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Continuous Compression as an Effective Therapeutic Intervention in Treating Eccentric-Exercise-Induced Muscle Soreness
Abstract
Context
Prior investigations using ice, massage, or exercise have not shown efficacy in relieving delayed-onset muscle soreness.
Objectives
To determine whether a compression sleeve worn immediately after maximal eccentric exercise enhances recovery.
Design
Randomized, controlled clinical study.
Setting
University sports medicine laboratory.
Participants
Fifteen healthy, non-strength-trained men, matched for physical criteria, randomly placed in a control group or a continuous compression-sleeve group (CS).
Methods and Measures
Subjects performed 2 sets of 50 arm curls. 1RM elbow flexion at 60°/s, upper-arm circumference, resting-elbow angle, serum creatine kinase (CK), and perception-of-soreness data were collected before exercise and for 3 days.
Results
CK was significantly ( P < .05) elevated from the baseline value in both groups, although the elevation in the CS group was less. CS prevented loss of elbow extension, decreased subjects’ perception of soreness, reduced swelling, and promoted recovery of force production.
Conclusions
Compression is important in soft-tissue-injury management.
... The use of SCG during exercise has been reported to improve numerous performance metrics, including jump height [3][4][5][6], cycling power [7][8][9][10], repeated sprint ability [8,11] and running performance [12][13][14]. When worn during the post-exercise recovery period, compression garments are reported to reduce ratings of muscle soreness [15][16][17][18][19][20], decrements in subsequent exercise performance [17,[20][21][22] and muscle swelling [16,20,23], as well as enhance the clearance of muscle damage markers [16,[23][24][25]. Collectively, it has been hypothesised that the ergogenic effects of SCG during and following exercise are largely associated with compression-induced increases in peripheral blood flow (i.e. ...
... The use of SCG during exercise has been reported to improve numerous performance metrics, including jump height [3][4][5][6], cycling power [7][8][9][10], repeated sprint ability [8,11] and running performance [12][13][14]. When worn during the post-exercise recovery period, compression garments are reported to reduce ratings of muscle soreness [15][16][17][18][19][20], decrements in subsequent exercise performance [17,[20][21][22] and muscle swelling [16,20,23], as well as enhance the clearance of muscle damage markers [16,[23][24][25]. Collectively, it has been hypothesised that the ergogenic effects of SCG during and following exercise are largely associated with compression-induced increases in peripheral blood flow (i.e. ...
... The use of SCG during exercise has been reported to improve numerous performance metrics, including jump height [3][4][5][6], cycling power [7][8][9][10], repeated sprint ability [8,11] and running performance [12][13][14]. When worn during the post-exercise recovery period, compression garments are reported to reduce ratings of muscle soreness [15][16][17][18][19][20], decrements in subsequent exercise performance [17,[20][21][22] and muscle swelling [16,20,23], as well as enhance the clearance of muscle damage markers [16,[23][24][25]. Collectively, it has been hypothesised that the ergogenic effects of SCG during and following exercise are largely associated with compression-induced increases in peripheral blood flow (i.e. ...
Background
One of the proposed mechanisms underlying the benefits of sports compression garments may be alterations in peripheral blood flow.Objective
We aimed to determine if sports compression garments alter measures of peripheral blood flow at rest, as well as during, immediately after and in recovery from a physiological challenge (i.e. exercise or an orthostatic challenge).Methods
We conducted a systematic literature search of databases including Scopus, SPORTDiscus and PubMed/MEDLINE. The criteria for inclusion of studies were: (1) original papers in English and a peer-reviewed journal; (2) assessed effect of compression garments on a measure of peripheral blood flow at rest and/or before, during or after a physiological challenge; (3) participants were healthy and without cardiovascular or metabolic disorders; and (4) a study population including athletes and physically active or healthy participants. The PEDro scale was used to assess the methodological quality of the included studies. A random-effects meta-analysis model was used. Changes in blood flow were quantified by standardised mean difference (SMD) [± 95% confidence interval (CI)].ResultsOf the 899 articles identified, 22 studies were included for the meta-analysis. The results indicated sports compression garments improve overall peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.32, 95% CI 0.13, 0.51, p = 0.001), venous blood flow (SMD = 0.37, 95% CI 0.14, 0.60, p = 0.002) and arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.30, 95% CI 0.01, 0.59, p = 0.04). At rest, sports compression garments did not improve peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.18, 95% CI − 0.02, 0.39, p = 0.08). However, subgroup analyses revealed sports compression garments enhance venous (SMD = 0.31 95% CI 0.02, 0.60, p = 0.03), but not arterial (SMD = 0.12, 95% CI − 0.16, 0.40, p = 0.16), blood flow. During a physiological challenge, peripheral blood flow was improved (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI 0.19, 0.69, p = 0.0007), with subgroup analyses revealing sports compression garments enhance venous (SMD = 0.48, 95% CI 0.11, 0.85, p = 0.01) and arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.44, 95% CI 0.03, 0.86, p = 0.04). At immediately after a physiological challenge, there were no changes in peripheral blood flow (SMD = − 0.04, 95% CI − 0.43, 0.34, p = 0.82) or subgroup analyses of venous (SMD = − 0.41, 95% CI − 1.32, 0.47, p = 0.35) and arterial (SMD = 0.12, 95% CI − 0.26, 0.51, p = 0.53) blood flow. In recovery, sports compression garments did not improve peripheral blood flow (SMD = 0.25, 95% CI − 0.45, 0.95, p = 0.49). The subgroup analyses showed enhanced venous (SMD = 0.67, 95% CI 0.17, 1.17, p = 0.009), but not arterial blood flow (SMD = 0.02, 95% CI − 1.06, 1.09, p = 0.98).Conclusions
Use of sports compression garments enhances venous blood flow at rest, during and in recovery from, but not immediately after, a physiological challenge. Compression-induced changes in arterial blood flow were only evident during a physiological challenge.
... Early research with healthy populations suggested benefits to exercise performance such as increased proprioception and reduced muscle oscillation [10], and decreased blood lactate [11] during running and cycling, respectively. Meanwhile, decreased muscle soreness [12,13], increased blood lactate removal [11], and increased perception of recovery [14] have been reported in studies focusing on the application of compression as a recovery method for athletes. However, since these early publications, there has been substantial growth in research on CGs, such that~85% of studies in this field were published from 2010 onwards [15]. ...
... An overall positive response to CGs was reported in the seven studies that measured outcome measures related to strength recovery following various resistance exercise protocols. In early investigations with both male and female subjects, Kraemer et al. [12,13] showed a significant reduction in the decrement in peak torque and power with the use of compression arm sleeves for 5 days straight following a fatiguing eccentric arm curl protocol. More recently, the recuperation of maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) force (knee extension) was significantly improved with the use of upper-and lower-body CGs for 8 h after a high-volume protocol of maximal isokinetic eccentric and concentric knee extensor contractions [132]. ...
... Similarly, the majority of investigations did not find any change in measures of creatine kinase [12,13,128,131,133,139,[141][142][143][144], though clearly, there was substantial variation in the type of exercise protocols used, which makes it difficult to establish the relevance of CK as an index of muscle damage in the first instance. With this in mind, the studies that reported significant reductions in CK with the use of CGs tended to implement explosive, eccentric-focused exercise modalities, e.g., repeat sprint and drop jump protocols [121,123,127,130,134,145] and heavy resistance exercise [137], which are known to elicit greater levels of muscle damage than endurance and non-load bearing exercise [146]. ...
Background: Compression garments (CGs) are a popular tool that may act on physiological, physical, neuromuscular, biomechanical, and/or perceptual domains during exercise and recovery from exercise, with varying levels of efficacy. While previous reviews have focused on the effects of CGs during running, high-intensity exercise, and exercise recovery, a comprehensive systematic review that assesses the effectiveness of garment use both during and after exercise has not been recently conducted. Methods: A systematic search of the literature from the earliest record until May 2022 was performed based on the PRISMA-P guidelines for systematic reviews, using the online databases PubMed, SPORTDiscus, and Google Scholar. Results: 160 articles with 2530 total participants were included for analysis in the systematic review, comprised of 103 ‘during exercise’ studies, 42 ‘during recovery’ studies, and 15 combined design studies. Conclusions: During exercise, CGs have a limited effect on global measures of endurance performance but may improve some sport-specific variables (e.g., countermovement jump height). Most muscle proteins/metabolites are unchanged with the use of CGs during exercise, though measures of blood lactate tend to be lowered. CGs for recovery appear to have a positive benefit on subsequent bouts of endurance (e.g., cycling time trials) and resistance exercise (e.g., isokinetic dynamometry). CGs are associated with reductions in lactate dehydrogenase during recovery and are consistently associated with decreases in perceived muscle soreness following fatiguing exercise. This review may provide a useful point of reference for practitioners and researchers interested in the effect of CGs on particular outcome variables or exercise types.
... Strength deficits following EIMD may exceed 50% baseline values and persist for up to 10 d (11). Muscle damage also impairs muscular power and sprinting performance (12)(13)(14), endurance (15), and is associated with muscular soreness, impaired mobility, and swelling (13,14,16). Accordingly, the use of CG may represent a particularly valuable recovery strategy, with the potential to increase the opportunity for athletes to train at high intensity. ...
... Strength deficits following EIMD may exceed 50% baseline values and persist for up to 10 d (11). Muscle damage also impairs muscular power and sprinting performance (12)(13)(14), endurance (15), and is associated with muscular soreness, impaired mobility, and swelling (13,14,16). Accordingly, the use of CG may represent a particularly valuable recovery strategy, with the potential to increase the opportunity for athletes to train at high intensity. ...
... At the time of writing, however, neither the mechanisms responsible nor the optimal compression pressures for recovery from EIMD have been definitively established. The effects of compression pressure on exercise recovery are further obscured by the scarcity of studies reporting directly measured pressure data, with many studies failing to report garment pressures (18), citing those estimated from manufacturer specifications (19), or derived from indirect modeling techniques (13). Even where researchers have reported garment pressures from prior pilot testing (20), such values may be inaccurate, as anthropometric differences lead to considerable between-individual variation in the pressures applied (21). ...
The use of compression garments (CG) has been associated with improved recovery following exercise-induced muscle damage. The mechanisms responsible are not well established, and no consensus exists regarding the effects of compression pressure (i.e., the “dose”), which until recently was seldom reported. With the increasing prevalence of studies reporting directly measured pressures, the present review aims to consolidate current evidence on optimal pressures for recovery from exercise-induced muscle damage. In addition, recent findings suggesting that custom-fitted garments provide greater precision and experimental control are discussed. Finally, biochemical data from human trials are presented to support a theoretical mechanism by which CG enhance recovery, with recommendations for future research. The effects of compression on adaptation remain unexplored. More studies are required to investigate the relationship between compression pressure and the recovery of performance and physiological outcomes. Furthermore, improved mechanistic understanding may help elucidate the optimal conditions by which CG enhance recovery.
... Although a recent study on the lower body reported superior recovery from clinical grade stockings (applying 24.3 ± 3.7 mmHg and 14.8 ± 2.2 mmHg at the calf and thigh, respectively) compared to commercially available CG (14.8 ± 2.1 mmHg and 8.1 ± 1.3 mmHg), the literature is otherwise largely equivocal (Beliard et al., 2015;Brown et al., 2017). The establishment of optimal pressures is further complicated by the scarcity of studies reporting directly measured values (Brown et al., 2017), with many studies reporting pressures predicted by manufacturers or estimated from mathematical modelling (Brown et al., 2017;Kraemer et al., 2001). As portable pressure monitors that provide valid and reliable readings have become available over the last decade (Partsch & Mosti, 2010), the properties of CG can now be more accurately characterized. ...
... However, EIMD was insufficient to impair squat-jump performance in this sample. In the current trial, although grip strength declined 12 h after randori as is typical following EIMD (Khamwong, Nosaka, Pirunsan, & Paungmali, 2012Souron, Nosaka, & Jubeau, 2018), peak reductions of < 10% were far lower than those reported following eccentric wrist extensions in untrained participants (Khamwong et al., 2012) and instances in which CG have enhanced recovery (Brown et al., 2017;Goto & Morishima, 2014;Kraemer et al., 2001). Large standard deviations for CK and swelling responses (Table 2), also suggest muscle damage was inconsistent in this sample. ...
... In the current study, CG were ineffective for moderating increases in limb circumference (Table 2). Such findings are in marked contrast with existing literature, in which CG have been consistently reported to attenuate swelling throughout recovery alongside improved functional outcomes (Brown et al., 2017;Goto & Morishima, 2014;Kraemer et al., 2001). Although the exact mechanisms by which CG aid recovery remain ambiguous, the observed null effects for both swelling and recovery may be related. ...
This study investigated the effects of custom-fitted compression garments (CG) worn during recovery over a multi-day training camp in elite judo players (judoka). A single blind, placebo-controlled study was carried out in 11 elite judoka, using a two-way crossover design. Two three-day training camps were completed in CG and placebo conditions in a random order. Changes in performance and physiological markers were compared between conditions. Judoka were assessed before training for (maximal) isometric knee extension and grip strength, countermovement jump performance and bench-press velocity, alongside soreness, limb circumferences, plasma creatine kinase activity (CK) and perceived bruising. Measurements were repeated after 12, 36 and 43 h of training, whereupon judoka rated the effectiveness of each intervention. Knee extension and bench-press performance demonstrated significant familiarization (p < 0.001), and were excluded from subsequent analysis. Jump performance was unaffected by training (p > 0.05). Grip strength declined throughout training (p < 0.001), with peak decrements of −9.7% indicating mild muscle damage. Increases in bruising, CK and soreness demonstrated highly variable, if significant (p < 0.001) responses. Although CG were perceived as significantly more effective than placebo for recovery (p = 0.046), no effects were observed for any other outcome (p > 0.05). Compression conferred no statistically significant impact upon recovery markers in elite judoka throughout training. Muscle damage responses were inconsistent in this population. Individual athletes would be advised to monitor habitually-used performance measures while using CG to ascertain whether perceptual benefits translate into enhanced recovery.
• Highlights
• Compression garments were perceived as more effective for recovery than placebo by elite judoka.
• However, no measures of performance or muscle damage were enhanced by CG.
• Randori was associated with inconsistent muscle damage responses in elite judoka, while lower-body performance was not impaired.
• Individual athletes would be advised to monitor habitually-used performance measures while using CG to ascertain whether perceptual benefits translate into enhanced recovery.
... As a result, many athletes using CG may receive pressures far below those required for hemodynamic improvements (34,30). This may affect recovery because observations that CG improve soreness and mobility after EIMD are frequently reported alongside reductions in limb circumference, taken as a measure of local inflammation (4,25,27). As the reduction of edema involves "shunting" blood from peripheral vessels to enhance venous return (34), suboptimal pressures may therefore be ineffective for recovery. ...
... Athletes were requested to avoid strenuous exercise for 48 hours before the start of the study and refrain from exercise throughout 48-hour recovery. A sample size of n 5 16 was calculated using effect sizes (ES) from previous trials (17,25), selecting an alpha value of 0.05 with 80% statistical power. ...
... This is the first study to demonstrate improved functional recovery from custom-fitted CG compared with standard-sized garments. These results add to a large body of evidence which indicates that CG are effective for ameliorating strength deficits from EIMD, with greater levels of isometric strength consistently reported alongside improvements in mobility, soreness, and structural damage (4,25,27). In this study, lower-body strength in CF was 9.4% greater than CON at 24 hours and 9.1% greater at 48 hours. ...
