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Removing emotional obstacles to learning and performance by visuo-motor behavior rehearsal
Abstract
Some innovative adaptations of desensitization, visuomotor behavior rehearsal and the use of competency, were developed to treat a Ph.D. candidate with a severe examination anxiety. Treatment was aimed at developing adaptive behavior, rather than simply the removal of the anxiety.
... Behavioral Rehearsal), el qual inclou una fase inicial d'atenció a la respiració, la imatgeria de l'acció esportiva durant una situació específica estressant i posar en pràctica les tècniques psicològiques apreses durant la simulació de la situació estressant (Hall i Erffmeyer, 1983; Weinberg, Seabourne i Jackson, 1981). El VMBR és considerat quelcom més que imaginar, és tracta d'una còpia ben controlada de l'experiència, un tipus de pensament corporal similar a la il·lusió poderosa de certs somnis a la nit (Suinn, 1972). S'ha demostrat que el VMBR augmenta el rendiment, tant en estudis de casos (Lane, 1980;Suinn, 1972) com en investigacions experimentals (Hall i Erffmeyer, 1983;Noel, 1980;Weinberg et al., 1981). ...
... El VMBR és considerat quelcom més que imaginar, és tracta d'una còpia ben controlada de l'experiència, un tipus de pensament corporal similar a la il·lusió poderosa de certs somnis a la nit (Suinn, 1972). S'ha demostrat que el VMBR augmenta el rendiment, tant en estudis de casos (Lane, 1980;Suinn, 1972) com en investigacions experimentals (Hall i Erffmeyer, 1983;Noel, 1980;Weinberg et al., 1981). A més, Weinberg, Seabourne i Jackson (1987) van veure que l'atenció a la respiració abans de la imaginació produïa una millor execució de la imatgeria. ...
Historically, mind studies have been separated from those carried out on the brain and behavior; the mind was still an abstract concept. However, later on, neurosciences and sports psychology have gone further and created a new discipline: sports neurosciences, aimed at exploring the physical and mental confines of an athlete and make them grow more and more. Neurosciences can, therefore, help bring closer psychological and biological areas, cognitive and mechanical structures. Several researches have been done on activation in situations under pressure, imagery (in hypnosis) and electroencephalogram (EEG); however, there is an obvious lack of studies that analyze how to monitor mental training on activation in situations under pressure by means of EEG, both in the office and on the field. Consequently, the objective of the present thesis is to monitor mental training on activation during a neutral situation and in a situation under pressure, by analyzing the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations in athletes with and without previous imagery experience. The pilot test analyzed the heart rate behavior in the activation of 7 athletes during imagery of under-pressure situations. In it, there was an increase in the heart rate in the situations under pressure, which was experienced, mainly, at the moment of highest pressure. From Study 1-A and 1-B neutral situation imagery (tennis service) was compared with imagery of under-pressure situations on 16 tennis players. On the one hand, in Study 1-A the activation during imagery of a neutral situation was monitored through the analysis of the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations of tennis players with and without prior experience in imagery; on the other hand, in Study 1-B activation during imagery was also monitored, although this time in a situation under pressure (tennis match). Results show that imageries from both neutral and under-pressure situations increased the heart rate, especially on those subjects with imagery experience; being this increase higher in the case of imagery of situations under pressure and finding its highest point at the moment of maximum pressure of the imagery: interval 5-6. Regarding brainwaves, imagery of both neutral and under-pressure situations (either by intervals, hemispheres, zones or channels) led to a decrease in the gamma wave activity, both in tennis players with previous experience in imagery and without. In the case of Study 1- B, an increase of the gamma wave was also observed in interval 5-6, which corresponds to the moment of maximum pressure. Regarding entropy, in Study 1-A it was lower in the neutral situation imagery, both in those with imagery experience and without; while in Study 1-B, the approximate and sample entropies were higher in the imagery of the situation under pressure in those without imagery experience. With regards to the subjective registrations, in psychological abilities (activation, self-confidence, motivation and concentration) of Studies 1-A and 1-B there were no significant differences between pre and post neither between before, during and after, except in Study 1-B between pre and post for the activation at during with a significance level of 10%. Regarding the reality of imagery, in Study 1-A the most real dimensions, from highest to lowest, were kinesthetic, visual, emotional, tactile and auditory (score from 3 to 5). Those that were more difficult to be perceived as real and to be aware of were the gustatory and olfactory ones in Study 1-A and only the olfactory in 1-B. In Studies 2-A and 2-B mental training on activation during imagery of an under-pressure situation was monitored through a protocol with and without mental training carried out in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) based on the analysis of the heart rate, brainwaves and subjective registrations in a tennis player with high imagery experience in order to be able to see how activation developed, session