as self-compassion) that might influence mental health. The current report examined whether self-compassion had either moderating or mediating effects on the links between dependency and depression in college students. In a cross-sectional study, 85 college students completed measures of dependency, self-compassion, and depressive symptoms. Analyses suggested that self-compassion mediated both the effect of DO on depressive symptoms and the effect of healthy dependency (HD) on lower depressive symptoms; self-compassion did not moderate links between dependency and depressive symptoms. Our exploratory findings suggest that positive self-schema (in the form of self-compassion) may contribute to the downstream mental health effects of both adaptive HD and maladaptive DO.
... Zbog značajne i umjereno visoke korelacije između depresije i usamljenosti može se pretpostaviti da samostišavanje može biti povezano i s emocionalnom i sa socijalnom usamljenošću. Uvidom u recentnu literaturu utvrdili smo da nije istraživana direktna povezanost samostišavanja i usamljenosti, osim u radu koji je provjeravao njezinu medijacijsku ulogu u povezanosti samo-kriticizma i zavisnosti sa usamljenošću (Besser, Flett, Davis, 2003). ...
Empirical studies in different cultures consistently confirm that married persons as well as those in cohabitation are less lonely than single, divorced and widowed persons (de Jong Gierveld, 1987; Jones,. Hebb, 2003). Since Weiss in his interactionistic model of loneliness has emphasized that emotional and social loneliness emerge when attachment, social integration, reassurance of worth and others provisions are not met. So it is wise to assume that level and type of loneliness do not depend only on marriage status, but on quality of marriage which could enable (or not) achievement of the above mentioned provisions. Most empirical data confirming these assumptions were collected mainly in clinical studies of depressed persons, mostly female participants. In these studies D. Jack (1991) identified a new construct, named self-silencing, which refers to cognitive schemes that create and maintain close relationships in a way that women Should remain passive and repress their feelings and thoughts. Therefore, it was hypothesized that self-silencing could have significant role in relation of marriage quality and loneliness among married women. This study was carried Out on 185 married female participants. The main aim was to define the nature of relations of marriage quality dimensions (sexual intimacy, conflict, attachment, communication, perception of justice and satisfaction with marriage) with social and emotional loneliness. Furthermore, the second aim of this study was to examine the role of self-silencing in relation to certain dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness. In this study, valid and reliable measures were used for the assessment of loneliness, perception of marriage quality and self-silencing. Those measures were: Perception Of Marriage Quality Questionnaire, Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale and Self-Silencing Scale. Results of regression analysis show the existence of moderate relations between dimensions of marriage quality, emotional and social loneliness and self-silencing. Significant predictors for romantic (emotional) loneliness are satisfaction with marriage and attachment, for family (emotional) loneliness are attachment and sexual intimacy, while for social loneliness significant predictors are sexual intimacy and conflict. The above mentioned predictors significantly explain more variance for emotional loneliness as a criterion variable than for social loneliness. Results also indicate that self-silencing is a partial mediator in relations of dimensions of marriage quality and loneliness.
... In addition, Self-Critical Perfectionism/Autonomy is associated with dissatisfaction in relationships in general, including those with partner and children (Dimitrovsky, Levy-Schiff, & Schattner-Zanany, 2002;Haring et al., 2003;Lynch, Robins, & Morse, 2001;Whiffen, Aubé, Thompson, & Campbell, 2000;Zuroff, Koestner, & Powers, 1994), and with dissatisfaction concerning sexuality in particular (Morrison, Urquiza, & Goodlin-Jones, 1998). Self-Critical Perfectionism/Autonomy has also been associated with feelings of social isolation and loneliness (Besser, Flett, & Davis, 2003;Schachter & Zlotogorski, 1995;Wiseman, 1997). For self-critical/autonomous individuals, their worth often appears to be equated with their work. ...
... Initial data on this topic were reported by Besser, Flett, and Davis (2003). We examined the associations among self-criticism, dependency, self-silencing, loneliness, and depression in a sample of 167 university students, including a significant subset of participants who were currently in dating relationships. ...
This chapter explores the associations between personality factors, depression, and selfsilencing. The authors contend that there are many reasons why individuals engage in self-silencing and these reasons reflect personality vulnerability factors associated with depression that are also associated with self-silencing. They present evidence that selfsilencing combines with these personality factors, either as mediators or as moderators, to increase the risk for depression in certain individuals. Through an examination of particular personality variables, namely dependency, self-criticism, and perfectionism, the authors demonstrate that people with vulnerable personalities who also engage in selfsilencing may suffer from chronic and destructive forms of stress that can be damaging to health and well-being.
... Runon minä ajautuu väheksymään itseään, mikä osaltaan lisää yksinäisyyttä (ks. Besser et al. 2003Besser et al. , 1746. Joukossa passiiviseksi ja äänettömäksi jääminen merkitsee sitä, ettei hän yllä subjektin tasolle muiden silmissä. ...
... Kurangnya pergaulan sosial ini dapat mengakibatkan lansia mengalami kesepian dan depresi. Hal ini sesuai dengan penelitian Besser, et al (2003) yang hasilnya mengindikasikan bahwa kritik diri berhubungan dengan perilaku berdiam diri, kesepian, dan depresi. ...
... The negative association between inadequate self and dyadic adjustment may be explained in several ways, namely through fear of intimacy. Because people high in self-criticism believe that they will be disapproved of or rejected if they reveal their true, inadequate selves, may be pessimistic about others' acceptance, and may have difficulty believing that they are loved (Murray, Holmes, Griffin, Bellavia, & Rose, 2001; Overall & Fletcher, 2010), they are reluctant to self-disclose, may engage in positive self-presentation or self-silencing strategies (Besser et al., 2003; Blatt, 2004; Lowyck et al., 2008; Santor & Zuroff, 1998; Zuroff & Fitzpatrick, 1995), and may protect themselves from expected rejection by devaluing and withdrawing from their partners (Murray, Bellavia, Rose, & Griffin, 2003; Zuroff & Fitzpatrick, 1995). This may negatively affect relationship quality because positive self-disclosure increases the partner's perceived regard and acceptance (Laurenceau, Feldman Barrett, & Pietromonaco, 1998). ...
Objectives
Although it is well established that adult attachment is associated with relationship quality, the mechanisms involved in this association are still poorly understood. Individual variables that are shaped in early attachment experiences, such as self-criticism, may be particularly important. The present study aimed to investigate the mediating role of self-criticism and self-reassurance on the association between attachment-related anxiety and avoidance and dyadic adjustment.
Design and methods
About 230 individuals from a community sample completed an online battery of self-report measures of adult attachment, dyadic adjustment, and forms of self-criticism and self-reassuring. A parallel mediation model was tested.