Brown, F, Jeffries, O, Gissane, C, Howatson, G, van Someren, K, Pedlar, C, Myers, T, and Hill, JA. Custom-fitted compression garments enhance recovery from muscle damage in rugby players. J Strength Cond Res XX(X): 000-000, 2020-to evaluate the effects of custom-fitted compression garments (CG) on recovery from muscle damage in rugby players. Forty-five players were tested for lower-body strength, power, and indices of muscle damage before completing a damaging protocol (20 × 20-m sprints with 5-m deceleration, 100 drop jumps). Players were randomly assigned to wear either custom-fitted (CF, n = 13), or standard-sized CG (SSG, n = 16), or to receive sham ultrasound therapy (CON, n = 16) immediately after exercise. Players were retested immediately, then after 24 and 48 hours. Strength recovery was significantly different between groups (F = 2.7, p = 0.02), with only CF recovering to baseline values by 48 hours (p = 0.973). Time × condition effects were also apparent for creatine kinase activity (χ = 30.4, p < 0.001) and midthigh girth (F = 3.7, p = 0.005), with faster recovery apparent in CF compared with both CON and SSG (p < 0.05). Custom-fitted CG improved strength recovery and indices of muscle damage in rugby players, compared with controls and standard-sized garments. Athletes and coaches would be advised to use appropriately fitted CG to enhance strength recovery after damaging exercise.
... Some studies reported that the use of compression garments in the lower extremities reduces the swelling degree (Kraemer et al., 2010;Partsch, Winiger, & Lun, 2004). Moreover, it has also been found that the use of these kinds of garments can reduce the circumference of the extremity applied (French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al., 2001), and this variable was used as an indicator of the inflammation degree, while its reduction could be derived from an improvement of the lymphatic drainage produced by compression. ...
... This loss of strength must be taken into consideration, especially in those modalities in which athletes compete over several consecutive days or during tournaments. Several studies have found that the use of compression garments had a positive effect on the maintenance of muscle function, both strength and power, after intense or strenuous exercise (Chatard et al., 2004;Hill, Howatson, van Someren, Leeder, & Pedlar, 2013;Jakeman et al., 2010;Kraemer et al., 2001). An attenuation in the loss of muscle function after exercise can, consequently, have an effect on subsequent performance, as reported by Jakeman et al. (2010), Kraemer et al. (2010), and Ali et al. (2011) (see Figs. 17.3À17.5). ...
... It is important to take into account that different studies (Ali et al., 2011;Carling et al., 1995;Chatard et al., 2004;Hill et al., 2013Hill et al., , 2014Jakeman et al., 2010;Kraemer et al., 2001) analyzed the changes produced in the force by static or dynamic tests, but not with functional tests, that is, reproducing exactly the type of physical exercise related to the sport in question. Only the study by Armstrong et al. (2015) evaluated the effects of compression garments on recovery in a functional way, where it was evaluated (after 48 hours at the end of a marathon and wearing compression stockings) the analysis of the time used to perform a running test. ...
... Due to the above-mentioned complexity, the proper comparison of our results with results of the literature is a daunting task. However, simplifying our approach, a comparison with resistance (or power) exercise trials [9,11,12,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] that focus on maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) and/or jump performance as a study outcome might be productive. In summary, conflicting results were reported, with significant faster recovery from resistance exercise [11,12,[34][35][36], or failure to observe relevant effects of compression garment [9,[32][33][34]. ...
... However, simplifying our approach, a comparison with resistance (or power) exercise trials [9,11,12,[31][32][33][34][35][36][37] that focus on maximum voluntary contraction (MVC) and/or jump performance as a study outcome might be productive. In summary, conflicting results were reported, with significant faster recovery from resistance exercise [11,12,[34][35][36], or failure to observe relevant effects of compression garment [9,[32][33][34]. Even studies with comparable exercise protocols (i.e., 50-100 maximum eccentric elbow flexions), compression garment, and duration of monitoring (72-96 h post) did not report consistent results [9,12,31,35,36] (The three latter authors observed significant positive effects, while the first two authors did not report differences between compression and control group). ...
... In summary, conflicting results were reported, with significant faster recovery from resistance exercise [11,12,[34][35][36], or failure to observe relevant effects of compression garment [9,[32][33][34]. Even studies with comparable exercise protocols (i.e., 50-100 maximum eccentric elbow flexions), compression garment, and duration of monitoring (72-96 h post) did not report consistent results [9,12,31,35,36] (The three latter authors observed significant positive effects, while the first two authors did not report differences between compression and control group). Of importance, results were independent of compression provided by the sleeves ( [12,31] or duration of wearing compression postexercise [9,31]. ...
Introduction:
Recent meta-analyses on compression garments have reported faster recovery of muscle function particularly after intense eccentric power or resistance exercise. However, due to the complex interaction between cohorts included, exercises involved and compression applied, recovery length and modalities, and outcome parameters selected, only limited practical recommendations can be drawn from these studies. Thus, our aim was to determine the effect of compression tights on recovery from high mechanical and metabolic stress monitored over a longer recovery period.
Material and methods:
Using a crossover design, 19 resistance-trained 4th/5th Division German handball players (31.3±7.7 years; 24.1±3.8 kg/m2) were randomly assigned at the start of the project to the compression tight (recovery-pro-tights, cep, Bayreuth, Germany) or the control group. Immediately after a combined lower extremity resistance training and electromyostimulation, participants had to wear compression tights. Compression was applied initially for 24 h and then 12 h intermitted by 12 h of nonuse for a total of 96 h. Primary study endpoint was maximum isokinetic hip/leg-extensor strength (MIES) as determined by a leg-press. Secondary endpoint was lower extremity power as assessed by a counter movement jump. Follow-up assessments were conducted 24, 48, 72, and 96 h postexercise. Outcomes were analyzed using a linear mixed effect model with spherical symmetric within-condition correlation.
Results:
All 19 participants underwent their allocated treatment and passed through the project strictly according to the study protocol. MIES demonstrated significantly (p=0.003) lower overall reductions (155 N) after wearing compression tights. In parallel, lower extremity power significantly (p<0.001) varies between both conditions with lower reductions in favor of the compression condition. Of importance, full recovery for lower extremity muscle strength or power was still not reached 96 h postexercise.
Conclusion:
Based on our results we recommend athletes wear compression tights for faster recovery, particularly after intense exercise with a pronounced eccentric aspect.
... [9][10][11] Additionally, studies have reported that the compression provided by socks may enhance recovery by reducing the space available for swelling, consequently, the perception of pain associated with the swelling, 12 augmenting tissue oxygenation 13 and enhancing blood flow, which in turn may augment an immediate clearance of blood lactate 10 markers of muscle damage and inflammation. 14 The above-mentioned effects are reportedly achieved through the mechanical pressure applied to the calf muscles by the compression socks, which leads to an increased intramuscular pressure and reduced cross-sectional area of compliance vessels (i.e. veins), thereby enhancing venous return. ...
... veins), thereby enhancing venous return. 14,15 While there is a growing body of research concerned with investigating the impact of compression garments on recovery from exercise and competition, the benefit of compression socks, however, remains equivocal. 8 A systematic review and meta-analysis of this literature concludes that compression garments worn after exercise effectively ameliorate the perception of DOMS and the loss of strength and power that occur with muscle damaging exercise. ...
... Compression socks have been reported to provide relief from exercise-induced muscle damage and to promote a faster recovery, 9,10 particularly when the sock is worn during the recovery phase. 30 In addition, several studies 14,17,31,32 have shown the potential for compression garments to either reduce perceived pain or facilitate recovery. The results of the Hike Trial support these findings, namely, that participants wearing compression socks reported significantly lower scores for DOMS compared to participants wearing socks offering no compression (NoCo). ...
A series of studies were conducted to test the hypothesis that compression socks (uniform or graduated compression) worn after exercise mitigate exercise-induced pain. Fifty-nine (59) participants took part in three separate exercise protocols to induce a degree of muscle soreness from low to severe. Participants wore either ankle height socks with no compression (NoCo), knee height socks with uniform (UNI) or graduated compression (GRAD) for 8 h/day following exercise. Before, immediately after and during recovery, we measured muscle strength, flexibility and the perception of pain. The three exercise protocols were as follows. (1) Hike: compared the effects of GRAD and NoCo socks following a 10-km treadmill hike with a 1000 m ascent and descent. (2) Trail Run: compared the effect of GRAD and UNI following a 14-km trail run with 250 m ascent and descent. (3) Calf Exercise: compared the effect of GRAD and UNI socks with a predominately eccentric calf exercise. GRAD socks significantly mitigated the perception of calf pain compared to NoCo (Hike). The UNI socks were superior to the GRAD socks in mitigating the perception of pain during recovery in the Trail Run. No statistical difference was noted between UNI and GRAD socks after the Calf Exercise. Compression socks mitigated the perception of calf muscle pain (Hike trial), with UNI providing more benefit compared to GRAD socks (Trail Run trial). No differences between the UNI and GRAD socks were observed in the Calf Exercise trial. Compression socks aid in the perception of recovery following low to moderate pain from delayed onset muscle soreness.
... Since the protocol of Bochmann et al. (2005) was performed (a) at rest and with the arm at heart level and (b) not during intense climbing involving arm movements above the heart level, it is not clear whether the application of external compression during climbing increases arterial perfusion. Based on studies investigating lower limb compression, a climber might benefit from improved hemodynamics, including improved oxygenation, with lower osmotic pressure, altogether reducing ischemia (Kraemer et al., 2001) with an increase in venous blood return (Lawrence and Kakkar, 1980;Gandhi et al., 1984). An external mechanical pressure causes redistribution of blood volume from the superficial to the deep venous system (Kraemer et al., 2001), thereby reducing swelling of damaged muscle tissue by facilitating lymphatic drainage, and reducing osmotic pressure (Kraemer et al., 2001). ...
... Based on studies investigating lower limb compression, a climber might benefit from improved hemodynamics, including improved oxygenation, with lower osmotic pressure, altogether reducing ischemia (Kraemer et al., 2001) with an increase in venous blood return (Lawrence and Kakkar, 1980;Gandhi et al., 1984). An external mechanical pressure causes redistribution of blood volume from the superficial to the deep venous system (Kraemer et al., 2001), thereby reducing swelling of damaged muscle tissue by facilitating lymphatic drainage, and reducing osmotic pressure (Kraemer et al., 2001). In contrast, previous research demonstrated that compression applied to lower limbs did not necessarily improve lower limb blood flow at rest (Lawrence and Kakkar, 1980) or during intense exercise . ...
... Based on studies investigating lower limb compression, a climber might benefit from improved hemodynamics, including improved oxygenation, with lower osmotic pressure, altogether reducing ischemia (Kraemer et al., 2001) with an increase in venous blood return (Lawrence and Kakkar, 1980;Gandhi et al., 1984). An external mechanical pressure causes redistribution of blood volume from the superficial to the deep venous system (Kraemer et al., 2001), thereby reducing swelling of damaged muscle tissue by facilitating lymphatic drainage, and reducing osmotic pressure (Kraemer et al., 2001). In contrast, previous research demonstrated that compression applied to lower limbs did not necessarily improve lower limb blood flow at rest (Lawrence and Kakkar, 1980) or during intense exercise . ...
https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fphys.2018.00605/full?&utm_source=Email_to_authors_&utm_medium=Email&utm_content=T1_11.5e1_author&utm_campaign=Email_publication&field=&journalName=Frontiers_in_Physiology&id=371191
Objectives: To evaluate the immediate responses to forearm compression of blood lactate concentration, heart rate, perceived exertion and local forearm muscle pain during severe climbing in elite climbers.
Method: Seven elite climbers (18 ± 2 yrs; 164 ± 5 cm; 57.8 ± 5.3 kg) performed 3 × 3 climbing bouts with maximal intensity on a distinct 8 m boulder wall (lead grade: 7a–8b) in a single blinded, placebo-controlled cross-over design, wearing either forearm sleeves with compression (verum-compression) or placebo forearm sleeves with no compression (falsum-compression). Each climber’s heart rate was recorded during and capillary blood lactate concentration, perceived exertion and forearm muscle pain were assessed directly after climbing.
Result: Heart rate (p=0.45, ηp²=0.12), blood lactate concentrations (p=0.44, ηp²=0.10), perceived exertion levels (p=0.51, ηp²=0.08) and pain perception (p=0.67, ηp²=0.03) were not affected by forearm compression. No condition × time interaction effect (compression × time) occurred for heart rate (p=0.66, ηp²=0.04), blood lactate concentration (p=0.70, ηp²=0.02), perceived exertion (p=0.20, ηp²=0.26) and pain perception (p=0.62, ηp²=0.04).
Conclusion: In elite climbers performing severe climbing bouts, sleeves with forearm compression do not alter blood lactate concentration, heart rate, perceived exertion and local forearm muscle pain.
... 4 The key to the research was the absence of a noticeable fatigue factor whilst wearing compression garments. 4 Evidence supporting the increase in blood flow for medical purposes 4,5,7 led to the assumption that compression garments may result in lower blood lactate levels during exercise. 3,7 Reductions of up to 20% in venous cross-sectional area supported postulation of an increase in blood flow velocity in superficial and deep venous systems. ...
... The effects of compression garments in assisting recovery have also been investigated. 5 Control groups perceived significantly more pain in daily tasks after exercise testing, in comparison to a group wearing compression sleeves. Despite muscle damage in both groups, the group wearing a compression sleeve incurred less muscular damage. ...
... Despite muscle damage in both groups, the group wearing a compression sleeve incurred less muscular damage. 5 Compression garments and their use in sport and exercise have increased exponentially. 1 To date, however, no evidence-based research supports the use of compression garments to enhance performance in movement during team sports. Therefore the purpose of this study was to examine effectiveness of compression garments on physiological and performance markers in a game-specific circuit for netball. ...
... The hypothesis of a positive, but not significant, influence of compression garments on EIMD attenuation was previously suggested (Davies, Thompson, & Cooper, 2009). After EIMD, significantly lower concentrations of CK were obtained in periods ranging from 24 to 120 h post-exercise when participants were wearing sleeves or whole-body compression garments (Kraemer et al., 2001a(Kraemer et al., , 2001b(Kraemer et al., , 2010. Positive results on CK response have also been showed in team sports players (Duffield & Portus, 2007). ...
... Moreover, wearing lower body compression garments during exercise and 24 h postexercise may have a moderate effect on GOT attenuation at 24 h post-exercise compared to control condition (ES = 0.58) (Duffield, Cannon, & King, 2010). Two main mechanisms have been proposed to explain this response: it is likely that a reduction in the structural damage associated with neutrophil infiltration and oedema explains the lower response of CK (the release of markers of damage are attenuated as a result of compression), and the greater venous return could improve the removal of myofibrillar proteins and other products due to the greater venous return (Kraemer et al., 2001a(Kraemer et al., , 2001bKraemer, French, & Spiering, 2004). ...
... Compression also facilitates lymphatic drainage, reduces fluids extravasation from the capillaries and improves fluid transport from muscle interstitium to blood circulation (Bovenschen, Booij, & Van der Vleuten, 2013;Kraemer et al., 2001aKraemer et al., , 2001b; so, it could reduce exercise-induced oedema by mechanically reducing the amount of space available for swelling and promoting stable alignment of muscle fibres subsequent to EIMD (French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al., 2001aKraemer et al., , 2010Kraemer et al., , 2004. Consequently, it has been suggested as a strategy to attenuate EIMD (Jakeman, Byrne, & Eston, 2010a;Kraemer et al., 2010). ...
There is not enough evidence of positive effects of compression therapy on the recovery of soccer players after matches. Therefore, the objective was to evaluate the influence of different types of compression garments in reducing exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) during recovery after a friendly soccer match. Eighteen semi-professional soccer players (24 ± 4.07 years, 177 ± 5 cm; 71.8 ± 6.28 kg and 22.73 ± 1.81 BMI) participated in this study. A two-stage crossover design was chosen. Participants acted as controls in one match and were assigned to an experimental group (compression stockings group, full-leg compression group, shorts group) in the other match. Participants in experimental groups played the match wearing the assigned compression garments, which were also worn in the 3 days post-match, for 7 h each day. Results showed a positive, but not significant, effect of compression garments on attenuating EIMD biomarkers response, and inflammatory and perceptual responses suggest that compression may improve physiological and psychological recovery.