by session, through the mental training carried out. Results show that both in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) the tennis player’s heart rate increased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), being higher in the office and in Protocol 2. It decreased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13) in Protocol 2, being also greater in the office; it decreased further in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), being higher in the office and in Protocol 1. In the case of brainwaves, the beta wave increased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in Protocol 1 and on the court in Protocol 2. Also, gamma, theta and delta waves increased in Protocol 2 on the court. Beta, gamma, delta and theta waves decreased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13), both in the office and on the court, being higher on the court, except for the gamma wave, which was higher in the office. Alpha and beta waves increased in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in Protocol 2. Regarding entropy (approximate entropy and sample), it decreased in the imagery of the situation under pressure (I.3-8), both in the office and on the court and both in Protocol 1 and 2, being higher on the court and in Protocol 2. It increased in the mental techniques application imagery (I.8-13) in the office as well as on the court, being higher on the court. It also increased in the final breathing attention (I.13-f), both in the office and on the court, being higher in the office in both protocols but markedly in Protocol 2. Regarding subjective registrations, the tennis player managed to feel the pressure in the imagery of the situation under pressure both in the office and on the court before, during and after between points (highest pressure moment), being higher in Protocol 2. In the mental techniques application imagery he regulated the activation to feel it at an optimal level (7), although he found it more difficult on the court. All imageries were realized with great reality in all dimensions (visual, auditory, olfactory, tactile, gustatory, kinesthetic and emotional), being the olfactory dimension more difficult to feel in the situation under pressure in the office for both Protocols, and on the court in Protocol 2, and the gustatory one on the court and in Protocol 2. Unexpectedly, it was also more difficult to feel the auditory one in the office in Protocol 1. In the mental techniques application imagery, the gustatory dimension was more difficult to feel both in the office (Study 2-A) and on the court (Study 2-B) and also, unexpectedly, the auditory one on the court. Therefore, the thesis results reflect the importance of monitoring the mental training of activation in situations under pressure; data of great use to improve neutral and under- pressure imagery and mental training in order to help athletes work on their activation. It is also useful to create neurofeedback protocols to increase the ability to perform imagery in athletes with both high and low experience and thus improve their mental training and self-awareness of under-pressure situations in their lives, what causes them, how they experience them and what they must do to deal with them.
... Imagery and mental rehearsal involve visualizing and practicing a certain athletic task without muscular movement (Corbin, 1972). Finally, visuo-motor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) incorporates relaxation into imagery, which can later be applied while actually performing the sport and receiving performance feedback (Suinn, 1972). ...
... MSPE training may additionally serve as a team bonding experience. In addition to more research with waiting-list controls, comparisons of MSPE to Gardner and Moore's MAC protocol (2004 and also to other traditional CBT interventions (e.g., VMBR; Suinn, 1972) are important. For example, MAC was recently compared with psychological skills training in a large randomized controlled trial, demonstrating significant results (see . ...
The present study sought to determine the effects of Mindful Sport Performance Enhancement (MSPE) on runners. Participants were 25 recreational long-distance runners openly assigned to either the 4-week intervention or to a waiting-list control group, which later received the same program. Results indicate that the MSPE group showed significantly more improvement in organizational demands (an aspect of perfectionism) compared with controls. Analyses of pre- to postworkshop change found a significant increase in state mindfulness and trait awareness and decreases in sport-related worries, personal standards perfectionism, and parental criticism. No improvements in actual running performance were found. Regression analyses revealed that higher ratings of expectations and credibility of the workshop were associated with lower postworkshop perfectionism, more years running predicted higher ratings of perfectionism, and more life stressors predicted lower levels of worry. Findings suggest that MSPE may be a useful mental training intervention for improving mindfulness, sport-anxiety related worry, and aspects of perfectionism in long-distance runners.
... The rehearsal procedure is a psychological intervention which involves relaxation procedures and imagery rehearsal. This method was first described by Suinn (1972aSuinn ( , 1972b, who observed some clinical evidence about the effectiveness of imagery rehearsal but control data could not be obtained for the final comparisons. Suinn (1985) points out that this method "favorably affects motor performance"; however, the results of other studies which used this procedure are equivocal. ...