Results
Data showed that attachment anxiety and avoidance were associated with poorer dyadic adjustment through high levels of self-criticism in the form of an inadequate self.
Conclusion
Our findings highlight the importance of targeting feelings of self-inadequacy in couple therapy to promote better dyadic adjustment and relationship functioning. The innovative contribution of this work is the identification of a new mechanism underlying the association between adult attachment and dyadic functioning.
This chapter considers loneliness and its role as potentially the most pressing public mental health issue around the world. Our chapter begins by documenting the many costs and consequences of loneliness. We then discuss loneliness in terms of its clinical significance. Most notably, we focus uniquely on loneliness that has become unbearable and discuss how this extreme form of loneliness is typically accompanied by significant mental health problems and associated risks and vulnerabilities. A central theme in this chapter is seeking to understand the roots of unbearable loneliness by considering elements of the self-concept that are implicated in the experience and persistence of unbearable loneliness. Relevant research investigations illustrating the role of self and identity issues in loneliness are described. Finally, given myriad public mental health concerns, this chapter concludes with a discussion of key themes that should be emphasized in prevention and intervention efforts designed to alleviate all types of loneliness, but especially loneliness that has become unbearable for those people who lack a meaningful sense of connection with other people.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, depresyon belirtileri gösteren yetişkinlerin sosyal ve duygusal yalnızlıklarını toplumsal aidiyet duygusuyla ilişkilendirerek incelemektir. Araştırmanın örneklemini, uygun örnekleme yöntemiyle seçilen, 18-55 yaş arası gönüllü 235 yetişkin kadın ve 181 yetişkin erkek olmak üzere toplamda 416 kişi oluşturmaktadır. Araştırmanın veri toplama sürecinde Kişisel Bilgi Formu, Sosyal ve Duygusal Yalnızlık Ölçeği, Beck Depresyon Ölçeği ve Genel Aidiyet Ölçeği kullanılmıştır. Verilerin analizinde korelasyon ve regresyon analizi uygulanmıştır. Araştırmadan elde edilen sonuçlara bakıldığında, erkeklerin sosyal yalnızlık ve dışlanma düzeyinin kadınlardan daha yüksek olduğu saptanmıştır. Aidiyet alt boyutu olan dışlanma düzeyinin pozitif yönlü, kabul edilme düzeyinin ise negatif yönlü olarak depresyon düzeyini yordadığı saptanmıştır. Dışlanma düzeyi ile sosyal ve duygusal yalnızlığın depresyonu pozitif yönlü yordadığı saptanmıştır. Aidiyet alt boyutu olan dışlanmanın pozitif yönde, kabul edilmenin negatif yönde sosyal yalnızlık ve duygusal yalnızlık (aile) puanlarını yordadığı saptanmıştır. Aidiyet alt boyutu olan kabul edilme düzeyi ise negatif yönde duygusal yalnızlık (romantik ilişkiler) puanlarını yordamaktadır.
The study examines the role of the Parent-child relationship, family conflict on self-silencing behaviour and how it is expressed in a romantic relationship. Parent-child relationship was studied in terms of maternal responsibility, maternal regard, paternal control, paternal regard and paternal responsibility for the young adults. A t-test was also run to check for significant differences between the male and female sample. The analysis showed that there were no significant differences between male and female self-silencing behaviour. To test the hypothesis that the parent child relationship variables and family conflict has an influence on self-silencing behaviour, a correlation analysis was performed to test for significant relationships between the parent-child relationship variables, family conflict and self silencing. A regression analysis was also run to check for variables that could predict self silencing behaviour. Results have shown that a significant correlation was found between self-silencing behaviour and maternal responsibility, self-silencing and paternal responsibility and self-silencing and paternal control. No correlation was found between family conflict and self-silencing behaviour. In addition, the regression analysis showed that maternal responsibility, paternal responsibility and paternal control were predictors of self silencing behaviour. These findings can help us ease the therapeutic process and better personalise therapy.
The present study explores loneliness among female students who stayed at home during the COVID-19 lockdown. Recent research has shown a sharp rise in the self-reported incidences of loneliness, especially among females during the lockdown imposed in most regions around the globe. The studies have also shown that those with lower self-control and a negative self-image are more vulnerable to negative emotional and behavioral outcomes. Therefore, it would be interesting to see how are these aspects related to loneliness among young females that too in a patriarchal society such as India. Whether family dynamics have any impact on mitigating loneliness or not has also been investigated. For this purpose, an online survey was conducted on 1023 female students of various universities/colleges across India. The results show that loneliness is found less among the females who showed better self-control, positive self-image, and good family relationship. Though household work engagement can keep females busy, it has little to do with their feeling of loneliness. The study indicates that living with family members is not enough to deal with loneliness. Rather it requires a good relationship with family members, self-control, and a positive self-image. Hence, to deal with the loneliness issues that youth are facing at present, family connectedness and constructive self-view need to be (re)established to prevent loneliness from causing severe mental problems.
In this research, we explore how employees’ self-reflections following a failed attempt to help a coworker shape future helping intentions and behaviors. Specifically, we propose a dual-process model of parallel affective and cognitive pathways to delineate how, and why, reflecting on an interpersonal helping failure with self-compassion would result in countervailing effects on future helping. Whereas self-compassion reduces employees’ future helping via the alleviation of guilt (affective mechanism), it also increases employees’ future helping via the facilitation of helping self-efficacy (cognitive mechanism). We further draw on theories of attribution to propose that these effects depend on who was at fault for the helping failure, such that the effects are strengthened when coworker blame attribution is low. Results across four studies improve our understanding of the phenomenon of interpersonal helping failures, and the role of employee self-reflection in shaping the impact of these failures on future intentions and behavior.
Celem niniejszej pracy jest przedstawienie wybranych kulturowych i psychologicznych aspektów samopoświęcenia. Omówienia dokonano na podstawie przeglądu dostępnych badań oraz literatury.
Na pierwszy rzut oka, samopoświęcenie wydaje się dobre, pożyteczne, społecznie akceptowane. Jednak, jeśli wynika ze schematu Samopoświęcenia i towarzyszą mu zachowania samouciszające może ono doprowadzić do problemów ze zdrowiem fizycznym oraz psychicznym, między innymi do udaru mózgu, depresji, zaburzeń odżywiania, HIV, PMDD, zespółu chronicznego zmęczenia i wielu innych. Pomimo tego, że samopoświęcenie jest niebezpieczne, autor pokaże, że jeżeli wynika z wolnej woli, świadomego wyboru jednostki to może nabrać szczególnej wartości.
This thesis aims at providing a comprehensive picture of selected psychological and cultural aspects of self-sacrifice. In this study, the author used the method of a detailed review of the primary studies and major themes related to self-sacrifice.