... They have become a preferred treatment over mechanical and pharmacological methods because of their low cost and ease of use (1). Furthermore, compression garments have been demonstrated to accelerate the recovery of strength and power in athletes (24,27). Accordingly, the use of compression garments is becoming increasingly popular in sport. ...
... Similarly, compression garments had no significant effect on CMJ. Although this finding is in agreement with a number of studies that have assessed strength and power recovery after runningbased exercise (13,14,21), it is in marked contrast to a large body of data which suggest that compression may aid muscular recovery after muscle damage (5,20,24,25,27 (25,27). It is possible that these low circulating levels of CK can be explained by considering participant training status and familiarity with the exercise used. ...
... Similarly, compression garments had no significant effect on CMJ. Although this finding is in agreement with a number of studies that have assessed strength and power recovery after runningbased exercise (13,14,21), it is in marked contrast to a large body of data which suggest that compression may aid muscular recovery after muscle damage (5,20,24,25,27 (25,27). It is possible that these low circulating levels of CK can be explained by considering participant training status and familiarity with the exercise used. ...
The aim of this study was to examine the efficacy of lower limb compression garments on recovery in club level rugby players. Nineteen participants (age, 20.3 ± 1.7 years, height, 184.2 ± 7.5 cm and body mass, 89.5 ± 9.9 kg) completed a rugby specific, muscle damaging protocol before being assigned to a compression garment group (n = 10) or a SHAM ("recovery" drink) treatment (n = 9). The compression group wore the garments for 48 h post-exercise, while SHAM consumed a sweetened, low energy drink within an hour of protocol completion. Perceived muscle soreness (PMS), Creatine Kinase (CK), maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) and countermovement jump height (CMJ) were measured at baseline, post, 24 and 48 h post-exercise. Perceived muscle soreness was significantly lower in the compression group compared to SHAM at both 24 and 48 h post-exercise (p ≤ 0.05). The compression group was also subject to lower CK values than SHAM, as demonstrated by a significant time by group effect (p ≤ 0.05). There was no significant group effect for MVIC or CMJ (p > 0.05). Wearing compression garments following a rugby specific, muscle damaging protocol appears to reduce PMS and circulating concentrations of CK, suggesting improved recovery from muscle damaging exercise.
... In particular, the use of CG for recovery has been the subject of much speculation over the physiological mechanisms responsible [9,14]. Compression has been proposed to prevent performance deterioration and improve recovery by accelerating nutrient delivery [15,16] and metabolite removal [17,18], as well as by ameliorating post-exercise oedema, delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), and muscle damage [19]. More importantly, such physiological benefits to recovery are frequently observed alongside accelerated recovery of muscular power [20], strength [21,22] and endurance. ...
... As athletic performance is a composite of many physiological and psychological factors, it is possible that CG aid recovery on a number of levels. One of the most thoroughly investigated mechanisms for the benefits of CG [16,19,21] is the potential of such garments to minimize the symptoms of the exerciseinduced muscle damage (EIMD) that typically occurs as a result of unaccustomed or eccentric exercise [23]. Whilst eccentric exercise is beneficial for training power [24,25], strength and hypertrophy [26], such exercise is extremely damaging. ...
... Whilst eccentric exercise is beneficial for training power [24,25], strength and hypertrophy [26], such exercise is extremely damaging. Strength production may be impaired for up to 10 days [27,28], while EIMD is also associated with both swelling and DOMS, which typically peak between 36 and 48 h [19]. Furthermore, as any load-bearing exercise will induce EIMD because of the inherent eccentric nature of running [12], muscle damage is an inescapable part of training for the majority of athletes. ...
Background
Adequate recovery from exercise is essential to maintain performance throughout training and competition. While compression garments (CG) have been demonstrated to accelerate recovery, the literature is clouded by conflicting results and uncertainty over the optimal conditions of use. ObjectivesA meta-analysis was conducted to assess the effects of CG on the recovery of strength, power and endurance performance following an initial bout of resistance, running, or non-load-bearing endurance (metabolic) exercise. Methods
Change-score data were extracted from 23 peer-reviewed studies on healthy participants. Recovery was quantified by converting into standardized mean effect sizes (ES) [±95% confidence interval (CI)]. The effects of time (0–2, 2–8, 24, >24 h), pressure (<15 vs. ≥15 mmHg) and training status (trained vs. untrained) were also assessed. ResultsCG demonstrated small, very likely benefits [p < 0.001, ES = 0.38 (95% CI 0.25, 0.51)], which were not influenced by pressure (p = 0.06) or training status (p = 0.64). Strength recovery was subject to greater benefits than other outcomes [p < 0.001, ES = 0.62 (95% CI 0.39, 0.84)], displaying large, very likely benefits at 2–8 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.14 (95% CI 0.72, 1.56)] and >24 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.03 (95% CI 0.48, 1.57)]. Recovery from using CG was greatest following resistance exercise [p < 0.001, ES = 0.49 (95% CI 0.37, 0.61)], demonstrating the largest, very likely benefits at >24 h [p < 0.001, ES = 1.33 (95% CI 0.80, 1.85)]. Recovery from metabolic exercise (p = 0.01) was significant, although large, very likely benefits emerged only for cycling performance at 24 h post-exercise [p = 0.01, ES = 1.05 (95% CI 0.25, 1.85)]. Conclusion
The largest benefits resulting from CG were for strength recovery from 2 to 8 h and >24 h. Considering exercise modality, compression most effectively enhanced recovery from resistance exercise, particularly at time points >24 h. The use of CG would also be recommended to enhance next-day cycling performance. The benefits of CG in relation to applied pressures and participant training status are unclear and limited by the paucity of reported data.
... CG can also enhance recovery by acting on markers of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) such as preventing the temporary reduction in muscle strength, decreased rate of force development, or reduced range of motion (ROM) (Byrne et al., 2004;Cleak & Eston, 1992;Tee et al., 2007). Besides, they can decrease muscle soreness (MS) (Ali et al., 2007;Jakeman et al., 2010a;Kraemer et al, 2001aKraemer et al, , 2001bKraemer et al., 2010) and enhance the clearance of blood lactate ([La-] p ) (Chatard et al., 2004) and creatine kinase (CK-3) (Duffield & Portus, 2007;Gill et al., 2006;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b) following exercise. Nevertheless, others studies found no beneficial effect of CG on speed and explosive performance during recovery (Carling et al., 1995;French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al., 2010), ROM (French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b), MS (Carling et al., 1995;Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Trenell et al., 2006), or clearance of [La-] p (Duffield & Portus, 2007) and CK-3 (Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Jakeman et al., 2010a). ...
... CG can also enhance recovery by acting on markers of exercise-induced muscle damage (EIMD) such as preventing the temporary reduction in muscle strength, decreased rate of force development, or reduced range of motion (ROM) (Byrne et al., 2004;Cleak & Eston, 1992;Tee et al., 2007). Besides, they can decrease muscle soreness (MS) (Ali et al., 2007;Jakeman et al., 2010a;Kraemer et al, 2001aKraemer et al, , 2001bKraemer et al., 2010) and enhance the clearance of blood lactate ([La-] p ) (Chatard et al., 2004) and creatine kinase (CK-3) (Duffield & Portus, 2007;Gill et al., 2006;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b) following exercise. Nevertheless, others studies found no beneficial effect of CG on speed and explosive performance during recovery (Carling et al., 1995;French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al., 2010), ROM (French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b), MS (Carling et al., 1995;Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Trenell et al., 2006), or clearance of [La-] p (Duffield & Portus, 2007) and CK-3 (Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Jakeman et al., 2010a). ...
... Besides, they can decrease muscle soreness (MS) (Ali et al., 2007;Jakeman et al., 2010a;Kraemer et al, 2001aKraemer et al, , 2001bKraemer et al., 2010) and enhance the clearance of blood lactate ([La-] p ) (Chatard et al., 2004) and creatine kinase (CK-3) (Duffield & Portus, 2007;Gill et al., 2006;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b) following exercise. Nevertheless, others studies found no beneficial effect of CG on speed and explosive performance during recovery (Carling et al., 1995;French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al., 2010), ROM (French et al., 2008;Kraemer et al, 2001a;2001b), MS (Carling et al., 1995;Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Trenell et al., 2006), or clearance of [La-] p (Duffield & Portus, 2007) and CK-3 (Davies et al., 2009;French et al., 2008;Jakeman et al., 2010a). ...
Purpose:
The aim was to identify benefits of compression garments used for recovery of exercised-induced muscle damage.
Methods:
Computer-based literature research was performed in September 2015 using four online databases: Medline (PubMed), Cochrane, WOS (Web Of Science) and Scopus. The analysis of risk of bias was completed in accordance with the Cochrane Collaboration Guidelines. Mean differences and 95% confidence intervals were calculated with Hedges' g for continuous outcomes. A random effect meta-analysis model was used. Systematic differences (heterogeneity) were assessed with I(2) statistic.
Results:
Most results obtained had high heterogeneity, thus their interpretation should be careful. Our findings showed that creatine kinase (standard mean difference=-0.02, 9 studies) was unaffected when using compression garments for recovery purposes. In contrast, blood lactate concentration was increased (standard mean difference=0.98, 5 studies). Applying compression reduced lactate dehydrogenase (standard mean difference=-0.52, 2 studies), muscle swelling (standard mean difference=-0.73, 5 studies) and perceptual measurements (standard mean difference=-0.43, 15 studies). Analyses of power (standard mean difference=1.63, 5 studies) and strength (standard mean difference=1.18, 8 studies) indicate faster recovery of muscle function after exercise.
Conclusions:
These results suggest that the application of compression clothing may aid in the recovery of exercise induced muscle damage, although the findings need corroboration.
... However, the low studies' methodologic quality, risk of bias, and high heterogeneity widely reported in literature (2,31,41,72,79) need to be highlighted and new experimental studies with more robust methodologic procedures are needed. It is also important to note that physiologic assumptions suggested in literature (2,34,37,50,51,53,61,72,80,87,96) and some benefits in psychological and social aspects (i.e., athletes' well-being and motivation) (26,69,78,79,95,100) have justified the high frequency of use reported postmatch for these recovery methods (5,33,78,100). For instance, athletes and coaches have alluded that applying recovery methods usually offers immediate well-being benefits and configures opportunities to reflect, talk with other athletes and coaches, and correct some aspects of the previous match (26,69,78,79,95,100). Thus, the implementation of recovery methods with limited benefits in the recovery of objective parameters, (e.g., active recovery, stretching, and electrostimulation) should not be discharged. ...
... The high heterogeneity between studies because of the different protocols used (i.e., pressures and type of wear) may justify this controversy. According to Hill et al. (43) the recovery of physical and physiologic parameters may only be observed when applying higher pressures (i.e., at least 14.8 mm Hg in the mid-thigh and 24.3 mm Hg in the calf), that can favor the attenuation of edema, increase of soft tissues stabilization, and increase muscle activation (50,51). However, the recovery of perceptive parameters after the match is unequivocally benefited by the use of compression garments (31,42,43,64,72). ...
Several recovery methods have been proposed to optimize postmatch recovery in elite soccer. However, practical guidance for the implementation of recovery methods that somehow confer benefits on the recovery process immediately postmatch (MD), 1 day postmatch (MD + 1), and 2 days postmatch (MD + 2) is lacking. This article aimed to review the existing literature and provide a practical guide for sports scientists, coaches, clinicians, and players concerning implementing the most-used recovery methods after male and female soccer matches. For this purpose, we first presented a general 5-level recovery model that divides the recovery methods according to their relevance in recovery, based on their effectiveness in recovery, frequency of use, and reported detrimental effects. In addition, practical recommendations were provided for implementing each recovery method following two days post-match according to the recovery of various parameters (i.e., physical, physiologic, and perceptual) and physiologic and psychosocial assumptions. It was concluded that the application of recovery methods should be prioritized, periodized, and individualized over the recovery period postmatch. In addition, some recovery methods with limited effectiveness in postmatch recovery should be recommended based on physiologic assumptions and potential psychosocial benefits.
... It was considered mechanical methods the foam roller, compression, massage, stretching, and active exercise. All five studies that investigated this method found significant effects (Akinci et al., 2020;Macdonald et al., 2014;Naderi et (Jakeman et al., 2010a(Jakeman et al., , 2010bKraemer et al., 2001;Prill et al., 2019) while five studies did not reveal differences (Carling et al., 1995;Ferguson et al., 2014;Hill et al., 2017;Hoffman et al., 2016;Northey et al., 2016). Regarding massage, 14 studies reported significant outcomes (Andersen et al., 2013;Frey et al., 2008;Hilbert et al., 2003;Hoffman et al., 2016;Imtiyaz et al., 2014;Jakeman et al., 2010aJakeman et al., , 2010bJay et al., 2014;Kargarfard et al., 2016;Smith et al., 1994;Tiidus & Shoemaker, 1995 (Changa et al., 2020;Fuller et al., 2015;Hart et al., 2005;Howatson & Van Someren, 2003;Kong et al., 2018;Lightfoot et al., 1997;Visconti et al., 2020;Weber et al., 1994). ...
... The methodological evaluation of the quality of the studies has yielded an average of 4.7 points on the PEDro scale. Sixteen studies were considered "high quality" (Aaron et al., 2017;Aytar et al., 2008;Chang et al., 2019;Craig et al., 1999b;de Paiva et al., 2016;Ferreira-Junior et al., 2015;Fleckenstein et al., 2016Fleckenstein et al., , 2017 R.L. Nahon, J.S. Silva A. Monteiro de Magalhães Neto Physical Therapy in Sport 52 (2021) 1e12 et al., 2002;Mikesky & Hayden, 2005;Selkow et al., 2015;Sellwood et al., 2007;Vinck et al., 2006); 42 studies were considered "moderate quality" (Adamczyk et al., 2016;Andersen et al., 2013;Butterfield et al., 1997;Changa et al., 2020;Craig et al., 1996b;Curtis et al., 2010;Doungkulsa et al., 2018;Elias et al., 2012;Glasgow et al., 2014;Guilhem et al., 2013;Hart et al., 2005;Hasson et al., 1990;Hazar Kanik et al., 2019;Hoffman et al., 2016;Howatson et al., 2008;Jayaraman et al., 2004;Jeon et al., 2015;Johar et al., 2012;Kirmizigil et al., 2019;Kong et al., 2018;Law & Herbert, 2007;Leeder et al., 2015;Macdonald et al., 2014;Machado et al., 2017;Malmir et al., 2017;McLoughlin et al., 2004;Micheletti et al., 2019;Naderi et al., 2020;Paddon-Jones & Quigley, 1997;Rey et al., 2012;Rocha et al., 2012;Romero-Moraleda et al., 2019;Siqueira et al., 2018;Smith et al., 1994;Tourville et al., 2006;Wang et al., 2006;Weber et al., 1994;Wiewelhove et al., 2018;Xie et al., 2018;Zebrowska et al., 2019;Zhang et al., 2000) and 63 studies were considered "low quality" (Akinci et al., 2020;Behringer et al., 2018;Boobphachart et al., 2017;Carling et al., 1995;Ferguson et al., 2014;Haksever et al., 2016;Hill et al., 2017;Imtiyaz et al., 2014;Jakeman et al., 2010aJakeman et al., , 2010bKraemer et al., 2001;Lau & Nosaka, 2011;Northey et al., 2016;Ozmen et al., 2017;Pearcey et al., 2015;Prill et al., 2019;Rhea et al., 2009;Timon et al., 2016;Vaile et al., 2007Vaile et al., , 2008Visconti et al., 2020;Wheeler & Jacobson, 2013) , (Ascensão et al., 2011;Hassan, 2011;Hilbert et al., 2003;Howatson & Van Someren, 2003;Jajtner et al., 2015;Kargarfard et al., 2016;Lightfoot et al., 1997;Marquet et al., 2015;Micklewright, 2009;Tiidus & Shoemaker, 1995;Torres et al., 2013;Weber et al., 1994;Wessel & Wan, 1994;Xiong et al., 2009;Zainuddin et al., 2005) , (Abaïdia et al., 2017;Barlas et al., 2000;Cardoso et al., 2020;Craig et al., 1996aCraig et al., , 1999aHowatson et al., 2005;Itoh et al., 2008;Mankovsky-Arnold et al., 2013;Minder et al., 2002;Parker & Madden, 2014;Petrofsky et al., 2012;Plaskett et al., 1999;Shankar et al., 2006;Taylor et al., 2015;Tseng et al., 2013;Tufano et al., 2012;Vanderthommen et al., 2007;Zainuddin et al., 2006) (See details in Appendix 3). The overall analysis results showed that there was "low quality evidence" (according to GRADE classification). ...