To examine the effect of visuomotor behavior rehearsal on archers' shooting performance two groups of athletes were tested, one experimental and one control. The experimental group of 9 received a specifically designed program which included relaxation conditions and imagery rehearsal. The control group of 9 received only physical practice. Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 was used to measure the precompetitive state anxiety and self-confidence. Self-reports were used to evaluate the intermediate effectiveness of the program. Analysis showed no significant changes from pre- to posttest shooting scores. No significant changes were observed in sport-specific state anxiety. Significant changes were found on the tense-relaxed scale administered before and after the relaxation program.
... Zihinsel olarak uygulanan bu yöntemin fiziksel anlamda sporcuya kazandırdığı kuvvet diğer araştırmacıların ve antrenörlerin dikkatini çekmiştir. Başka bir çalışmada Suin (16), bir kayakçının bacaklarına bağladığı elektrotlar yardımıyla ilk önce kayak hareketini yaparken ölçüm almıştır. Daha sonra aynı kayma hareketini uygulamadan zihinsel olarak hayal etmesini istemiştir ve tekrar ölçüm yapmıştır. ...
... In another study, the implementation of a cognitive-affective stress management training program based on Smith's (1986) CASBBM led to lower levels of negative thinking among volleyball players (Crocker, Alderman, & Smith, 1988). There is also empirical support for the use of visual-motor behavioral rehearsal (Suinn, 1972) and stress inoculation training (Meichenbaum, 1977) for stress reduction among athletes. It is noteworthy that these studies targeted stress and not burnout. ...
Background
The purpose of this study was to implement and assess the impact of a person-centered, feel-based self-regulation intervention on the stress, burnout, well-being, and self-regulation capacity of eight university student-athletes experiencing burnout. This was warranted given the negative outcomes associated with athlete burnout, the scarcity of burnout research focusing on student-athletes, and the lack of intervention research addressing burnout in sport.
Method
A mixed methods design including questionnaires administered at four time points during the athletic season, pre- and postintervention interviews, and multiple intervention sessions was used.
Results
Repeated-measures ANOVAs revealed that stress and burnout levels significantly decreased, and well-being and self-regulation capacity levels significantly increased as the intervention progressed. The qualitative data supported these findings.
Conclusion
It appears that university student-athletes participating in this type of intervention can learn to effectively manage themselves and their environment to reduce adverse symptoms and improve optimal functioning.
... Zihinsel olarak uygulanan bu yöntemin fiziksel anlamda sporcuya kazandırdığı kuvvet diğer araştırmacıların ve antrenörlerin dikkatini çekmiştir. Başka bir çalışmada Suin (16), bir kayakçının bacaklarına bağladığı elektrotlar yardımıyla ilk önce kayak hareketini yaparken ölçüm almıştır. Daha sonra aynı kayma hareketini uygulamadan zihinsel olarak hayal etmesini istemiştir ve tekrar ölçüm yapmıştır. ...
... Sports psychologists have often reported that athletes can enhance their performance through the use of mental imagery (Murphy, 1994;Orlick, 1986;Suinn, 1972Suinn, , 1985Suinn, , 1993. Results of a meta-analysis of mental rehearsal studies indicate that mental practice, including the use of imagery, has a positive and significant effect on performance (Driskell, Copper, & Moran, 1994). ...
Consulting psychologists are ideally suited to assist in the creation of healthy and life-enhancing workplaces that can increase employee productivity while promoting behaviors that reduce the risk of lifestyle disease incidence or mitigate the effects of such illnesses when already present. When psychologists integrate strategies from health psychology, these interventions can help reduce medical costs and contribute to worker productivity and morale, because these strategies are proven to decrease the incidence of the five leading lifestyle diseases: coronary heart disease, lung cancer, chronic obstructive pulmonary disorder, diabetes, and stroke. Integrating techniques from sports psychology as well results in even more effective healthy workplaces than could be achieved from using either set of techniques in isolation. Recommendations are offered for nutritional counseling, smoking cessation, stress management, and exercise initiation. Five skills from sports psychology mental training are described because they could be incorporated into psychologists' interventions for enhancing employee performance. A case study illustrates the key points.
... As early as the 1920s, there were texts published concerning psychological influences on superior sport performance (Griffith, 1926) and contemporary elite sport teams almost always feature sport psychology training for athletes (Olympic Beat, 1996). In addition, many psychologists have recognized, and taken advantage of the fact, that sport contexts are productive "invivo" laboratories for studying constructs as diverse as racial identity (Hall, 1998), gender identity (Oglesby & Hill, 1993), optimal activation and performance (Suinn, 1972(Suinn, , 1980 designed to enable the athletes to "work through" (more thoroughly and effectively process) a perceived "worst moment" in their sport careers. The EMDR treatment has been shown to be effective in ameliorating severe clinical problems in several controlled studies (Shapiro, 1995c). ...