On the surface, self-sacrifice seems to be something good, useful, and even socially acceptable. However, if it is a part of Self-Sacrifice Schema, and accompanied by Self-Silencing, it could lead to psychological disorders and physical diseases such as stroke, depression, eating disorders, HIV, PMDD, chronic fatigue syndrome, etc. Even though self-sacrifice is dangerous, it gains another meaning when it is a decision of free will and conscious choice.
The purpose of the current study was to investigate the relationship between self-silencing and automatic negative thoughts among working mothers and non-working mothers. The independent variable of the study was automatic thoughts, and the dependent variable was Self-Silencing. The interactive effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable of the study was also investigated. The mixed sample of 175 women who were both working and non-working mothers and were aged between 35-45 years was used for this study. The data was collected through the Silencing the Self Scale and The Automatic thoughts questionnaire. The statistical analysis included correlation and regression. Results indicated that Automatic negative thoughts had a significant positive correlation with self-silencing (r=0.380; p<0.01), and automatic thoughts also predicted self-silencing, accounting for 14.0% variance in it. The results become meaningful in the context of changing scenario of modern society, particularly in India.
The concept of self silencing which has been taken attention mainly in the cross cultural contexts has been investigated for a while. Self silencing mainly experienced by women refers to the fact that women care more about the wishes, expectations and needs of others in their close relationships. Avoiding conflict, maintaining the relationship and obtaining a sense of trust seem to be the underlying factors. Additionally it is also proposed that women who suppress their own voices and put the voices of others to the fore, view themselves as sacrifices in relationships and have an externalized and divided self perception. In this study, the characteristics of self-silencing, the two-dimensional autobiographical model which is frequently mentioned in recent years, and self-silencing in the cultural and feminist context are reviewed. Relationship between self silencing and identity development, and gender roles in women are reviewed in this paper.
The concept of self silencing which has been taken attention mainly in the cross cultural contexts has been investigated for a while. Self silencing mainly experienced by women refers to the fact that women care more about the wishes, expectations and needs of others in their close relationships. Avoiding conflict, maintaining the relationship and obtaining a sense of trust seem to be the underlying factors. Additionally it is also proposed that women who suppress their own voices and put the voices of others to the fore, view themselves as sacrifices in relationships and have an externalized and divided self perception. In this study, the characteristics of self-silencing, the two-dimensional autobiographical model which is frequently mentioned in recent years, and self-silencing in the cultural and feminist context are reviewed. Relationship between self silencing and identity development, and gender roles in women are reviewed in this paper.
Bu çalışmanın amacı, Marmara Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim Fakültesi’nde öğrenim
gören öğrencilerin yalnızlık düzeylerini, bu konuyla ilgili olabileceği düşünülen çeşitli
değişkenlere göre ortaya koymaktır. Araştırma, Marmara Üniversitesi Teknik Eğitim
Fakültesi’nde Bilgisayar, Matbaa, Tekstil ve Makine Öğretmenliği bölümlerinde öğrenim
görmekte olan 417 öğrenciyi kapsamaktadır. Öğrencilerin kişisel bilgilerini elde edebilmek
için Kişisel Bilgi Formu, yalnızlık düzeylerini tespit etmek için UCLA Yalnızlık Ölçeği
kullanılmıştır. Verilerin istatistikî analizi için SPSS istatistik paket programı kullanılmıştır.
Yapılan analizler sonucu; öğrencilerin yalnızlık düzeyinin cinsiyet, bölüm ve baba tutumu
değişkenlerine göre farklılaştığı görülmüştür. Ancak, öğretim şekli, yaşanılan yer, sosyoekonomik
durum, kardeş sayısı ve anne tutumu değişkenlerine göre yalnızlık düzeyinin
farklılaşmadığı saptanmıştır. Bu noktada, araştırma bulguları göz önünde bulundurularak
yapılabilecek çalışmalar hakkında önerilerde bulunulmuştur.
This chapter describes the physical and mental health consequences encountered by women experiencing intimate male partner violence. Drawing upon on the literature and upon her research, the author describes women's self-silencing within intimate relationships and the associations between silencing and physical and mental health symptoms. The chapter also describes the challenges and barriers within the healthcare system that hinder abused women's attempts to receive effective and supportive care. The author discusses socio-cultural influences that can affect an abused woman's process of healing by socializing women to avoid expressing anger and other strong negative emotions. She also describes alternative models of care that can be adopted to improve healthcare utilization for women who have experienced intimate partner violence.
Fears of loss of control and utilization of dualistic discourse (e.g., me/not me; my PMS self/my real self) are hallmarks of premenstrual syndrome (PMS), as described in self-help books and articles in the popular press. In the present study, 182 North American women, ages 18-46 years, were recruited online to complete measures of self-silencing, perfectionism, affective control, and use of dualistic discourse. Women who reported that they experience PMS (N = 90) scored significantly higher on the measure of concern about affective control and used more dualistic discourse than did women who did not report PMS (N = 78). High scores on the self-silencing and perfectionism scales predicted greater concern about affective control. Our findings can be useful in designing psychotherapeutic interventions to reduce distress and assist women in coping with their symptoms.
Female physicians, residents, and medical students commonly suffer from depression and dyadic and sexual dissatisfaction. To identify self-related risk factors for depression and dyadic and sexual dissatisfaction in female medical students in Israel. In Study 1, 194 female medical students were assessed twice over a 1-year interval. Depressive symptoms, dyadic, and sexual dissatisfaction, and three self-concept factors—self-criticism, self-concept clarity, and silencing the self—were measured twice. Physical symptoms were also assessed at Time 2. In Study 2, 14 female medical students with elevated levels of depression were interviewed, and their narrative accounts were analyzed qualitatively. Elevated baseline levels of silencing the self predicted an increase in depressive symptoms and dyadic and sexual dissatisfaction over time, and high levels of physical symptoms at Time 2. The effect of silencing the self on depression was particularly pronounced under low self-concept clarity. All 14 interviewees alluded to the painful tension between their inner, tumultuous self, and their rehearsed self-presentation and a social prohibition to express negative emotions. Resources should be dedicated in order to assess, trace, and treat masked (silenced) distress among female medical students, interns, and residents.
This study of 103 adolescents (Mage = 13.73 years) tested whether self-silencing in friendships mediates the associations between rejection sensitivity (RS) and friendship (support) and psychological adjustment (anxiety, depression, loneliness) during early adolescence. Parental support was examined as a moderator of the relation between RS and self-silencing. Results indicated that friendship self-silencing mediated the relations between RS and depression and friendship support. Evidence of moderated mediation was also found: RS and friendship self-silencing were related at high and medium levels of parental support but not at low levels when depression and friendship support served as the dependent variables. Findings suggest that future work on RS and self-silencing in the friendship context is needed and that medium and high levels of parental support may exacerbate certain difficulties associated with RS during early adolescence.