Objective
To evaluate the impact of interventions on pain associated with DOMS.
Data sources
PubMed, EMBASE, PEDro, Cochrane, and Scielo databases were searched, from the oldest records until May/2020. Search terms used included combinations of keywords related to “DOMS” and “intervention therapy”.
Eligibility criteria
Healthy participants (no restrictions were applied, e.g., age, sex, and exercise level). To be included, studies should be: 1) Randomized clinical trial; 2) Having induced muscle damage and subsequently measuring the level of pain; 3) To have applied therapeutic interventions (nonpharmacological or nutritional) and compare with a control group that received no intervention; and 4) The first application of the intervention had to occur immediately after muscle damage had been induced.
Results
One hundred and twenty-one studies were included. The results revealed that the contrast techniques (p = 0,002 I² = 60 %), cryotherapy (p = 0,002 I² = 100 %), phototherapy (p = 0,0001 I² = 95 %), vibration (p = 0,004 I² = 96 %), ultrasound (p = 0,02 I² = 97 %), massage (p < 0,00001 I² = 94 %), active exercise (p = 0,0004 I² = 93 %) and compression (p = 0,002 I² = 93 %) have a better positive effect than the control in the management of DOMS.
Conclusion
Low quality evidence suggests that contrast, cryotherapy, phototherapy, vibration, ultrasound, massage, and active exercise have beneficial effects in the management of DOMS-related pain.
... Using graduated lower extremity CGs with a degrading pressure from distal to proximal parts of this extremity increases venous flow velocity, reduces venous wall distension, improves valvular function, and stimulates lymphatic outflow [3]. Consequently, using graduated CGs diminishes venous hypertension and symptoms of the swollen extremity and improves venous hemodynamics of the affected extremity [3,4]. Ultimately, the degrading pressure helps the venous blood to return to the heart [5]. ...
... Other studies reported similar findings [6,38]. These findings might be explained by increased venous flow velocity and lymphatic outflow due to CG use [4,7]. An increased venous flow velocity and lymphatic outflow might aid in the clearance of CK and lactate. ...
Background
Studies on the benefits of lower extremity compression garments (CGs) have focused on their effects on post-exercise recovery and performance improvement. Less is known about why athletes actually use CGs, the frequency with which they use them, and perceived benefits from using CGs. The purpose of this study was to investigate which athletes use CGs, why athletes use CGs, when CGs are worn by athletes, and, in case of an injury or injury prevention, for which injuries CGs are used.
Methods
This cross-sectional study involved 512 athletes who used lower extremity CGs. Athletes completed a questionnaire on the type of CGs they used, and when and why they used them. They also reported their sports participation, past and current sports injuries, and the perceived benefits of using CGs.
Results
88.1% ( n =451) of the athletes were endurance athletes and 11.9% ( n =61) were non-endurance athletes. Endurance and non-endurance athletes reported running (84.7%, n =382) and obstacle course racing (24.6%, n =15) the most frequently as primary sports, respectively. The most-used CG was the compression sock (59.2%, n =303). In total, 47.5% ( n =246) of the athletes used a CG primarily to prevent re-injury and 14.5% ( n =74) to reduce symptoms of a current sports injury. Other primary reported aims were primary prevention (13.6%), post-exercise recovery (14.3%), sports performance improvement (8.8%), and to look good (0.2%). The point prevalence of past and current sports injuries among all athletes was 84.2 and 20.2%, respectively. The most common current sports injuries were shin and calf injuries. Many athletes “always” or “often” used their CGs during training (56.8%, n =279) and competitions (72.9%, n =264). Furthermore, almost 90% of the athletes that aimed to prevent re-injury by using CGs reported that CGs contributed to secondary injury prevention.
Conclusion
88% of the CG-users were endurance athletes, of which 85% were runners. All athletes mainly used CGs to prevent injury recurrence, but also to reduce symptoms of a current sports injury. A majority of the athletes reported positive perceived effects from the CGs. CGs were used more during than after sports participation.
... The study aimed to verify the acute effects of compression socks during a physical exercise session on performance markers and found that when subjects used the socks, they showed lower concentrations of blood lactate, suggesting faster muscle recovery (Berry & McMurray, 1987). The authors hypothesized that the positive action was because the compression socks strengthen the action of the muscular pump on the back of the legs increasing the return of the venous blood to the heart, producing indirect benefits on the levels of lactate post-activity and reduction of trauma (Kraemer et al., 1998;Kraemer et al., 2001). ...
... In addition, Duffield & Portus (2007) reported a reduction in CK values 24 hours after repeated sprints, but not in performance measures 24 hours after the exercise. Therefore, compression is likely to reduce swelling and limit the acute inflammatory response leading to increased muscle damage (Kraemer et al., 2001). However, Duffiel & Portus (2007) reported that, despite controlling exercise variables in the 24 hours post-intervention, fluid and food intake were not controlled, which may have interfered in the results. ...
The study aimed to review the literature on the effects related to post-exercise of graduated compression garments (GCGs) use on muscle recovery and delayed onset muscle soreness. The search was performed in Pubmed/Medline, Bireme, Scielo, and Lilacs electronic databases using the following descriptors in English: "compression clothing", "physical exercise", "recovery", "physical activity", "compression stockings" and "delayed onset muscle soreness". The search resulted in 102 articles and after removing duplicates, applying exclusion criteria and checking the reference lists, nine studies fulfilled the criteria and were included in the review. Seven studies associated the use of GCGs with reduction of delayed muscle soreness and improvement in performance after the use of compression clothes. However, the methodological quality of the studies, using PEDro scale, presented an average of 5.1±0.9 points (out of a total of 11 points), classified as intermediate. In conclusion, although the positive effects of using CGCs on improving recovery and reduction of delayed muscle soreness after physical exercises are almost consensual, the insufficient methodological quality of the included studies requires careful consideration of the results.
... For example, Jakeman et al. [13] reported reduced soreness in the compressed leg from plyometric jumping exercises. Decreased perceptions of soreness at 72 and 96 hr post eccentrically induced muscle damage were reported in upper extremity muscles [14,22]. Davies et al [23] reported reductions in perceived muscle soreness 48 hr after maximal drop jumps. ...
... However, it is possible that wearing graduated compression garments during eccentric exercise may have influenced the damaging effect of eccentric contractions and reduced the impact of events that may lead to delayed onset muscle soreness such as the inflammatory response. Mechanical support afforded by compressive clothing may also have promoted stable alignment of muscle fibres [22]. Doan et al. [27] also propose that a reduction in oscillatory displacement of the muscle may occur potentially reducing the damaging effect of the eccentric contractions during downhill running. ...
... Thus, the present findings from the 2 experiments suggest that the efficacy of wearing a CG on recovery is dependent on the magnitude of EIMD. The underlying mechanism of the improvement of exercise performance by the use of a CG is suggested to be sustained external compression, which reduces venous blood pooling and subsequent swelling of muscles [29]. Augmented blood volume around damaged muscles also results in increased removal of intramuscular metabolites, consequently reduces the inflammatory cytokine productions and the subjective muscle soreness. ...
... Augmented blood volume around damaged muscles also results in increased removal of intramuscular metabolites, consequently reduces the inflammatory cytokine productions and the subjective muscle soreness. Kraemer et al. [29] also pointed out that the "dynamic casting" effect by external pressure attenuated muscle fiber oscillation and resulted in stable alignment of muscle fibers, leading to faster recovery of contractile components and excitation-contraction coupling processes. Furthermore, these stabilized effects may also attenuate inflammatory responses and progress of secondary muscle damage generally observed after 24 h following exercise. ...
... Thus, the present findings from the 2 experiments suggest that the efficacy of wearing a CG on recovery is dependent on the magnitude of EIMD. The underlying mechanism of the improvement of exercise performance by the use of a CG is suggested to be sustained external compression, which reduces venous blood pooling and subsequent swelling of muscles [29]. Augmented blood volume around damaged muscles also results in increased removal of intramuscular metabolites, consequently reduces the inflammatory cytokine productions and the subjective muscle soreness. ...
... Augmented blood volume around damaged muscles also results in increased removal of intramuscular metabolites, consequently reduces the inflammatory cytokine productions and the subjective muscle soreness. Kraemer et al. [29] also pointed out that the "dynamic casting" effect by external pressure attenuated muscle fiber oscillation and resulted in stable alignment of muscle fibers, leading to faster recovery of contractile components and excitation-contraction coupling processes. Furthermore, these stabilized effects may also attenuate inflammatory responses and progress of secondary muscle damage generally observed after 24 h following exercise. ...
The present study examined the effects of wearing a lower-body compression garment (CG) after endurance exercise on recovery of physiological function. 18 males were divided into 2 experiments, the downhill running (n=10, DHR) experiments and the level running (n=8, LR) experiments. Subjects performed 30 min of DHR (gradient: - 10%) or LR (gradient: 0%) at 70% of ˙VO2max with either wearing a CG (CG trial) or normal garment (CON trial) for 24 h after running. Changes in jump performance (counter movement jump; CMJ, rebound jump; RJ, drop jump; DJ), subjective feelings, circumferences of leg, and blood variables (creatine kinase, myoglobin, interleukin-6, high-sensitivity C-reactive protein) were evaluated before exercise, immediately after exercise, 1, 3 and 24 h following exercise. Running economy was evaluated at 24 h following exercise. CMJ height and RJ index were significantly higher in the CG trial than in the CON trial 24 h after running (P<0.05). Although changes in muscle soreness and blood variables were significantly greater in the DHR experiment than in the LR experiment, there was no significant difference between the trials in either experiment. Wearing a CG following endurance exercise facilitated recovery of jump performance under situations with severe exercise-induced muscle damage.
© Georg Thieme Verlag KG Stuttgart · New York.
... From a physiological point of view and depending on the duration and environmental conditions, performance during running is determined mainly (although not exclusively) by the athlete's peak oxygen uptake, fractional utilization of VO 2peak , velocity at the lactate threshold, running economy (including biomechanical factors [48], and heat exchange processes [49]). Other physiological mechanisms of relevance in this context include enhanced hemodynamics, i.e., elevated venous return [50,51], arterial inflow [52], and lymphatic outflow [53]. Since our statistical analysis revealed that the ES between compression and non-compression running for peak oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake, and blood lactate was trivial, a runner will most probably not benefit from compression in these respects. ...
... In contrast to performance and physio-biomechanics, compression appears to exert positive effects on the psychological parameters examined, i.e., a small positive effect on perceived exertion [1-3, 7, 13, 18-20, 23-26, 42, 44-46], as well as a large positive effect regarding leg soreness [2,5,14,19,20,22,23,26,47] both during running and recovery. As described previously [29], this psychological improvement may be a result of (1) attenuated oscillatory displacement of the leg muscles [57,58], (2) a reduction in the number of muscle fibers recruited [59], (3) less structural damage to muscles [47,60], and/or (4) improved lymphatic outflow leading to less muscle swelling and, thereby, greater comfort [53]. Since it is difficult to design an appropriate placebo condition for wearing compression garments, the possibility that the improvement in psychological parameters is influenced by more positive perceptions and the participants' intuitions concerning the results to be expected cannot be excluded. ...
Athletes specializing in different endurance sports at various levels of
performance wear compression garments to improve their performance and facilitate
recovery. The purpose of this chapter is outline the effects of compression
garments on performance and recovery in endurance disciplines. A computerized
research of the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web
of Science (performed in December 2015) and articles published in peer-reviewed
journals were analyzed. Studies examining effects on performance, recovery,
physiological, and/or psychological parameters during or after endurance sports
comparing experimental (compression) and control (non-compression) trials were
investigated. A total of 55 articles involving 788 participants were included.
Compression garments exerted no significant improvements on performance in
running (400 m–42.195 km), triathlon, ice speed skating, cross country skiing, and
kayaking. Maximal and submaximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentrations,
blood gas analysis, cardiac parameters, and body temperature were not altered in
most of the considered studies during endurance exercise. Also in most studies,
perceived exertion as well as perceived temperature were not affected by compression.
Compression clothing significantly increased cycling performance, post
exercise blood lactate elimination and reductions in blood lactate concentration
during running, cycling, and cross country skiing. Three studies observed improved
muscular oxygenation following and during endurance exercise. Furthermore,
compression garments reduced post-exercise muscle soreness following running
and cycling in eight studies. We conclude that compression clothing has no significant impact on performance parameters during running, ice speed skating,
triathlon, cross country skiing and kayaking. The wearing of compression clothing
might improve cycling performance, reduce post-exercise muscle pain following
running and cycling, and facilitate lactate elimination during recovery.
... reduced presynaptic inhibition) (Perlau et al. 1995;Bernhardt and Anderson 2005) and enhanced coordinative function (Birmingham et al. 1998). During recovery improved hemodynamics (venous return) (Ibegbuna et al. 2003;Lawrence and Kakkar 1980); arterial inflow (Bochmann et al. 2005) and lymphatic outflow (Kraemer et al. 2001) are thought to accelerate removal of metabolic waste products and reduce edema (Hirai et al. 2002;Partsch et al. 2008;Bovenschen et al. 2013). The improved perception by wearing compression clothing Cipriani et al. 2014) increases the general comfort during exercise and reduces perceived exertion Rugg and Sternlicht 2013). ...
... This indicates a possible benefit of compression garments for running competitions taking place for multiple days and containing amounts of eccentric muscle contractions during downhill sections like in trail run events. Furthermore, the positive impact of compression clothing on perceived post exercise muscle pain may be caused by the external pressure gradient which reduces the space for swelling (Davies et al. 2009;Kraemer et al. 2004), diminishes structural damage to the muscles ) and facilitates clearance of metabolites through improved blood flow (Davies et al. 2009) and lymphatic outflow (Kraemer et al. 2001). Additionally, the analytical review by Hill et al. (2014a) found moderate effect size values for reductions in post-exercise levels of creatine kinase and delayed onset muscle soreness, but their investigation involved vertical jumping, repeated sprinting and resistance training, rather than running. ...
This book presents recent research addressing the effects of different types of compression clothing on sport performance and recovery after exercise. It is also the first book that summarizes the effects of compression clothing on all main motor abilities in the context of various sports, offering a wealth of practical guidelines on how to optimize performance and recovery with the help of compression clothing. The book examines the effects of this clothing on physiological, psychological and biomechanical parameters including endurance, speed, strength, power, and motor control. It explains the basic principles involved in the reasonable application of compression garments in connection with different kinds of exercise, and describes the essential mechanisms of how compression garments work in a reader-friendly format that addresses the needs of researchers, athletes and coaches alike. © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016. All rights reserved.
... From a physiological point of view and depending on the duration and environmental conditions, performance during running is determined mainly (although not exclusively) by the athlete's peak oxygen uptake, fractional utilization of VO 2peak , velocity at the lactate threshold, running economy (including biomechanical factors [48], and heat exchange processes [49]). Other physiological mechanisms of relevance in this context include enhanced hemodynamics, i.e., elevated venous return [50,51], arterial inflow [52], and lymphatic outflow [53]. Since our statistical analysis revealed that the ES between compression and non-compression running for peak oxygen uptake, oxygen uptake, and blood lactate was trivial, a runner will most probably not benefit from compression in these respects. ...
... In contrast to performance and physio-biomechanics, compression appears to exert positive effects on the psychological parameters examined, i.e., a small positive effect on perceived exertion [1-3, 7, 13, 18-20, 23-26, 42, 44-46], as well as a large positive effect regarding leg soreness [2,5,14,19,20,22,23,26,47] both during running and recovery. As described previously [29], this psychological improvement may be a result of (1) attenuated oscillatory displacement of the leg muscles [57,58], (2) a reduction in the number of muscle fibers recruited [59], (3) less structural damage to muscles [47,60], and/or (4) improved lymphatic outflow leading to less muscle swelling and, thereby, greater comfort [53]. Since it is difficult to design an appropriate placebo condition for wearing compression garments, the possibility that the improvement in psychological parameters is influenced by more positive perceptions and the participants' intuitions concerning the results to be expected cannot be excluded. ...
Background
Runners at various levels of performance and specializing in different events (from 800 m to marathons) wear compression socks, sleeves, shorts, and/or tights in attempt to improve their performance and facilitate recovery. Recently, a number of publications reporting contradictory results with regard to the influence of compression garments in this context have appeared.
Objectives
To assess original research on the effects of compression clothing (socks, calf sleeves, shorts, and tights) on running performance and recovery.
Method
A computerized research of the electronic databases PubMed, MEDLINE, SPORTDiscus, and Web of Science was performed in September of 2015, and the relevant articles published in peer-reviewed journals were thus identified rated using the Physiotherapy Evidence Database (PEDro) Scale. Studies examining effects on physiological, psychological, and/or biomechanical parameters during or after running were included, and means and measures of variability for the outcome employed to calculate Hedges’g effect size and associated 95 % confidence intervals for comparison of experimental (compression) and control (non-compression) trials.
Results
Compression garments exerted no statistically significant mean effects on running performance (times for a (half) marathon, 15-km trail running, 5- and 10-km runs, and 400-m sprint), maximal and submaximal oxygen uptake, blood lactate concentrations, blood gas kinetics, cardiac parameters (including heart rate, cardiac output, cardiac index, and stroke volume), body and perceived temperature, or the performance of strength-related tasks after running. Small positive effect sizes were calculated for the time to exhaustion (in incremental or step tests), running economy (including biomechanical variables), clearance of blood lactate, perceived exertion, maximal voluntary isometric contraction and peak leg muscle power immediately after running, and markers of muscle damage and inflammation. The body core temperature was moderately affected by compression, while the effect size values for post-exercise leg soreness and the delay in onset of muscle fatigue indicated large positive effects.
Conclusion
Our present findings suggest that by wearing compression clothing, runners may improve variables related to endurance performance (i.e., time to exhaustion) slightly, due to improvements in running economy, biomechanical variables, perception, and muscle temperature. They should also benefit from reduced muscle pain, damage, and inflammation.
... According to Hill et al. 95 the recovery of physical and physiological parameters may only be observed when applying higher pressures (i.e., at least 14.8 mmHg in the mid-thigh and 24.3 mmHg in the calf), that can favor the attenuation of edema, increase of soft tissues stabilization, and increase the muscle activation. 96,97 On the other hand, the recovery of perceptive parameters after harmful exercise is unequivocally benefited by the use of compression garments. 4,6,11,92,95 The overall recovery seems to be higher when compression garments are custom made for the individual's size, and using a specific pressure of 20 mmHg in the mid-thigh and 30-35 mmHg in the ankle. ...
A adoção de métodos de recuperação tem sido comum no futebol mas a literatura é escassa no que respeita à frequência de utilização, à eficácia na recuperação, ao modo de implementação após o jogo e às recomendações metodológicas.
A presente tese teve como objetivos: i) desenvolver e validar um questionário em língua portuguesa sobre os métodos de recuperação utilizados no futebol; ii) caracterizar as práticas de recuperação adotadas nas 72 horas seguintes ao jogo de futebol; iii) examinar a eficácia dos métodos de recuperação em parâmetros físicos, fisiológicos e percetivos; iv) identificar os modos de aplicação dos métodos de recuperação no final do jogo de futebol, no dia após e dois dias após o jogo.
Para estes propósitos, foram realizados quatro estudos. O ESTUDO 1 consistiu na conceção e validação de um questionário sobre os métodos de recuperação no futebol de elite. O ESTUDO 2 consistiu na aplicação do questionário a equipas de futebol de elite em Portugal. O ESTUDO 3 reviu de forma sistemática a literatura, atribuindo graus de recomendação aos cinco métodos de recuperação mais utilizados no futebol. O ESTUDO 4 apresentou um modelo de priorização, periodização e individualização dos métodos de recuperação após o jogo. Concluiu-se que a frequência de utilização dos métodos de recuperação varia em função do período de recuperação e do local do jogo. Apenas a imersão em água fria, a massagem e o vestuário de compressão apresentam eficácia na recuperação de parâmetros percetivos, sendo que a recuperação dos parâmetros físicos e fisiológicos carece de evidência científica. Desenvolveu-se então um modelo de aplicação prática dos métodos de recuperação após o jogo. Futuras propostas de recuperação assim como estudos com maior qualidade metodológica são necessários de forma a aumentar a eficácia da recuperação após o jogo de futebol, em particular a nível físico e fisiológico.
... With respect to physiology, CGs have effects on strength promotion, power recovery and reduction of delayed onset of muscle soreness (DOMS) (Bottaro et al., 2011;deGlanville and Hamlin, 2012;Goto and Morishima, 2014;Molly and Shelby, 2018). Furthermore, CGs promote the recovery of exerciseinduced muscle damage (Kraemer et al., 2001;Arbabi, 2015), reduced lactate (Duffield et al., 2010;Saulo et al., 2015) and increased tissue saturation (Dermont et al., 2015). Despite the inconsistent results (Bringard et al., 2006;Stickford et al., 2015) regarding the effects of CGs on fatigue performance and economy of motion, this may be caused by the heterogeneity of the test procedures, e.g., the difference of types and levels of compression (Pérez et al., 2019). ...
Nowadays, compression garments (CGs) are widely used in winter racing sports, such as speed skating, short-track speed skating, alpine skiing, and cross-country skiing. However, the effect of wearing CGs on athletic performance in these specific sports is still not fully examined. Thus, the aim of this narrative review is to summarize the research and application of CGs in winter racing sports and to discuss how the CGs help athletes improve their performance in an integrative manner (i.e., physiology, aerodynamics, and biomechanics). A total of 18 experimental studies dedicated to CGs in winter racing sports were identified from the peer-review scientific literature. The main findings are as follows. 1) Currently, CG studies have mainly focused on drag reduction, metabolism, muscle function, strength performance, and fatigue recovery. 2) The results of most studies conducted in wind tunnels showed that, for cylindrical structures similar to the human body, clothing with rough surfaces can reduce air drag. Notably, the effect of CGs on drag reduction in real competition has not been fully explored in the literature. 3) Compression can reduce muscle vibrations at high impact and help athletes control the center of pressure movement, a function that is important for alpine skiing. Future studies are needed to improve current understanding of the effects of compression clothing microstructure on drag reduction and their stretching in different parts of the body. Furthermore, the design of experimental protocol must be consistent with those during the competition, thus providing a full discussion on energy metabolism, fatigue, and recovery affected by CGs.
... Most modalities currently used to aid recovery are ineffective at enhancing the rate at which DOMS symptoms abate, while also potentially hindering recovery and limiting exercise adaptations [20,[32][33][34]. Studies demonstrating the efficacy of various recovery techniques are often limited by the use of non-athlete participants [20,[34][35][36][37]. These studies also frequently lack an appropriate placebo control [23,25,36], which limits the interpretability of observations [38]. ...
Purpose
Many endurance athletes use foam rolling (FR) to decrease muscle soreness, but it is unclear whether FR effectively treats soreness in this population. Moreover, the effects of FR in highly trained runners are unknown. The aim of this study was to use downhill running (DHR) to induce muscle soreness in runners and to determine the influence of FR on soreness and running performance when compared to sham compression tights.
Methods
Participants performed a running economy (RE) test at 75% of 5-km race speed and a 3-km time trial (TT). In a crossover design, subjects then completed DHR followed by either a FR protocol or wearing sham compression tights. Two days post-DHR, subjects repeated the RE and TT tests. Crossover visits occurred 2–4 weeks later. During RE tests, VO2 and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) were recorded. Passive and active soreness were measured on a scale of 0 (no soreness) to 10 (extreme soreness).
Results
Eight runners (aged 31 ± 7 years; four females; VO2peak 57 ± 7 ml kg⁻¹ min⁻¹) completed the study. Both treatment conditions experienced passive (p = 0.026) and active soreness (p = 0.012) induced by DHR. Active soreness 2 days post-DHR was significantly lower after FR than after sham compression tights (p = 0.025). With tights, there was a trend for an increased RPE compared to pre-DHR (p = 0.056).
Conclusions
Foam rolling decreases leg soreness in well-trained runners and attenuates soreness-related increases in perceived exertion during sub-maximal running.
... Another viewpoint is that wearing compression sportswear is not helpful for enhancing sprint or throwing a performance, but could be beneficial to reduce post-exercise trauma, swelling, and perceived muscle soreness, and accelerate the recovery of force production [7,[50][51][52][53]. Different conclusions on the effects of wearing compression sportswear may be related to the types of activities and sportswear and the individual differences. ...
Compression garments are elastic clothing with an engineered compression gradient that can be worn on limbs, upper, lower, or full body to use for therapy and sports. This article presents an overview and review on the compression garments and concentrates on the design of compression garments with an appropriate pressure for specific applications. It covers the types of compression garments, fibers and yarns, knitted fabric construction, garment design, an evaluation system, and pressure measurement and modeling. The material properties, fabric properties, pressure modeling, and the garment design system presents the prediction, design, and fabrication of the compression garments. Lastly, the research status and directions are discussed.
... It has been shown that wearing a whole-body compression garment over a 24-h period after intense heavy resistance training significantly reduces perceived fatigue (Kraemer et al., 2010). The beneficial effect of compression garments on DOMS and perceived fatigue might be explained by a possible reduction in the space available for swelling and oedema due to the compression applied to the limb, smaller changes in osmotic pressure that might diminish fluid diffusion in the interstitial space and better venous return (Kraemer et al., 2001). ...
For the full text of this work, please follow the link: https://doi.org/10.3389/fphys.2018.00403
Introduction: The aim of the present work was to perform a meta-analysis evaluating the impact of recovery techniques on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), perceived fatigue, muscle damage, and inflammatory markers after physical exercise. Method: Three databases including PubMed, Embase, and Web-of-Science were searched using the following terms: (“recovery” or “active recovery” or “cooling” or “massage” or “compression garment” or “electrostimulation” or “stretching” or “immersion” or “cryotherapy”) and (“DOMS” or “perceived fatigue” or “CK” or “CRP” or “IL-6”) and (“after exercise” or “post-exercise”) for randomized controlled trials, crossover trials, and repeated-measure studies. Overall, 99 studies were included. Results: Active recovery, massage, compression garments, immersion, contrast water therapy, and cryotherapy induced a small to large decrease (−2.26 < g < −0.40) in the magnitude of DOMS, while there was no change for the other methods. Massage was found to be the most powerful technique for recovering from DOMS and fatigue. In terms of muscle damage and inflammatory markers, we observed an overall moderate decrease in creatine kinase [SMD (95% CI) = −0.37 (−0.58 to −0.16), I2 = 40.15%] and overall small decreases in interleukin-6 [SMD (95% CI) = −0.36 (−0.60 to −0.12), I2 = 0%] and C-reactive protein [SMD (95% CI) = −0.38 (−0.59 to−0.14), I2 = 39%]. The most powerful techniques for reducing inflammation were massage and cold exposure. Conclusion: Massage seems to be the most effective method for reducing DOMS and perceived fatigue. Perceived fatigue can be effectively managed using compression techniques, such as compression garments, massage, or water immersion.
... And while beyond the scope of this study, it points to an attractive hypothesis that cooling with is perceptual analgesic effects concomitant with an effective amount of compression might mediate the outcomes we observed with this combination technology. Interestingly, when compression is used alone in a damage model, initial 24 to 48 hour measurements show significantly elevated pain scores (Kraemer et al., 2001a;2001b). This is thought to occur due inhibition by the mechanical compression of swelling in the muscle resulting in pushing fluid into the vascular beds to protect sarcolemma membrane integrity (i.e., less muscle fiber damage). ...
Compression and cold therapy used separately have shown to reduce negative effects of tissue damage. The combining compression and cold therapy (cryocompression) as a single recovery modality has yet to be fully examined. To examine the effects of cryocompression on recovery following a bout of heavy resistance exercise, recreationally resistance trained men (n =16) were recruited, matched, and randomly assigned to either a cryocompression group (CRC) or control group (CON). Testing was performed before and then immediately after exercise, 60 minutes, 24 hours, and 48 hours after a heavy resistance exercise workout (barbell back squats for 4 sets of 6 reps at 80% 1RM, 90 sec rest between sets, stiff legged deadlifts for 4 sets of 8 reps at 1.0 X body mass with 60 sec rest between sets, 4 sets of 10 eccentric Nordic hamstring curls, 45 sec rest between sets). The CRC group used the CRC system for 20-mins of cryocompression treatment immediately after exercise, 24 hours, and 48 hours after exercise. CON sat quietly for 20-mins at the same time points. Muscle damage [creatine kinase], soreness (visual analog scale, 0-100), pain (McGill Pain Q, 0-5), fatigue, sleep quality, and jump power were significantly (p < 0.05) improved for CRC compared to CON at 24 and 48 hours after exercise. Pain was also significantly lower for CRC compared to CON at 60-mins post exercise. These findings show that cryocompression can enhance recovery and performance following a heavy resistance exercise workout.
... during recovery, compression seems to attenuate strength decrements by reducing the number of muscle fibers affected by eiMd, promote better recovery of the membrane structure and a more stable alignment of muscle fibers (dynamic casting), reduce certain movement of the tissues, offer "dynamic immobilization," and reduce swelling and delayed onset of muscle soreness (doMS). 11,[35][36][37] These factors may facilitate the functional recovery of the muscle and could explain the disturbances observed, but some other mechanisms might be responsible for the attenuation of the performance decrements. 35 40,45 however, eS show that the relative performance impairment is lower using stockings and full-leg garments than compression shorts. in athletes with eiMd, agility test performance is negatively affected by alterations in the stretch-shortening cycle, because of increased knee stiffness and a central inhibition in strength by neural mechanisms. ...
BACKGROUND:
There is not enough information on the effects of compression therapy in soccer players during recovery after matches. So the objective of this study was to examine the effect of wearing compression garments during soccer matches and during recovery period on physical responses.
METHODS:
Eighteen semi-professional soccer players participated in this study. A two-stage crossover design was chosen. Participants acted as controls in one match and were assigned to an experimental group (compression stockings group, full-leg compression group, shorts group) in the other match. Participants in experimental groups played the match wearing assigned compression garments and were worn in the 3 days post-match, for 7 hours/day. Blood lactate concentration, arterial oxygen saturation of haemoglobin, perceived exertion, perceived recovery, anaerobic power (vertical jump, sprint, change of direction) and aerobic capacity (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 2) were measured. Internal and external loads were measured during both matches.