Identifying vulnerability factors for antenatal depression is an important step in reducing depression rates. To date, research has focused on demographic and interpersonal risk factors for antenatal depression rather than cognitive factors. This study investigated the moderating role of social functioning on rumination and silencing the self in predicting prospective increases in depressive mood in a sample of pregnant women. Pregnant women at high risk for depression (n = 110) were assessed at baseline for symptoms of depressive mood, rumination, functioning aspects of perceived social support, and silencing the self. Depressive mood was measured again three months later. Social functioning moderated the effects of rumination and silencing the self on depression. For women low in social functioning, rumination was related to increases in depression while silencing the self was unrelated to rumination and depressive mood. High social functioning buffered the impact of rumination on prospective depressive mood; women who endorsed silencing beliefs that they should sacrifice their needs for others' had increases in rumination and depressive symptoms. The findings suggest that interpersonal and cognitive factors interact to predict vulnerability to depressive mood during pregnancy, and highlight the need to understand social functioning as well as beliefs about utilizing available social support.
Aspects of interpersonal, personality, and cognitive models of depression were tested in a college sample. The perceptions and actual interpersonal behaviors of dependent and self-critical women and their romantic partners were assessed during a conflict-resolution task. Dependent women were characterized by positive biases in the perception of lovingness expressed within the relationship. The partners of dependent women, however, experienced a decrease in positive affect and a trend toward increasing hostility during the conflict-resolution task. Self-critical women were objectively rated as less loving and more hostile, and their partners were also rated as less loving. Self-critics also exhibited negative biases in self-perceptions of submissiveness. The results are interpreted within a comprehensive framework integrating various elements of interpersonal, personality, and cognitive models of depression.
Investigated depression as a normal affect state that could have continuity with types of clinical depression. A 66-item Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) was constructed to assess a wide range of experiences that, though not direct symptoms of depression, are frequently associated with it. The DEQ, the Wessman-Ricks Mood Scale, a version of the semantic differential, and the Death-Concern Questionnaire were administered to 500 female and 160 male college students. In another sample, 128 college students were given the DEQ and the Zung Self-Rating Depression Scale. Three highly stable factors emerged from the DEQ: Dependency, Self-Criticism, and Efficacy. These factors had significant differential correlations with other measures, which support the interpretation of the factors derived from the items. These data indicate the need to consider dependency and self-criticism as 2 primary dimensions of depression and the value of investigating the continuity between normal mood states and the clinical phenomena of depressions. (38 ref)
In this article, we attempt to distinguish between the properties of moderator and mediator variables at a number of levels. First, we seek to make theorists and researchers aware of the importance of not using the terms moderator and mediator interchangeably by carefully elaborating, both conceptually and strategically, the many ways in which moderators and mediators differ. We then go beyond this largely pedagogical function and delineate the conceptual and strategic implications of making use of such distinctions with regard to a wide range of phenomena, including control and stress, attitudes, and personality traits. We also provide a specific compendium of analytic procedures appropriate for making the most effective use of the moderator and mediator distinction, both separately and in terms of a broader causal system that includes both moderators and mediators. (46 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The development of an adequate assessment instrument is a necessary prerequisite for social psychological research on loneliness. Two studies provide methodological refinement in the measurement of loneliness. Study 1 presents a revised version of the self-report UCLA (University of California, Los Angeles) Loneliness Scale, designed to counter the possible effects of response bias in the original scale, and reports concurrent validity evidence for the revised measure. Study 2 demonstrates that although loneliness is correlated with measures of negative affect, social risk taking, and affiliative tendencies, it is nonetheless a distinct psychological experience.
The present study had two goals: first, to determine whether neediness and self-criticism are associated with distinct marital environments and, second, to evaluate two pathways by which marital environments may be related to personality and depressive symptoms. Personality vulnerability may be more strongly associated with depressive symptoms when the spouse’s behavior matches the vulnerability (i.e. a needy person’s spouse is emotionally distant). Alternatively, spousal behavior may elevate levels of neediness or self-criticism, which then increases depressive symptoms. We tested these alternatives in a sample of 64 couples recruited from the community. Among men, neediness was associated with depressive symptoms only if the marriage lacked intimacy. Self-criticism in both sexes and neediness in women were linked to the interpersonal context in a different manner: self-critics tended to have partners who have many complaints about them, and needy women tended to have partners who report low levels of marital intimacy. These results demonstrate that, to some extent, an individual’s self-criticism or neediness may be a realistic response to a distressing inter-personal context.
This study examined the associations among relationship development, relational satisfaction, and loneliness. One hundred participants in a current romantic relationship and 100 participants in a recently broken-off romantic relationship completed measures of relationship development, including a newly developed self-report measure to assess relationship trajectories and a series of open-ended questions that assessed cognitive appraisals of relationship development. Participants also completed measures of relationship satisfaction and loneliness. Results indicated that reports of faster and broader relationship development trajectories and cognitive appraisals of the relationship development that indicated `weness' over separateness, glorifying the struggle with past stressors, and minimal relational disappointment were positively associated with relational satisfaction. These relationship development assessments, along with relational satisfaction, were also negatively related to loneliness.
Silencing the self is a theory of women's depression that proposes that depression results from women being inauthentic in key relationships. In this study, we linked this theory to a substantial empirical literature indicating that adult depression is associated both with perceptions that parents were rejecting during childhood, and with perceptions that the current romantic partner is critical. We hypothesized that rejecting childhood relations with parents and/or a romantic relationship with a critical partner might contribute to self-silencing, which, in turn, might lead to heightened vulnerability to depression. This hypothesis was tested in a community sample of 99 women and 47 men who reported being in committed romantic relationships. The results indicated that, among women, only current romantic relationships were associated with self-silencing. Silencing also mediated the association between perceived spousal criticism and depressive symptoms. Women who perceived their partner as critical and intolerant were more likely to present a compliant fagade while feeling angry, which was associated with higher levels of depression. Among men, self-silencing was associated both with perceptions of the father as cold and rejecting, and with perceptions of the romantic partner as critical and intolerant. Furthermore, self-silencing mediated the associations between depressive symptoms and perceptions of the father and of the current romantic partner. Thus, our study supports the hypothesis that self-silencing is associated with the current interpersonal context in particular.