RESULTS:
Using compression garments may slightly increase lactate during and after soccer matches and only Full-Leg garments can moderately attenuate the reduction of arterial oxygen saturation of haemoglobin. Wearing compression garments can be useful between 24-48 h post-exercise to promote psychological recovery, especially with full-leg garments and compression shorts. Decreases in anaerobic power can be attenuated but not significantly, mainly with full-leg compression garments or compression shorts. Compression garments could also have positive effect on aerobic capacity, but we cannot exclude a placebo effect.
CONCLUSIONS:
Compression garments could be moderately beneficial, but effects are not significant.
... A potential explanation for this observation is the compression garment may holds the limbs in what is known as "dynamic casting," thereby reducing soft tissue injury (Kraemer et al., 2001a). This effect is important because it can limit excessive movement and vibration of the muscles providing an ideal environment for muscle recovery (Kraemer et al., 2001b). Kraemer et al. (2010) demonstrated significantly lower muscle swelling by ultrasound technology in a group using a compression garment compared to control. ...
Purpose:
Athletes and military service members are known to undergo strenuous exercise and sometimes have to take long haul flights soon afterwards; however, its combined effect on many physiological functions is relatively unknown. Therefore, we examined the combined effects of a full-body muscle-damaging workout and transcontinental flight on coagulation and fibrinolysis in healthy, resistance trained men. We also determined the efficacy of a full-body compression garment in limiting their coagulation responses.
Materials and methods:
Nineteen healthy, resistance trained men flew from Connecticut (CT) to California (CA), performed a full-body muscle-damaging workout and then flew back to CT. Ten participants wore full-body compression garments (FCG) for the duration of both flights and during all other portions of the study except during workouts and blood draws, when they wore loose clothing. Nine controls wore loose clothing (CON) throughout the study. Blood samples were collected at 16 h and 3 h before the initial flight from CT, immediately after landing in CA, immediately before and immediately after the full-body workout in CA, immediately after landing in CT, and at 29 h after landing in CT. Plasma markers of coagulation included activated partial thromboplastin time (aPTT), prothrombin fragment 1+2 (PTF 1+2) and thrombin ant-thrombin (TAT). Markers of the fibrinolytic system included the tissue plasmigen activator (tPA), plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 (PAI-1) and D-Dimer.
Results:
Both FCG and CON groups exhibited a faster aPTT after the full-body workout compared to all other time points. Thrombin generation markers, TAT and PTF 1+2, increased significantly after the full-body workout and immediately after landing in CT. Additionally, tPA increased after the full-body workout, while PAI-1 increased before the flight to CA, after the full-body workout, and just after landing in CT. The D-Dimer significantly increased after the full-body workout and at 29 h post-flight in both groups. Between groups, aPTT was significantly faster and TAT elevated with the CON group at 29 h post-flight. Also, PAI-1 demonstrated higher concentrations immediately after landing in CT for the CON group.
Conclusion:
A full-body muscle-damaging workout in conjunction with a trans-continental flight activated the coagulation and fibrinolytic systems. Additionally, wearing a full-body compression garment may limit coagulation following a workout through the recovery period.
... This increase in venous return allows improved oxygen and nutrient delivery to fatigued muscles and the removal of metabolites that have accumulated during exercise 8 . Compression garments are also proposed to limit inflammation of the limbs by creating an external pressure gradient that limits the space available for swelling to occur, therefore reducing the likelihood of oedema 9,10 . In conjunction with these physiological benefits, compression garments have also recently been proposed to confer additional performance benefits when athletes have positive perceptions of their efficacy 7 . ...
Purpose:
To determine the effect of wearing compression socks between repeated running bouts on perceptual, physiological and performance-based parameters.
Methods:
Twelve well-trained male runners (mean ± SD; 5km time 19:24 ± 1:19 mm:ss) recorded their perceptions on the efficacy of compression socks for recovery prior to completion of two experimental sessions. Each session consisted of two 5km running time trials (TT1 and TT2) on a treadmill, with a one-hour recovery period between each TT. In a randomised cross-over design, one session required participants to wear compression socks during the recovery period (COMP), while no compression socks were worn between TTs in the other session (CON).
Results:
Running performance between TT1 and TT2 in COMP was similar between TTs (mean Δ ± SD; 5.3 ± 20.7s, d=0.07, p=0.20) while for CON, performance significantly decreased in the second TT (mean Δ; 15.9 ± 13.3s, d=0.19, p<0.01). When grouped by perception of efficacy for compression socks, participants with strong beliefs (n=7) experienced improved subsequent running performance with COMP (mean Δ; -3.6 ± 19.2s, d=0.05, p=0.32) compared to those with neutral or negative perceptions (n=5, mean Δ; 17.9 ± 17.0s, d=0.19, p=0.04). Cross-sectional area of the calf and muscle soreness were significantly reduced during the recovery period with the use of COMP (p<0.01), while ratings of fatigue showed no difference between conditions.
Conclusions:
Wearing compression socks between repeated running bouts can aid recovery and subsequent performance. Furthermore, subsequent exercise performance may be even further enhanced when athletes believe in the efficacy of compression socks to assist in recovery between exercise bouts.
... However, as no plasma volume shifts were observed, it was suggested that the lower values were due to lactate being retained in the muscular bed, rather than an enhance rate of lactate removal (9). Kraemer et al. (45) found the use of compression sleeves worn post-muscle damage to reduce CK concentration 72 h post-exercise, in addition, prevent the degree of loss of elbow extension, decrease subjects" perception of soreness, reduce swelling, and promote recovery of force production. ...
... Existem estudos que demonstraram alguma melhora no processo de recuperação de jogadores de rugby após uma partida com a utilização de roupas de compressão, porém os resultados a respeito dessa técnica ainda não são claros (BARNETT, 2006). Kraemer et al. (2001) demonstraram prevenção na perda de extensão de cotovelo, redução do inchaço e aceleração na recuperação da taxa de produção de força em homens não treinados que utilizaram continuamente uma "manga" compressora após a indução de dor muscular através de um exercício excêntrico de flexão de cotovelo. Porém, mais estudos são necessários para confirmar os benefícios iniciais das roupas de compressão no combate aos sinais e sintomas das lesões induzidas e da dor muscular tardia (BARNETT, 2006;CHEUNG;HUME;MAXWELL, 2003). ...
Post-exercise recovery is a key factor within every physical training program for athletes and non-athletes alike, as well as coaches and health professionals. Thus, knowledge on the post-exercise recovery process and the efficacy of the recovery modalities in enhancing between-training session (to increase training frequency and/or training loads qualitatively) is essential. Therefore, prophylactic or therapeutic interventions that might reduce the negative effects of exercise-induced muscle damage, thereby speeding recovery, are of great interest to researchers, coaches and athletes. As such, the purpose of this review was to describe the physiological responses to post-exercise recovery modalities currently used to aid athlete recovery during the training process, and consequently enhance performance.
The objective of this study was to determine if performing electrical stimulations (E-STIM) under blood flow restriction (BFR) would result in a greater protective effect against symptoms of muscle damage. 18 individuals (9 females) completed a damaging bout of exercise followed by a low frequency E-STIM treatment protocol on both arms, one of which was completed under BFR. The treatment protocol was then repeated 24-hours post-exercise. There were main effects of time for muscle thickness (pre: 3.5 cm; 48 h post: 3.8 cm; BF10 = 88.476), discomfort (pre: 0.0 au; 48 h post: 4.2 au; BF10 = 241.996), and isometric strength (pre: 278 N; 48 h post: 232 N; BF10 = 10,289.894) which all changed as a result of the damaging exercise protocol, but there were no differences between conditions [all Bayes Factors (BF10) < 0.28]. The effectiveness of low frequency E-STIM for preventing the onset of exercise-induced muscle damage would not appear to be enhanced if performed under BFR.
Background
Compression garments are regularly worn during exercise to improve physical performance, mitigate fatigue responses, and enhance recovery. However, evidence for their efficacy is varied and the methodological approaches and outcome measures used within the scientific literature are diverse.
Objectives
The aim of this scoping review is to provide a comprehensive overview of the effects of compression garments on commonly assessed outcome measures in response to exercise, including: performance, biomechanical, neuromuscular, cardiovascular, cardiorespiratory, muscle damage, thermoregulatory, and perceptual responses.
Methods
A systematic search of electronic databases (PubMed, SPORTDiscus, Web of Science and CINAHL Complete) was performed from the earliest record to 27 December, 2020.
Results
In total, 183 studies were identified for qualitative analysis with the following breakdown: performance and muscle function outcomes: 115 studies (63%), biomechanical and neuromuscular: 59 (32%), blood and saliva markers: 85 (46%), cardiovascular: 76 (42%), cardiorespiratory: 39 (21%), thermoregulatory: 19 (10%) and perceptual: 98 (54%). Approximately 85% ( n = 156) of studies were published between 2010 and 2020.
Conclusions
Evidence is equivocal as to whether garments improve physical performance, with little evidence supporting improvements in kinetic or kinematic outcomes. Compression likely reduces muscle oscillatory properties and has a positive effect on sensorimotor systems. Findings suggest potential increases in arterial blood flow; however, it is unlikely that compression garments meaningfully change metabolic responses, blood pressure, heart rate, and cardiorespiratory measures. Compression garments increase localised skin temperature and may reduce perceptions of muscle soreness and pain following exercise; however, rating of perceived exertion during exercise is likely unchanged. It is unlikely that compression garments negatively influence exercise-related outcomes. Future research should assess wearer belief in compression garments, report pressure ranges at multiple sites as well as garment material, and finally examine individual responses and varying compression coverage areas.
In sport disciplines with high levels of muscle damage such as an ultra-trail competition, full body compression garments (FBCG) may have an ergogenic effect during the recovery process. The aim of the study was to assess the influence of FBCG worn for 24 h immediately after a 107-km ultra-trail on delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS), muscle damage, inflammatory and renal response. Thirty-two athletes (19 males and 13 females; VO2peak: 54.1 ± 5.2 ml O2/kg/min) participated in the study. The following blood markers were analyzed before, immediately after, at 24 h and 48 h post-race: lactate dehydrogenase, creatine kinase, C-reactive protein and creatinine. The glomerular filtration rate was also calculated. Delayed onset muscle soreness was evaluated before, immediately after and at 24 h post-race. On arrival at the finishing line, athletes were randomized into one of two recovery groups (FBCG and control group). The results showed that wearing FBCG did not influence the evolution of any of the blood markers up to 48 h after the race (p>0.05). However, FBCG group presented a lower increase in posterior leg DOMS (11.0 ± 46.2% vs 112.3 ± 170.4%, p=0.03, d=0.8). Therefore, although FBCG is not useful for reducing muscle damage and inflammatory response after an ultra-trail race, its use may still be recommended as a recovery method to reduce muscle soreness.
Trial registration: ClinicalTrials.gov identifier: NCT03990259..
Intense physical activity can increase oxidative stress and muscle damage in, causing fatigue and injury. Graduated compression stockings (GCS) can decrease these deleterious effects. The aim was to determine the acute effects of GCS on muscle damage and oxidative stress (OS) in garbage collectors. Thirteen garbage collectors, 25.4±5.2 years, participated using GCS or placebo stockings. Blood samples were collected at pre and post a working day and after 16 hours of rest. Markers of OS and muscle damage were evaluated. Two-way ANOVA (two conditions and two moments) was used for the analysis of the outcomes No significant differences were found for creatine kinase, catalase and glutathione peroxidase between the time and groups. There was a significant difference for the total thiol content and superoxide dismutase only in the control group (pre and post, p = 0.004). The use of GCS exerted acute protection against the increase of markers of OS, but did not contribute to attenuate muscle damage.
The aim of the study was to investigate the effects of wearing various levels of compression following repeated and exhausting sprint exercise on variables related to recovery. Twelve well-trained handball players performed three sessions of repeated and exhausting sprint exercise (30 × 30m). Directly after each session the participants wore tights extending from below the hip to the foot with either 0, 10, or 25 mm Hg of compression onto the thigh and calf muscles. 48 h after the training session all participants performed 5 × 30m sprints and counter movement jumps. Before, directly after, 24 h, and 48 h after the training session venous blood samples were drawn for the determination of creatine kinase (CK), urea, C-reactive protein (CRP). At the same time points, subjective ratings of the Acute Recovery and Stress Scale (ARSS) questionnaires were obtained. The results for plasma concentrations of CK and urea showed ‘likely’ to ‘very, very likely’ beneficial effects for compression garments exerting 10 mm Hg of compression (p = 0.06–1.0). With regard to sprint and jump performance no differences were evident between 0, 10, and 25 mm Hg (p = 0.07–1.0). In addition, subjective scores from the ARSS did not differ between conditions over time (p > 0.05). We conclude that the application of 10 mm Hg leg compression compared to 0 and 25 mm Hg of compression during 48 h of recovery from repeated and exhausting sprints lowered the plasma concentrations of CK and urea with no improvements in recovery for performance.
Training and athletic competition frequently results in exercise induced muscle damage (EIMD). The purpose of this study was to investigate the efficacy of repeated cold water immersion (CWI) on recovery following a simulated rugby union match. Sixteen male, club level rugby players were matched for body mass and randomly assigned to either a CWI group or control (CON) group. Following the simulated rugby match the CWI group underwent 2 x 5 min immersions at a temperature of 10°C separated by 2.5 min seated at room temperature, whilst the CON group remained seated for 15 min. Creatine kinase (CK), perceived muscle soreness, counter movement jump (CMJ) and maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) of the knee extensors were measured pre-exercise, post-exercise, 24 h and 48 h following exercise. Large effect sizes were observed for muscle soreness at 24 and 48 h post exercise with lower soreness values observed in the CWI group. Large effect sizes were observed for CMJ at all time points and at 24 and 48 h post for MVIC with improved recovery of muscle function observed in the CWI group compared to the CON group. Lastly a moderate effect size was observed for CK immediately post exercise followed by large effect sizes at 24 and 48h post exercise, with CK concentration blunted in the CWI group. Overall these findings provide some support for the use of CWI to enhance recovery from EIMD following a simulated rugby union match.
Background:
There is not enough information on the effects of compression therapy in soccer players during recovery after matches. So the objective of this study was to examine the effect of wearing compression garments during soccer matches and during recovery period on physical responses.
Methods:
Eighteen semi-professional soccer players participated in this study. A two-stage crossover design was chosen. Participants acted as controls in one match and were assigned to an experimental group (compression stockings group, full-leg compression group, shorts group) in the other match. Participants in experimental groups played the match wearing assigned compression garments and were worn in the 3 days post-match, for 7 hours/day. Blood lactate concentration, arterial oxygen saturation of haemoglobin, perceived exertion, perceived recovery, anaerobic power (vertical jump, sprint, change of direction) and aerobic capacity (Yo-Yo Intermittent Recovery level 2) were measured. Internal and external loads were measured during both matches.
Results:
Using compression garments may slightly increase lactate during and after soccer matches and only Full-Leg garments can moderately attenuate the reduction of arterial oxygen saturation of haemoglobin. Wearing compression garments can be useful between 24-48 h post-exercise to promote psychological recovery, especially with full-leg garments and compression shorts. Decreases in anaerobic power can be attenuated but not significantly, mainly with full-leg compression garments or compression shorts. Compression garments could also have positive effect on aerobic capacity, but we cannot exclude a placebo effect.
Conclusions:
Compression garments could be moderately beneficial, but effects are not significant.
This study aimed to investigate the effects of wearing a compression garment (CG) during night sleep on muscle fatigue recovery after high-intensity eccentric and concentric knee extensor exercises. Seventeen college male students participated in two experimental sessions under CG and non-CG (NCG) wearing conditions. Before night sleep under CG or NCG wearing conditions, the subjects performed a fatiguing protocol consisting of 10 sets of 10 repetitions of maximal isokinetic eccentric and concentric knee extensor contractions, with 30-second rest intervals between the sets. Immediately before and after and 24 hours after the fatiguing protocol, maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) force for knee extensor muscles was measured; surface electromyographic data from the vastus medialis and rectus femoris were also measured. A two-way repeated-measure analysis of variance followed by Bonferroni pairwise comparisons was used to analyze the differences in each variable. Paired sample t-tests were used to analyze the mean differences between the conditions at the same time points for each variable. The MVIC 24 hours after the fatiguing protocol was approximately 10% greater in the CG than in the NCG condition (p = 0.033). Changes in the electromyographic variables over time did not significantly differ between the conditions. Thus, it was concluded that wearing a CG during night sleep may promote localized muscle fatigue recovery but does not influence neurological factors after the fatiguing exercise.
Achieving the highest levels of performance in competition is only possible through an ordered well thought-out training process designed to stimulate structural and metabolic adaptations in the systems of the body, these adaptations enable the athlete to reach a higher performance level (Smith in Sports Medicine 33:1103-1126, 2003; Stone et al. in Principles and practice of resistance training, Human Kinetics, Champaign 2007). © Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016. All rights reserved.
Compression apparel is a popular method to aid sports performance and recovery. The ubiquitous nature of compression garments in sport attests to their popularity with athletes. In particular, use of compression clothing is evident in a range of strength and power focused sports. Regardless of their popularity, a growing theme of research in this area highlights the mixed, if not neutral, effects of compression garments on athletic performance and recovery. In part such conclusions stem from the diverse nature of research projects and exercise modes utilised. Thus a more detailed focus of the effects of compression apparel on specific physical capacities is warranted. This chapter will respectively discuss the effects of compression garments on strength, power and repeated-effort exercise. Further, hypothesised mechanisms for the improvement, or lack thereof, in performance indices will be provided. The findings of this discussion will suggest that the use of compression garments show mixed, if not minimal, benefits for exercise performance for prolonged repeat-sprint athletes. However, some small benefits for maximal strength or peak power movements may be evident. Furthermore, whilst compression garments show minimal recovery benefits, some evidence for small improvements in muscle damage marker clearance may exist. Despite the limited evidence for improved performance, compression garments seem beneficial for the reduction of muscle oscillation and perception of reduced exercise-induced muscle soreness (possibly resulting from a placebo effect). Accordingly, the addition of compression garments may be warranted to assist in the perceived readiness of an athlete to train or compete.
This study investigated the effects of wearing compression garments during and 24 h following a 4-h exercise protocol simulating manual-labour tasks. Ten physically trained male participants, familiar with labouring activities, undertook 4 h of work tasks characteristic of industrial workplaces. Participants completed 2 testing sessions, separated by at least 1 week. In the experimental condition, participants wore a full-length compression top and compression shorts during the exercise protocol and overnight recovery, with normal work clothes worn in the control condition. Testing for serum creatine kinase and C-reactive protein, handgrip strength, knee flexion and extension torque, muscle stiffness, perceived muscle soreness and fatigue as well as heart rate and rating of perceived exertion (RPE) responses to 4-min cycling were performed before, following, and 24 h after exercise. Creatine kinase, muscle soreness, and rating of perceived fatigue increased following the exercise protocol (p < 0.05) as did RPE to a standardised cycling warm-up bout. Conversely, no postexercise changes were observed in C-reactive protein, handgrip strength, peak knee flexion torque, or stiffness measures (p > 0.05). Knee extension torque was significantly higher in the control condition at 24 h postexercise (3.1% ± 5.4% change; compression: 2.2% ± 11.1% change), although no other variables were different between conditions at any time. However, compression demonstrated a moderate-large effect (d > 0.60) to reduce perceived muscle soreness, fatigue, and RPE from standardised warm-up at 24 h postexercise. The current findings suggest that compression may assist in perceptual recovery from manual-labour exercise with implications for the ability to perform subsequent work bouts.
The purpose of the study was to examine the physiological and perceptual responses to wearing below-the-knee compression stockings (CS) following a 5-KM running performance in recreationally active women. 19 females were recruited to participate in the study, (20 ± 1 y, 61.4 ± 5.3 kg, 22.6 ± 3.9 % body fat). Each participant completed two 5-KM performance time trials with CS or regular socks in a counterbalanced order separated by one week. For each session, 5-KM time, heart rate (HR), RPE, pain pressure threshold, muscle soreness, and rate of perceived recovery were measured. There were no significant difference in average 5-KM times between CS and regular socks (p = 0.74) and HR response (p = 0.42). However, significantly higher RPE and lower gain scores (%) for lower extremity muscle soreness but not for calf were observed with CS when compared to regular socks (p = 0.05, p = 0.01 and p = 0.3, respectively). Based on the results of the present study, there were no significant improvements in average 5-KM running time, heart rate, or perceived calf muscle soreness. However, participants perceived less muscle soreness in lower extremities and working harder with CS compared to regular socks. CS may not cause significant physiological improvements, however, there might be psychological benefits positively affecting post-exercise recovery.
Compression shorts have become a very popular item of sports apparel. Few data exist about whether they influence athletic performance. The purpose of this study was to determine whether compression shorts affected vertical jump performance after different fatigue tasks (i.e., endurance, strength, and power). In addition, experiments on the influence of a compression garment on joint position sense at the hip and muscle movement velocity upon landing impact was also studied. Healthy college age men and women participated in the various studies. Subjects were thoroughly familiarized with the jump tests and all other experimental techniques. Jumps were performed on an AMTI force plate which was interfaced to a computer with customized software used to determine jump power. Ten consecutive maximal counter movement jumps with arms held at waist level were performed. The compressive garment had no effect on the maximal power of the highest jump in either men or women. The compressive garment significantly enhanced mean power output in the jump test both before and after different fatigue tasks. The compressive garment enhanced joint position sense at the hip at 45°and 60°of flexion. A compression garment also significantly reduced the vertical velocity of muscle movement upon landing. These data indicate that compression shorts do not improve maximal jump power output. However, an enhanced mean power output during the repetitive maximal jump test was observed when wearing a compression garment. The performance improvement observed may be due to reduced muscle oscillation upon impact, psychological factors, and/or enhanced joint position sense.
It is well documented in both animal and human studies that unaccustomed, particularly eccentric, muscle exercise may cause damage of muscle fiber contractile and cytoskeletal components. These injuries typically include: Z-band streaming and dissolution, A-band disruption, disintegration of the intermediate filament system, and misalignment of the myofibrils. The mechanical basis for this damage is suggested to be due to the fiber strain magnitude rather than the absolute stress imposed on the fiber. We hypothesize that eccentric contraction-induced damage occurs early in the treatment period, i.e., within the first few minutes. The structural abnormalities predominate in the fast-twitch glycolytic fibers. In the final section of this paper, we hypothesize a damage scheme, based on the muscle fiber oxidative capacity as a determining factor.
Four normal subjects performed a 20 min step test using a step of the same relative height. During the test the quadriceps muscle of one leg contracted concentrically throughout by stepping up, while the contralateral muscle contracted eccentrically by controlling the step down. Thus both muscles performed the same amount of work. Three subjects had bilateral needle biopsies just prior to exercise. All four had bilateral biopsies immediately after exercise, and 24-48 hours later when the muscles which had contracted eccentrically were painful. The samples were examined by light and electron microscopy. No abnormalities were seen in pre-exercise samples nor after exercise in muscles which had contracted concentrically. The muscles which had contracted eccentrically showed some damage immediately after exercise. In the samples taken 24-48 hours after exercise the damage was more marked and involved a greater percentage of fibres. In view of the known differences between these types of contractions it is suggested that the initial damage is mechanically induced. The exacerbation of damage with time could be due to mechanical or chemical factors.
To address the question of whether delayed onset muscular soreness (DOMS) following intense eccentric muscle contraction could be due to increased production of the arachidonic acid derived product prostaglandin E2 (PGE2). 10 healthy male subjects were submitted to eccentric and concentric isokinetic exercises on a Kin Trex device at 60 degrees/s angular velocity. Exercise consisted of 8 stages of 5 maximal contractions of the knee extensor and flexor muscle groups of both legs separated by 1 min rest phases. There was an interval of at least 30 days between eccentric and concentric testing, and the order of the two exercise sessions was randomly assigned. The subjective presence and intensity of DOMS was evaluated using a visual analogue scale, immediately, following 24 h and 48 h after each test. Five blood samples were drawn from an antecubital vein: at rest before exercise, immediately after, after 30 min recovery, 24 h and 48 h after the tests. The magnitude of the acute inflammatory response to exercise was assessed by measuring plasma levels of polymorphonuclear elastase ([EL]), myeloperoxidase ([MPO]) and PGE2 ([PGE2]). Using two way analysis of variance, it appeared that only eccentric exercise significantly increased [EL] and DOMS, especially of the hamstring muscles. Furthermore, a significant decrease in eccentric peak torque of this muscle group only was observed on day 2 after eccentric work (- 21%; P < 0.002). Serum activity of creatine kinase and serum concentration of myoglobin increased significantly 24 and 48 h after both exercise tests. However, these variables reached significantly higher values following eccentric contractions 48 h after exercise. Mean [PGE2] in the two exercise modes remained unchanged over time and were practically equal at each time point. On the basis of these findings, we conclude that the magnitude of polymorphonuclear (PMN) activation, muscle damage, and DOMS are greater after eccentric than after concentric muscle contractions. However, the hypothesized interplay between muscle damage, increased PGE2 production, DOMS sensations, and reduced isokinetic muscle performance was not substantiated by the present results.
Eccentric activities are an important component of physical conditioning and everyday activities. Delayed onset muscle soreness (DOMS) can result from strenuous eccentric tasks and can be a limiting factor in motor performance for several days after exercise. An efficacious method of treatment for DOMS would enhance athletic performance and hasten the return to activities of daily living. The purpose of this study was to identify a treatment method which could assist in the recovery of DOMS. In the selection of treatment methods, emphasis was directed toward treatments that could be rendered independently by an individual, therefore making the treatment valuable to an athletic trainer in team setting. DOMS was induced in 70 untrained volunteers via 15 sets of 15 eccentric contractions of the forearm extensor muscles on a Lido isokinetic dynamometer. All subjects performed a pilot exercise bout for a minimum of 9 weeks before data collection to assure that DOMS would be produced. Data were collected on 15 dependent variables: active and passive wrist flexion and extension, forearm girth, limb volume, visual analogue pain scale, muscle soreness index, isometric strength, concentric and eccentric wrist total work, concentric and eccentric angle of peak torque. Data were collected on six occasions: pre- and post-induced DOMS, 20 minutes after treatment, and 24, 48, and 72 hours after treatment. Subjects were randomly assigned to 1 of 7 groups (6 treatment and 1 control). Treatments included a nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drug, high velocity concentric muscle contractions on an upper extremity ergometer, ice massage, 10-minute static stretching, topical Amica montana ointment, and sublingual A. montana pellets. A 7 x 6 ANOVA with repeated measures on time was performed on the delta values of each of the 15 dependent variables. Significant main effects (p < .05) were found for all of the dependent variables on time only. There were no significant differences between treatments. Therefore, we conclude that none of the treatments were effective in abating the signs and symptoms of DOMS. In fact, the NSAID and A. montana treatments appeared to impede recovery of muscle function.
Objective
To define the immediate and long-term volumetric reduction following complete decongestive physiotherapy (CDP) for lymphedema.Design
Prospective study of consecutively treated patients.Setting
Freestanding outpatient referral centers.Patients
Two hundred ninety-nine patients referred for evaluation of lymphedema of the upper (2% primary, 98% secondary) or lower (61.3% primary, 38.7% secondary) extremities were treated with CDP for an average duration of 15.7 days. Lymphedema reduction was measured following completion of treatment and at 6- and 12-month follow-up visits.Intervention
Complete decongestive physiotherapy is a 2-phase noninvasive therapeutic regimen. The first phase consists of manual lymphatic massage, multilayered inelastic compression bandaging, remedial exercises, and meticulous skin care. Phase 2 focuses on self-care by means of daytime elastic sleeve or stocking compression, nocturnal wrapping, and continued exercises.Main Outcome Measures
Average limb volumes in milliliters were calculated prior to treatment, at the end of phase 1, and at 6- to 12-month intervals during phase 2 to assess percent volume reduction.Results
Lymphedema reduction averaged 59.1% after upper-extremity CDP and 67.7% after lower-extremity treatment. With an average follow-up of 9 months, this improvement was maintained in compliant patients (86%) at 90% of the initial reduction for upper extremities and lower extremities. Noncompliant patients lost a part (33%) of their initial reduction. The incidence of infections decreased from 1.10 infections per patient per year to 0.65 infections per patient per year after a complete course of CDP.Conclusions
Complete decongestive physiotherapy is a highly effective treatment for both primary and secondary lymphedema. The initial reductions in volume achieved are maintained in the majority of the treated patients. These patients typically report a significant recovery from their previous cosmetic and functional impairments, and also from the psychosocial limitations they experienced from a physical stigma they felt was often trivialized by the medical and payor communities.
Figure A.1 Walking Trial—Marker Locations and Mass and Frame Rate Information Table A.1 Raw Coordinate Data (cm) Table A.2(a) Filtered Marker Kinematics—Rib Cage and Greater Trochanter (Hip) Table A.2(b) Filtered Marker Kinematics—Femoral Lateral Epicondyle (Knee) and Head of Fibula Table A.2(c) Filtered Marker Kinematics—Lateral Malleolus (Ankle) and Heel Table A.2(d) Filtered Marker Kinematics—Fifth Metatarsal and Toe Table A.3(a) Linear and Angular Kinematics—Foot Table A.3(b) Linear and Angular Kinematics—Leg Table A.3(c) Linear and Angular Kinematics—Thigh Table A.3(d) Linear and Angular Kinematics—½ HAT Table A.4 Relative Joint Angular Kinematics—Ankle, Knee, and Hip Table A.5(a) Reaction Forces and Moments of Force—Ankle and Knee Table A.5(b) Reaction Forces and Moments of Force—Hip Table A.6 Segment Potential, Kinetic, and Total Energies—Foot, Leg, Thigh, and ½ HAT Table A.7 Power Generation/Absorption and Transfer—Ankle, Knee, and Hip
The purpose of this study was to determine whether compression shorts affected vertical jump performance. Subjects, 18 men and 18 women varsity volleyball players, were thoroughly familiarized with the jump tests and experimental techniques. Testing utilized compression shorts of normal fit (CS), undersized compression shorts (UCS), and loose fitting gym shorts as the control garment (CT). All tests were conducted on the same day using a balanced, randomized block design to remove day-to-day variation. Jumps were performed on an AMTI force plate interfaced to a computer with customized software to determine jump force and power. Ten consecutive maximal countermovement jumps with hands held at waist level were evaluated. The garments had no effect on maximal force or power of the highest jump. However, mean force and power production over the 10 jumps when wearing the CS were significantly (p < 0.05) higher than CT for both men and women. In men the UCS mean power production was also higher than the CT. The data indicate that compression shorts, while not improving single maximal jump power, have a significant effect on repetitive vertical jumps by helping to maintain higher mean jumping power.