Recent research among adolescents has found a positive association between private self-consciousness and peer self-disclosure, and a negative association between such disclosure and loneliness. High school students (N=207) who had participated in an earlier study (Franzoi and Davis, in press) were contacted 1 year later, and the same variables were again assessed. Subjects completed a questionnaire on biographical, social, and psychological information. Standard regression analyses were performed on data from measures of private self-consciousness, peer self-disclosure, and loneliness. The results indicated that greater private self-consciousness was significantly associated with greater self-disclosure to peers; and that self-disclosure to peers was significantly associated with fewer reported feelings of loneliness. These data replicated findings from the previous study and revealed no evidence that disclosure produces greater private self-consciousness nor any evidence that loneliness reduces disclosure. These findings support the view that self-consciousness produces disclosure, which in turn reduces loneliness. (Author/NRB)
Two independent types of experiences of depression have been identified among normals—dependency and self-criticism. Using the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, this study investigates their utility in differentiating depression in patients. 197 patients (mean age 34 yrs) and 262 normal controls (mean age 26.7 yrs) also completed the MMPI, Beck Depression Inventory, and Self Rating Depression Scale. There were consistent differences among patients as a function of whether their experiences of depression focused primarily on issues of dependency and/or self-criticism or an absence of these issues. The subjective experiences around which an individual's depression focuses seem to provide a valid basis for differentiating among types of depression. Judges using case records were able to differentiate patients who were high on dependency or self-criticism, on both, or on neither of these dimensions. The distinction between these 2 different foci of depression may provide valuable differentiations for clinical research, and have important implications for the therapeutic process with different types of depressed patients. (55 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
To learn more about how social factors become internalized and affect depression, researchers need to listen carefully to women's inner dialogues and negative self-assessments. I offer a phenomenology of clinically depressed women's subjectivity, particularly focused on what their negative self-assessment reveals about underlying images of relatedness. Such images, and the dynamic of silencing the self, have been found to be reliably associated with depressive symptoms. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
120 heterosexual college student couples (mean age 21.5 yrs) completed measures of self-criticism and relational schemas and then attempted to resolve 2 conflicts while being videotaped. Overt hostility was rated from the videotapes. In both girlfriends and boyfriends, self-criticism was associated with negative relational schemas and more negative cognitive-affective reactions during the conflict resolution task. Self-critical women displayed greater overt hostility towards their partners. Structural equation modeling (SEM) demonstrated that negative relational schemas functioned as mediating variables that explained negative cognitive affective reactions during the task. The SEM also showed that, in women, negative cognitive-affective reactions predicted overt hostility, which in turn predicted partners' distress and overt hostility. The results bolster cognitive interpersonal analyses of depression by illustrating how cognitive structures associated with a hypothesized vulnerability (self-criticism) can have important interpersonal correlates. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Examined the relationship between interpersonal intimacy and measures of loneliness, social skills, and social activity. 150 unmarried female undergraduates were administered the Self-Disclosure Situations Survey; University of California, Los Angeles, Loneliness Scale; Social Introversion scale of the MMPI; and an activity questionnaire. Results reveal that dispositional level of self-disclosure was inversely related to loneliness and interacted with disclosure flexibility: Appropriate medium disclosure across situations was associated with lower levels of loneliness than was inappropriate disclosure. Peer and observer ratings of social skills were positively related to dispositional disclosure but not to disclosure flexibility or level of loneliness. Among lonely Ss there was a trend for disclosure flexibility to be associated with different levels of social activity. Results suggest that lonely individuals have difficulty appropriately revealing personal information in new relationships and nonstructured social situations. (30 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Tested a theory of couple patterns of problem solving that involves the voice/loyalty/neglect typology of problem-solving responses advanced by the 1st author and I. M. Zembrodt (1983). 68 undergraduate dating couples were administered a questionnaire that included a measure of self-reported responses and perceptions of partner's responses, a liking and loving instrument, and the Marlowe-Crowne Social Desirability Scale. Destructive problem-solving responses (exit and neglect) were more powerfully predictive of couple distress/nondistress than were constructive problem-solving behaviors (voice and loyalty). Tendencies to react with voice to mild relationship problems were also significantly predictive of couple functioning. Partner perceptions of one another's problem-solving styles were related to couple distress/nondistress: Distress was greater to the extent that Ss perceived that their partners exhibited greater tendencies to engage in exit and neglect while showing lower levels of voice and (perhaps) loyalty. Certain interdependent patterns of partner problem solving were effectively predictive of couple health: Couple distress was greater to the degree that Ss reacted destructively and failed to respond constructively when their partners engaged in destructive problem-solving responses. Thus it is the way in which partners react in response to destructive behaviors from their partners that is best predictive of relationship health. (41 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
This study sought to provide information on the relations between trait perfectionism and perfectionistic self-presentation and sexual satisfaction in married couples. A sample of 74 married or cohabiting couples were recruited from the community to participate in the study. They completed measures of perfectionism, perfectionistic self-presentation, sexual satisfaction, dyadic adjustment, and depression. The results showed that the interpersonal dimensions of trait perfectionism were negatively related to general sexual satisfaction and sexual satisfaction with the partner for both husbands and wives. After partialing out marital satisfaction and depression, the husband's sexual satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated with his own socially prescribed perfectionism and with his wife's ratings of other-oriented perfectionism. The wife's satisfaction was significantly negatively correlated both with her husband's socially prescribed perfectionism and with her own socially prescribed perfectionism, other-oriented perfectionism, and perfectionistic self-presentation. Regression analyses suggest that the wife's other-oriented perfectionism is a unique predictor of her general lower sexual satisfaction and her husband's lower satisfaction with her contribution to the sexual relationship. Overall, the findings suggest that perfectionistic expectations have an important role to play in sexual satisfaction in married couples.
This study located the specific cognitive-personality vulnerability measures proposed by S. J. Blatt (1974; Levels of object representation in anaclitic and introjective depression. Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 29, 107–157), i.e. dependency and self-criticism, and by A. T. Beck (1983; Cognitive therapy of depression: New perspectives. In P. J. Clayton and J. E. Barrett (Eds.), Treatment of depression: Old controversies and new approaches, pp. 265–290. New York: Raven), i.e. sociotropy and autonomy, within a comprehensive measure of personality, the NEO-PI-R developed by P. T. Costa Jr. & R. R. McCrae (1992, The NEO Personality Inventory manual. Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources). University students (102 men, 131 women) completed the NEO-PI-R, the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire, the Revised Sociotropy-Autonomy Scale, and CES-D depression. Results indicated that: (1) the 30 NEO-PI-R facets illuminate the similarities and differences between dependency, sociotropy, self-criticism, and autonomy; (2) the different forms of interpersonal content reflected by the specific vulnerability constructs descriptively distinguish them from the neuroticism domain and its facets; and (3) the main effects of dependency, sociotropy, self-criticism, and autonomy in predicting depression are explained by shared variance with neuroticism.