Rhabdomyolysis is a condition characterized by muscle damage and degeneration of muscle cells after strenuous, overexertion exercise. Although the incidence of severe rhabdomyolysis is rare, this condition can be dangerous and even fatal. Eccentric exercise protocols are currently being used to induce and study mild forms of muscle damage. However, serious adverse events can occur in these laboratory investigations. The purpose of this report was to expose some of the adverse events resulting from performance of eccentric exercise protocols to study muscle damage in humans.
The following case studies involved an eccentric exercise protocol where two sets of 25 maximal eccentric actions of the elbow flexors were performed, separated by a 5-min rest period.
Case reports are presented that reveal prolonged losses in the ability of the muscle to generate force lasting 43-47 d, extreme swelling of the exercised arm lasting several weeks, and greatly elevated serum creatine kinase levels.
Although adverse events resulting from eccentric exercise are rare, our laboratory has observed a 3% incidence rate during the past year. Investigators should be knowledgeable of the sequelae of events that are associated with muscle damage after high-force eccentric exercise and take appropriate precautions.
Indirect markers of muscle damage and collagen breakdown were recorded for up to 9 days after a bout of concentric, followed by a bout of eccentric, muscle actions. Nine untrained participants performed two bouts of 50 maximum effort repetitions on an isokinetic dynamometer (angular velocity 1.05 rad·s-1, range of motion 1.75 rad). An initial concentric bout of muscle actions was followed by an eccentric bout 21 days later, using the same knee extensors. Concentric actions induced no changes in maximum voluntary isometric contraction force (MVC), nor induced any changes in the serum enzyme activities of creatine kinase, a lactate dehydrogenase isoenzyme (LDH-1), or alkaline phosphatase. Similarly, concentric actions induced no change in markers of collagen breakdown, namely plasma hydroxyproline and serum type 1 collagen concentration. In contrast, eccentric actions induced a 23.5 ± 19.0% (mean ± s) decrease in MVC immediately post-exercise (P < 0.05), and increased the serum enzyme activities of creatine kinase and LDH-1 to 486 ± 792 and 90 ± 11 IU·l-1 respectively on day 3 post-exercise, and to 189 ± 159 and 96 ± 13 IU l-1 respectively on day 7 post-exercise (all P < 0.05). Eccentric actions induced no significant changes in plasma hydroxyproline, but increased collagen concentration on days 1 and 9 post-exercise (48.6% and 44.3% increases above pre-exercise on days 1 and 9 respectively; both P < 0.05). We conclude that eccentric but not concentric actions may result in temporary muscle damage, and that collagen breakdown may also be affected by eccentric actions. With caution, indices of collagen breakdown may be used to identify exercise-induced damage to connective tissue.
To determine whether elastic compression alters the venous hemodynamics in the postphlebitic limb, we measured venous pressure patterns in 11 postphlebitic limbs with and without elastic compression stockings. Following cannulation of a dorsal vein of the foot, the patients underwent measurements of basal resting pressure, maximum percent decrease in venous pressure with exercise (delta VPex), peak systolic venous pressure during exercise (SVPmax), the amplitude of the pressure swing, and venous return time. Elastic compression did not alter basal resting pressure, delta VPex, or venous return time. By contrast, SVPmax decreased from 139 +/- 0.3 mm Hg to 11 +/- 8 mm Hg with elastic compression. If venous ulcers are related to the high pressure developed in the superficial veins during calf muscle systole, then elastic compression may be beneficial by decreasing systolic venous pressure and its subsequent deleterious consequences.
The influence of muscle temperature (Tm) on maximal muscle strength, power output, jumping, and sprinting performance was evaluated in four male subjects. In one of the subjects the electromyogram (EMG) was recorded from M. vastus lateralis, M. biceps femoris, and M. semitendinosus. Tm ranged from 30.0 degrees C to 39 degrees C. Maximal dynamic strength, power output, jumping, and sprinting performance were positively related to Tm. The changes were in the same order of magnitude for all these parameters (4-6% x degrees C-1) Maximal isometric strength decreased by 2% x degrees C-1 with decreasing Tm. The force-velocity relationship was shifted to the left at subnormal Tm. Thus in short term exercises, such as jumping and sprinting, performance is reduced at low Tm and enhanced at Tm above normal, primarily as a result of a variation in maximal dynamic strength.
Determination of the optimal compression to reduce venous stasis was studied in terms of the amount of pressure and manner of application (graded or uniform pressure). Both lower extremities of seven inactive recumbent subjects were tested using transcutaneous Doppler ultrasonic measurement of femoral vein blood flow velocity. Optimal compression was defined as the externally applied pressure that produced the greatest increase in femoral vein flow velocity consistent with safety and the practicality of hospital use of elastic stockings. Optimal compression for elastic stockings to be used by hospitalized patients who spend substantial time in bed should be 18 to 8 mm Hg (ankle to midthigh). At this compression, average femoral vein blood flow velocity is increased to 138.4% of base line. Gradient compression at this level was found to produce a greater femoral vein flow velocity than the same amount of compression distributed uniformly over the lower extremity.
This brief review focuses on the time course of changes in muscle function and other correlates of muscle damage following maximal effort eccentric actions of the forearm flexor muscles. Data on 109 subjects are presented to describe an accurate time course of these changes and attempt to establish relationships among the measures. Peak soreness is experienced 2-3 d postexercise while peak swelling occurs 5 d postexercise. Maximal strength and the ability to fully flex the arm show the greatest decrements immediately after exercise with a linear restoration of these functions over the next 10 d. Blood creatine kinase (CK) levels increase precipitously at 2 d after exercise which is also the time when spontaneous muscle shortening is most pronounced. Whether the similarity in the time courses of some of these responses implies that they are caused by similar factors remains to be determined. Performance of one bout of eccentric exercise produces an adaptation such that the muscle is more resistant to damage from a subsequent bout of exercise. The length of the adaptation differs among the measures such that when the exercise regimens are separated by 6 wk, all measures show a reduction in response on the second, compared with the first, bout. After 10 wk, only CK and muscle shortening show a reduction in response. After 6 months only the CK response is reduced. A combination of cellular factors and neurological factors may be involved in the adaptation process.
The repeated bout effect on changes in muscle damage indicators was examined in two groups of subjects following two bouts of 70 maximal eccentric actions of the forearm flexors. Fourteen college age female subjects were placed into two groups. The two bouts were separated by 6 weeks (n = 6), and 10 weeks (n = 8). The subjects performed the same amount of work for the bouts. The muscle damage indicators were isometric strength (STR), relaxed elbow joint angle (RANG), flexed elbow joint angle (FANG), perceived muscle soreness ratings (SOR), and plasma creatine kinase activity (CK). These measures were obtained pre-exercise and 5 days following each bout. The first bout showed significant changes in all measures over time for both groups (P less than 0.01). For the 6-week group, significantly smaller changes in RANG (P less than 0.01), SOR (P less than 0.05), and CK (P less than 0.01), as well as significantly faster recoveries (P less than 0.05) for STR and FANG were produced in the second bout. For the 10-week group, significantly smaller changes in RANG (P less than 0.05) and CK (P less than 0.01) were demonstrated by the second bout, but not significant difference was found for STR, FANG, and SOR between bouts 1 and 2. Changes in CK were still significantly smaller than that of the first bout when 6 subjects (3 subjects from each group) performed the same exercise 6 months after the second bout, but no difference in other measures.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
To determine the effects of wearing graduated compression stockings (GCS) on the exercise response, twelve high fit males served as subjects in a series of two experiments. The first experiment consisted of six subjects performing two tests of maximal oxygen consumption (VO2 max) on a treadmill with and without GCS. The second experiment consisted of six subjects performing three separate three minute tests on a bicycle ergometer at 110% of their VO2 max. The experimental conditions for the three tests were: GCS worn during the test and recovery (GCS), GCS worn only during the test (GCS-O/O) and no stockings worn during either the test or recovery (NO-GCS). Oxygen consumption (VO2) was measured at rest, throughout the duration of all tests and during recovery in both experiments. Blood samples were obtained at rest and at 5, 15, 30, 45 and 60 minutes post exercise in the first experiment and at rest and at 5, 15 and 30 minutes post exercise in the second experiment for the determination of lactate and hematocrit. The use of GCS in the first experiment resulted in no significant difference in VO2 max, recovery VO2 or plasma volume shifts. Lactate values were lower throughout the duration of the recovery period with the 15 minute values being significantly different with the use of GCS. Significant differences in post exercise blood lactate values were found in the second experiment. The GCS trial resulted in significantly less lactate when compared to the GCS-O/O and the NO-GCS trials. There was no significant difference in post exercise lactate values between the NO-GCS and the GCS-O/O trials. Plasma volume changes were not significantly different among trials. Results of both experiments showed recovery lactate values to be lower with the use of GCS. These lower values are not ascribable to plasma volume shifts but rather appear to be due to an inverse gradient created by the GCS resulting in the lactate being retained in the muscular bed.
The effect of changing muscle temperature on performance of short term dynamic exercise in man was studied. Four subjects performed 20 s maximal sprint efforts at a constant pedalling rate of 95 crank rev.min-1 on an isokinetic cycle ergometer under four temperature conditions: from rest at room temperature; and following 45 min of leg immersion in water baths at 44; 18; and 12 degrees C. Muscle temperature (Tm) at 3 cm depth was respectively 36.6, 39.3, 31.9 and 29.0 degrees C. After warming the legs in a 44 degrees C water bath there was an increase of approximately 11% in maximal peak force and power (PPmax) compared with normal rest while cooling the legs in 18 and 12 degrees C water baths resulted in reductions of approximately 12% and 21% respectively. Associated with an increased maximal peak power at higher Tm was an increased rate of fatigue. Two subjects performed isokinetic cycling at three different pedalling rates (54, 95 and 140 rev.min-1) demonstrating that the magnitude of the temperature effect was velocity dependent: At the slowest pedalling rate the effect of warming the muscle was to increase PPmax by approximately 2% per degree C but at the highest speed this increased to approximately 10% per degree C.
Injuries to the hamstring muscles can be devastating to the athlete because these injuries frequently heal slowly and have a tendency to recur. It is thought that many of the recurrent injuries to the hamstring musculotendinous unit are the result of inadequate rehabilitation following the initial injury. The severity of hamstring injuries is usually of first or second degree, but occasionally third-degree injuries (complete rupture of the musculotendinous unit) do occur. Most hamstring strain injuries occur while running or sprinting. Several aetiological factors have been proposed as being related to injury of the hamstring musculotendinous unit. They include: poor flexibility, inadequate muscle strength and/or endurance, dyssynergic muscle contraction during running, insufficient warm-up and stretching prior to exercise, awkward running style, and a return to activity before complete rehabilitation following injury. Treatment for hamstring injuries includes rest and immobilisation immediately following injury and then a gradually increasing programme of mobilisation, strengthening, and activity. Permission to return to athletic competition should be withheld until full rehabilitation has been achieved (complete return of muscle strength, endurance, and flexibility in addition to a return of co-ordination and athletic agility). Failure to achieve full rehabilitation will only predispose the athlete to recurrent injury. The best treatment for hamstring injuries is prevention, which should include training to maintain and/or improve strength, flexibility, endurance, co-ordination, and agility.
Joint proprioception in the human knee has been studied using two previously described tests. Threshold of detection of slow, constant, passive motion and ability to reproduce angles to which the knee was passively placed were accurately measured. A group of postoperative total knee arthroplasty (TKA) patients were examined. All patients also had documented articular disease in the unoperated knee. Results were compared to age-matched controls. In addition, a young control group was studied for comparison to both groups. A significant difference was seen between the young control group and the older control group in both tests performed. Age-matched controls and the postoperative patients demonstrated an even greater difference. There was, however, no difference between the operated and unoperated knee among the TKA patients. It is concluded that joint proprioception declines to some degree with normal aging. A more marked decline is associated with degenerative joint disease. Total joint replacement, however, did not lead to a further decrease in sensation.
Compression garments for the lower limb were tested in two groups--general support garments and anti-embolism supports. A total of 98 patients was examined. The method used was by the interposition of partly fluid-filled pressure sensors between garment and skin. A combination of roller bandage with shaped tubigrip (SBB--Seton) and Sigvaris stockings afforded effective pressure in the general support group but only the roller bandage plus pressure garment (Seton) did so in the anti-embolism group, both in the acute and prolonged studies.
This study examined eccentric exercise-induced muscle damage and rapid adaptation. Twenty-two male subjects performed 70 eccentric actions with the knee extensors. Group A (n = 11) and group B (n = 11) repeated the same exercise 4 and 13 days after the initial bout, respectively. Criterion measures included muscle soreness, muscle force generation (vertical jump height on a Kistler platform), and plasma levels of creatine kinase (CK), slow-twitch skeletal (cardiac beta-type) myosin heavy chains (MHC), and cardiac troponin I. Subjects were tested pre-exercise and up to day 4 following each bout. The initial exercise resulted in an increase in CK and MHC, a decrement in muscle force, and delayed onset muscle soreness in all participants. CK and MHC release correlated closely (rho = 0.73, p = 0.0001), both did not correlate with the decrement in muscle force generation after exercise. Because cardiac troponin I could not be detected in all samples, which excluded a protein release from the heart (cardiac beta-type MHC), this finding provides evidence for a injury of slow-twitch skeletal muscle fibers in response to eccentric contractions. Repetition of the initial eccentric exercise bout after 13 days (group B) did not cause muscle soreness, a decrement in muscle reaction force with vertical jump or significant changes in plasma MHC and CK concentrations, whereas in case of repetition after 4 days (group A) only the significant increases in CK and MHC were abolished. The decrement in reaction force with vertical jump did not differ significantly from that after the initial exercise session, but perceived muscle soreness was less pronounced.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)
The purpose was to determine if intermittent pneumatic compression (IPC) affects muscle swelling, stiffness, and strength loss resulting from eccentric exercise-induced injury of the elbow flexors. We hypothesized that the compression would decrease swelling and stiffness.
Repeated measures design with a before-after trial comparison within each day.
Conducted at a university Somatic Dysfunction Laboratory.
Twenty-two college women students were studied. They had not been lifting weights or otherwise participating in regular arm exercise for the 6 months before the study. They had no history of upper extremity injury or cardiovascular disease.
Subjects performed one bout of eccentric exercise at a high load to induce elbow flexor muscle injury. Uniform IPC was applied on the day of exercise and daily for 5 days at 60mmHg, 40 seconds inflation, 20 deflation for 20 minutes.
Measurements of arm circumference, stiffness, and isometric strength were recorded before exercise, then before and after IPC for 5 days after exercise. Passive muscle stiffness was measured on a device that extends the elbow stepwise and records the torque required to hold the forearm at each elbow angle.
Circumference and stiffness increased and strength decreased during the 5 days post-exercise (p < .05). IPC significantly decreased circumference and stiffness most notably on days 2 and 3 after exercise (p < .05). The strength loss was not affected by IPC.
IPC is effective in temporarily decreasing the swelling and stiffness after exercise-induced muscle injury.
Elastic bandages are often used to treat musculoskeletal disorders, even though there is little scientific evidence currently to support this generalized practice. We tested the hypothesis that elastic bandages improve proprioception of the bandaged joint during their use, and that this benefit was more than temporary. The uninjured human knee was used as a model. Fifty-four volunteers (54 knees), aged 22 to 40 years, were asked to identify a prior set joint angle as their knee was passively extended. Each knee was tested without the elastic bandage, immediately after bandage application, after 1 hour of bandage wear, and finally after removal of the bandage. Results showed that elastic bandages significantly improved knee joint proprioception in the uninjured knee during the entire interval of their use (mean decrease in inaccuracy of 1.0 degree, equivalent to 25% improvement, P < 0.05), and that this benefit was lost when the bandage was removed. The magnitude of the improvement, or the potential beneficial effect of the bandage, was inversely related to the participant's inherent knee proprioceptive ability, which was demonstrated in the test group before the initial application of the bandage.