Dependent, self-critical, mixed and control subjects (N = 152) completed the Personal Striving Assessment Packet (Emmons, Goal Concepts in Personality and Social Psychology, 1989) and self-monitored their moods for one week. Dependency and Self-Criticism were related to higher levels of negative affect. Self-Criticism was related to lower levels of positive affect. Personal strivings were categorized as belonging to one of seven motive categories. Dependency was related to a greater number of interpersonal goals, and to lower levels of achievement and independence goals. Self-Criticism was related to fewer interpersonal goals, and to a greater number of self-presentation goals. Self-critics with low levels of Dependency were also found to have a greater number of achievement strivings. The striving and mood results point to distinct motivational and affective profiles for these personality dimensions. The findings are interpreted within a vulnerability model for depression.
How do marriages become unhappy? How do marriages change? What are the theories and methods that can best illuminate our understanding of marital development? This 1998 volume comprehensively explores how marriages develop and deteriorate, and in doing so, brings together leading scholars to present research on the longitudinal course of marriage. The chapters share a common focus on the early phases of marriage but address a diverse array of topics, including marital conflict, personality, social support, the transition to parenthood, violence, ethnicity, stress, alcohol use, commitment and sexuality. Implications of this research for alleviating marital distress are also noted. The book concludes with six provocative analyses by prominent scholars in the areas of sociology, clinical psychology, social psychology and developmental psychology.
Vulnerability to depression is linked to two specific personality traits: dependency or sociotropy, which refers to excessive needs for love and approval, and self-criticism or perfectionism. Recently, Rude and Burnham (1995) demonstrated that the questionnaires used to measure dependency tend to confuse healthy attachment needs with the extreme and generalized need to obtain others' approval ("neediness"). The first goal of the present study was to extend their findings by assessing the relations between neediness and such theoretical correlates as attachment beliefs and depressive symptoms. The second goal was to explore the interpersonal contexts associated with neediness and self-criticism in a sample of couples. We hypothesized that targets' neediness and self-criticism would be associated with their partners' ratings of attachment insecurity and marital dissatisfaction. Finally, we tested the hypothesis that high levels of neediness and self-criticism render individuals vulnerable to depressive symptoms when their marriages are unhappy.
The Silencing the Self Scale (STSS), the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI), and the Multidimensional Self-Esteem Inventory (MSEI) were administered to 90 male and 91 female participants in order to determine gender differences on the STSS and to establish the relationship between self-silencing, depression, and self-esteem. Contrary to our hypotheses, men's scores on the STSS were significantly higher than women's scores, and scores on the BDI and the MSEI showed no significant gender differences. Self-silencing was significantly related to depression at low levels of self-esteem but not at average or high levels, suggesting that a high score on the STSS is not necessarily reflective of the self-silencing schema proposed by Dana lack.
Silencing the self theory (Jack, 1991) holds that women's depression is closely related to experiences in close relationships, especially if women conform with societal norms for feminine relationship roles. In conforming, Jack believes that women develop relationship schema that heighten vulnerability to loss of self-esteem and depressive symptomatology. An exploratory study addressed relationships among self-report measures of silencing the self, dyadic adjustment, demographic variables, and depressive symptomatology in a community sample of 155 cohabiting women and men, including 37 heterosexual couples from which both partners provided data. Although relationship adjustment was no more closely associated with depressive symptomatology for women than for men, silencing the self was. Demographic variables (number of children, employment status, and income) accounted for a significant proportion of variance in depressive symptomatology for men but not for women. Women's self-reported silencing was related to both their own and their partner's relationship adjustment.
In recent years, there has been increasinginterest in the integration of cognitive andinterpersonal features of depression and other emotionaland behavioral disorders. Based on the hypothesis thatcognitive and interpersonal styles mutually influence oneanother, the current study examined the perceivedinterpersonal problem behaviors associated withdysfunctional attitudes regarding themes of achievement and autonomy versus approval and acceptance ina sample of 390 undergraduates. Results suggested thatdysfunctional attitudes regarding achievement andautonomy, and to a lesser extent approval andacceptance, were related to perceived problematicinterpersonal behaviors. A secondary purpose of thestudy was to conduct a confirmatory factor analysis ofCane, Olinger, Gotlib, and Kuiper's (1986) two-factormodel of the Dysfunctional Attitude Scale. Resultsprovided only a modest replication of a two-factorsolution. Post hoc modifications resulted in a revisedtwo-factor solution that provided a better fit with the data.
The relationship of self-disclosure and of psychological masculinity and femininity to the experience of loneliness was examined in a sample of college students. Since both disclosure and sex-typing are important factors in close interpersonal relationships, it was expected that they would also be associated with loneliness the experience of a deficiency in one's social relations. As predicted, loneliness was negatively correlated with past disclosure, willingness to disclose, and social responsiveness, but only for women. High masculinity and high femininity offered protection against loneliness, with androgynous students being least lonely.
In two independent studies of university undergraduates, the present investigation created and evaluated an abbreviated (15-item) version of the 37-item Social and Emotional Loneliness Scale for Adults (SELSA), a multidimensional instrument that assesses family, romantic, and social loneliness. In Study 1 (N=340), participants completed the SELSA; in Study 2 (N=211), participants completed the SELSA and five other loneliness inventories. Results showed that the three abbreviated SELSA subscales each (a) demonstrated very high internal consistency, (b) correlated very highly to the full respective subscales, and (c) correlated with theoretically related loneliness scales. In addition, both exploratory and confirmatory factor analysis supported the hypothesized 3-subscale factor solution. In sum, results showed that the abbreviated SELSA subscales represent a psychometrically reliable and valid alternative to the full inventory.
Most measures designed to quantify self-esteem are based on a nomothetic approach. The present research was designed to examine the psychometric properties of a new measure of self-esteem, the Self-Esteem Worksheet. This scale provides an idiographic way of assessing self-esteem that retains a quantitative basis. Subjects (n = 323) were assessed using the Self-Esteem Worksheet and other measures of self-esteem and emotional functioning. Ten weeks after the initial assessment, 243 subjects (75% of sample) were re-assessed on the same measures. The Self-Esteem Worksheet attained an adequate retest correlation across the entire sample, r = 0.61, with higher stability for males, r = 0.73, as compared to females, r = 0.54. Also, the Self-Esteem Worksheet showed evidence of concurrent and predictive validity. Regardless of gender or degree of life stress, subjects scoring high on the Self-Esteem Worksheet consistently reported higher levels of self-esteem on several other established measures at both the initial assessment and when re-tested 10 weeks later. Also, subjects low in self-esteem reported persistently higher levels of depression, loneliness, and self-criticism. The present results suggest that self-esteem can be assessed in an idiographic manner while still retaining a quantitative scoring system.
The relationship between Eysenck's major personality factors and responses to the Revised UCLA Loneliness Scale were examined. E was related to loneliness for both males and females. Females also showed a moderately high correlation between N and loneliness. Regression analyses indicated a substantially stronger relationship between the Eysenck factors and loneliness for females than males.
The CES-D scale is a short self-report scale designed to measure depressive symptomatology in the general population. The items of the scale are symptoms associated with depression which have been used in previously validated longer scales. The new scale was tested in household interview surveys and in psychiatric settings. It was found to have very high internal consistency and adequate test- retest repeatability. Validity was established by pat terns of correlations with other self-report measures, by correlations with clinical ratings of depression, and by relationships with other variables which support its construct validity. Reliability, validity, and factor structure were similar across a wide variety of demographic characteristics in the general population samples tested. The scale should be a useful tool for epidemiologic studies of de pression.
Silencing the self theory (Jack, 1991) holds that women's depression is closely related to experiences in close relationships, especially if women conform with societal norms for feminine relationship roles. In conforming, Jack believes that women develop relationship schema that heighten vulnerability to loss of self-esteem and depressive symptomatology. An exploratory study addressed relationships among self-report measures of silencing the self, dyadic adjustment, demographic variables, and depressive symptomatology in a community sample of 155 cohabiting women and men, including 37 heterosexual couples from which both partners provided data. Although relationship adjustment was no more closely associated with depressive symptomatology for women than for men, silencing the self was. Demographic variables (number of children, employment status, and income) accounted for a significant proportion of variance in depressive symptomatology for men but not for women. Women's self-reported silencing was related to both their own and their partner's relationship adjustment.
The purpose of this pilot study was to examine how the constructs of learned resourcefulness and self-esteem contributed to the experience of global, intimate, and social loneliness among a sample of U.S. ethnic minority college students (N=51) including Hispanics (N=32) and African Americans (N=19). Results of three Multiple Regression Analyses revealed that self-esteem was inversely related to all three types of loneliness (global, intimate, and social), while learned resourcefulness was directly related to intimate loneliness only. Implications for future research are discussed.
Examined the effects of individual differences in depressive styles on 4 summary variables. 34 female and 14 male college students used a modified version of the Rochester Interaction Record to determine average number of interactions per day, average duration of interactions, average intimacy of interactions, and average pleasantness of interactions. Daily measures of mood were also collected. Dependency was related to more frequent and more intimate interactions, and self-criticism was negatively related to pleasantness of social interactions. Dependency scores were higher for females while self-criticism scores were higher for males. Although dependency and self-criticism were both associated with daily dysphoria, the social interaction findings could not be attributed to the effects of mood. The social environments associated with dependency and self-criticism may influence the aetiology and course of depressive episodes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
In this chapter the author discusses separation and relatedness theories of personality development as well as the few theorists who emphasize the parallel development of both these dimensions, and closes with the proposal that personality development in fact evolves through a lifelong dialectical, mutually facilitating, synergistic interaction between these two fundamental developmental processes. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The 1st study examined the hypothesis that feeling lonely is related to a self-perceived lack of self-disclosure to significant others. 37 male and 38 female undergraduates rated themselves on the UCLA Loneliness Scale and the Jourard Self-Disclosure Questionnaire. Analyses showed that for males and females, loneliness was significantly and linearly related to a self-perceived lack of intimate disclosure to opposite-sex friends. For females, loneliness was also associated with a perceived lack of self-disclosure to same-sex friends. The 2nd study investigated the relationship between loneliness and actual disclosure behavior. 24 lonely and 23 nonlonely Ss were paired with nonlonely partners in a structured acquaintanceship exercise. Both opposite-sex and same-sex pairs were included in the design. Postexercise ratings by partners indicated that lonely Ss were less effective than nonlonely Ss in making themselves known. Analysis of the intimacy level in the conversations showed that lonely Ss had significantly different patterns of disclosure than nonlonely Ss. The authors suggest that the self-disclosure style of the lonely person impairs the normal development of social relationships. (37 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
in recognition of the diversity of causes and manifestations of loneliness, researchers have increasingly urged a shift away from a global, undifferentiated view of loneliness towards a more differentiated view
reviews work on this newer focus, emphasizing variations in the duration of loneliness, specific interpersonal deficits, motivational and behavioral causes of loneliness, and the manner of coping with loneliness
implications for further research and clinical interventions are highlighted (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
The assumption that the frequency of depressive symptoms among highly dependent and highly self-critical first-time mothers is mediated by a distinct attitude toward social support is explored. It is hypothesized that self-criticism reduces the perceived availability of social support, which in turn increases the risk of depressive symptoms. Dependency scores were expected to effect an increase of the perceived availability of social support, thus reducing depressive symptomatology after delivery. Personality variables were assumed to affect global support mainly. Results reiterate previous findings about the protective effects of dependency in the transition to motherhood, and support a mediation model of global and specific support for the dependency and self-criticism associations with depressive symptoms. Even though self-criticism and dependency showed different patterns of association with specific and global support, husband's support was found to play a protective role in relation to these two personality variables.
This study expands on the initial work with the Silencing the Self Scale (STSS; Jack, 1991) by presenting data using a more diverse, nonclinical sample. Included were both men and women (n= 604) who were African American, Asian, Caucasian, and Hispanic. It was expected that women would be more self-silencing than men, and that there would be ethnic differences. There were three principal findings: (a) men were more self-silencing than were women on the STSS; (b) there was a main effect for ethnicity on the STSS, with Asians expressing the highest levels of self-silencing; and (c) there was a positive correlation between self-silencing and depression for all ethnic/gender groups.
Blatt's (1900) theory on the two primary dimensions in personality—interpersonal relatedness and self—definition—was applied to the study of loneliness during the transition to university. Participants were 176 students (84 males and 92 females) who completed the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ) at the beginning of First-year university (time 1) and the UCLA Loneliness Scale (trait and state versions) at the beginning and at the middle of first-year university (time 2). A subsample of students (n= 74) also completed Sharabany's Intimacy Scale at time 2. Trait loneliness was accounted for by higher levels of Self-Criticism (SC) and lower levels of Efficacy (E). Change in state loneliness from time t to time 2 (i.e., overcoming state loneliness) was predicted by lower Self-Criticism and higher Efficacy. In the relationship with an intimate partner, Self-Criticism negatively predicted frankness, sensitivity, and trust, whereas Dependency positively predicted attachment, giving, and trust. The centrality of self-criticism in vulnerability to loneliness and in lack of intimacy is discussed, and directions for future research on loneliness and personality styles are suggested.
The interpersonal circumplex (IPC) was recommended as a personality trait dimensional model with good potential to identify the phenomenological scope of personality disorders whose core dysfunction involves maladaptive expression of interpersonal traits. The IPC was then applied to the reconceptualization of dependent personality and dependent personality disorder. In Study 1, Pincus and Gurtman’s (1995) three interpersonal vectors of dependency were validated via factor analyses conducted on two large samples (N = 921; N = 472) and a reliable self-report measure, the 3 Vector Dependency Inventory (3VDI) was constructed. In Study 2, two samples (N = 103; N = 122) of individuals identified as predominantly endorsing submissive dependence, exploitable dependence, love dependence, or who were low in aspects of dependency were compared via ANOVA and chi-square analyses on parental representations, adult attachment styles, loneliness, and pathological attachment. Submissive dependence was associated with higher scores on maladaptive constructs (fearful attachment, pathological attachment, and loneliness) and was also associated with lower parental affiliation and higher maternal control. Love dependence was associated with lower scores on maladaptive constructs and higher scores on secure attachment and parental affiliation. Variability in dependent phenomenology was related to its three component traits. Multiple perspectives on integrating love dependence, exploitable dependence, and submissive dependence into a reconceptualization of dependent personality disorder were articulated.
Research that relates personality to depression is one of the dominant themes in the clinical literature. The current paper examines this research from a critical perspective. It is argued that existing research is limited by (i) a failure to adopt a broad conceptual approach to the study of personality and depression; and (ii) the use of personality measures with questionable psychometric properties. Our observations lead us to suggest that greater adherence to established methodology and conceptual developments in the personality field will result in substantial improvements in research on personality and depression, and may ultimately provide a more accurate appraisal of the role of personality factors in depression. In addition to examining important issues, key directions for future research are discussed.
The Silencing the Self Scale (STSS), derived from a longitudinal study of clinically depressed women, measures specific schemas about how to make and maintain intimacy hypothesized to be associated with depression in women. To assess its psychometric properties, the STSS was administered with the Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) to three samples of women: college students (n= 63), residents in battered women's shelters (n= 1401, and mothers (n= 270) (of 4-month-old infants) who abused cocaine during pregnancy. The STSS had a high degree of internal consistency and test-retest reliability and was significantly correlated with the BDI in all three samples.
Examined the relation of dependency and self-criticism to social functioning among adolescents. Subjects were 7th–11th graders from a suburban high school who completed the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire for Adolescents (DEQ-A) and the Inventory of Interpersonal Problems (IIP). The results showed that self-criticism was strongly associated with reporting a greater number of interpersonal problems, particularly in the areas of sociability and control. Dependency was only marginally related to interpersonal difficulties. The results also showed that levels of self-criticism tended to decline steadily across the high-school years, whereas levels of dependency followed a U-shaped curvilinear pattern in which it was higher in the early and late high school years relative to the middle years. Finally, the present study provides initial evidence of a reliable, shortened 20-item version of the DEQ-A.
S. J. Blatt (Psychoanalytic Study of the Child, 1974, 29, 107–157) distinguished between two types of depressive experiences, one characterized by strong dependency needs and the other by self-criticism and guilt. This paper reports a series of validation studies of the Depressive Experiences Questionnaire (DEQ), which was developed to measure individuals' vulnerabilities to these types of experiences (S. J. Blatt, J. P. D'Afflitti, & D. M. Quinlan, Journal of Abnormal Psychology, 1976, 85, 383–389). The Dependency and Self-Criticism scales were shown to be stable in the face of both a 13-week interval and the receipt of midterm grades. Dependency was associated with conflict concerning the expression of hostility and, in males, feelings of helplessness. Self-Criticism was associated with low self-esteem and high levels of morality-conscience guilt. In a study of behavior in dyadic problem-solving tasks, Dependency in males was found to be negatively related to task leadership, and Self-Criticism in females tended to be negatively related to judged likeability. On the other hand, little support was found for the hypotheses that Dependency would be related to field dependent cognitive style and to the use of primitive defense mechanisms. The results were viewed as supporting the utility of Blatt's distinction between the two types of depression, but a number of anomalous findings indicated a need for further study of the DEQ. The question of the developmental level of the two types of depression, possible sex differences in the correlates of the scales, and the possibility of situational specificity in individuals' responses were identified as the areas most in need of study.
This paper reviews recent research that indicates the importance of differentiating subtypes of depression based on two types of experiences that lead individuals to become depressed: (a) disruptions of interpersonal relations and (b) threats to self-integrity and self-esteem. We review research with clinical and nonclinical samples that investigated the relationships of these distinctions to the quality of current interpersonal relationships and to differential sensitivity to various types of stressful life events, as well as to aspects of early life experiences, especially the quality of the parent-child relationship. We also evaluate research evidence that considers the role of these two dimensions in clinical depression. In addition to proposing an etiologic model about aspects of the onset and recurrence of depression based on the interaction between personality predispositions and types of stressful life events, we place these observations about depression in a broad theoretical context of contemporary personality theory which defines two primary dimensions of personality development and psychopathology.
The aim of this longitudinal study was to examine whether the feeling of loneliness is rather an antecedent or a consequence of the strategies young adults apply in social situations. To investigate this, university students were asked to fill in the Strategy and Attribution Questionnaire at the beginning of their first and third years at university, and the revised UCLA Loneliness scale at the beginning of their second and fourth years. The results showed that the more the young adults reported the use of a pessimistic-avoidance strategy, the less lonely they were later on. In turn, the more lonely the students were, the less they used an approach-oriented strategy later on. Finally, controlling the levels of self-esteem or depressive symptomatology at the first measurement did not change the results.
Loneliness is a complex set of feelings encompassing reactions to the absence of intimate and social needs. Although transient for some individuals, loneliness can be a chronic state for others. We review the developmental, social, personality, clinical, and counseling psychology literatures on loneliness with an emphasis on recent empirical findings. Chronic feelings of loneliness appear to have roots in childhood and early attachment processes. Chronically lonely individuals are more likely to be high in negative affectivity, act in a socially withdrawn fashion, lack trust in self and others, feel little control over success or failure, and generally be dissatisfied with their relationships compared to nonlonely individuals. Loneliness has also been associated with a variety of individual differences including depression, hostility, pessimism, social withdrawal, alienation, shyness, and low positive affect; loneliness is also a concomitant of more severe disorders, such as clinical depression, borderline personality, and schizophrenia. Although loneliness affects a large number of individuals and is associated with numerous negative outcomes, relatively few investigations have examined the efficacy of treatments aimed at alleviating or preventing loneliness. Several investigations raise the possibility of treating loneliness, but the absence of appropriate comparison groups casts doubt on the efficacy of many of these treatments. Correlational studies also suggest that one close friend or romantic partner may be sufficient to buffer those at risk for loneliness. Research on causal processes is sparse, however, and more research is needed to delineate which factors are antecedents and which are consequences of loneliness.