Post-traumatic stress disorder experts have recently pointed out that while traumatic events have been the core of cultural tales for centuries, it is highly unlikely today that any individual will avoid the direct experience of a traumatic event during a lifetime. The present study was an initial exploration of the effectiveness of an approach, designed for clinical issues of trauma, in sport; a nonclinical, field study environment marked by consistent high pressure to perform with excellence. The hypotheses of the study called for examination of pre and post treatment scores of control, EMDR, and placebo group subjects on five dependent variables: States of Consciousness During Movement Activity Inventory (SCMAI); State-trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI); Coach-Perceived Performance Rating (CPPR); Subjective Units of Distress Scale (SUDS); and Validity of Cognition Scale (VoC). Collegiate varsity athletes (N = 48) from the sports of field hockey, gymnastics, lacrosse, track and field, and volleyball were randomly assigned to one of three treatment groups. The control group completed the SCMAI and STAI with 3 to 4 weeks intervening. The placebo group completed the inventories and a week later met with a sport psychology consultant (researcher) for focus on the identified "worst moment in sport." The SUDS and VoC scores were collected during the session. After another week, the inventories were completed for the last time. The pattern for the eye movement desensitization reprocessing (EMDR) group was identical to the placebo group except the session followed a basic protocol for EMDR. The focus of the session was, again, the subjects, worst moment in sport. The results revealed no statistically significant pre to post changes in treatment group scores in regard to the SCMAI, STAI, and coach-perceived performance. Results significant p
... In the field of psychoneurourununology, posihve correlahons have been shown between comfort achieved by relaxation and unagery to enhanced immune parameters (Jasnoski & Kugler 1987, McOelland 1988, Zadianzea ei al 1990, Groer 1991 Sumlarly, comfort achieved by relaxahon and imagery have desirable effects on blood pressure (Pender 1985), pulse (Guzzetta 1980) and respirahons (Alexander ei al 1979 In a study of abortion, pahents had mcreased comfort after partiapahng m pleasant unagery (Wells 1989) In efforts to mcrease athletic performance and endurance, comfort achieved by imagery was related posihvely to basketball skills (Kendall et al 1990), muscular endurance urespechve of mood state (Lee 1990) and strength (Murphy ei al 1988) Funchonal outcomes were enhanced by the comfortmg effects of relaxahon m adults with traumahc head mjiuies (Lysaght & Bodenhamer 1990), while copmg strategies were enhanced by effeds of a smular mtervenhon m children (LaMontagne ei al 1985), students with test anxiety (Suinn 1972), and m adults with mulhple sderosis (Foley ei al 1987) The mtervenhons ated above are holishc and the outcomes are congruent with mtemal or extemal health-seekmg behaviours These studies and others lend encouragement to nurse researchers who ask the queshoa 'Why comfortT ...
Although the construct of comfort has been analysed, diagrammed in a two-dimensional content map, and operationalized as a holistic outcome, it has not been conceptualized within the context of a broader theory for the discipline of nursing. The theoretical work presented here utilizes an intra-actional perspective to develop a theory of comfort as a positive outcome of nursing case. A model of human press is the framework within which comfort is related to (a) interventions that enhance the state of comfort and (b) desirable subsequent outcomes of nursing care. The paper concludes with a discussion about the theory of comfort as a significant one for the discipline of nursing.
Although many types of relaxation techniques are available, definitive data are needed to examine their effectiveness. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of a 6-week program of visuomotor behavior rehearsal, and a control on slow fire, timed fire, rapid fire, and composite (total) pistol-shooting performance of 15 male and 15 female undergraduates. A 3 treatment (Transcendental Meditation, Visuomotor Behavior Rehearsal, Control) × 2 (Trial 1, 2: Pretest, Posttest) randomized design was used to examine the data. The visuomotor behavior rehearsal group showed a consistent increase from pretest to posttest on all four types of pistol-shooting performance. Results were discussed in relation to cognitive and somatic types of relaxation and their effect on specific sport skills.
This investigation was designed to assess the effect of visuomotor behavior rehearsal (VMBR) with videotaped modeling on racquetball performance of beginning players. 24 male students in beginning racquetball class were randomly assigned to either VMBR with videotape modeling or relaxation and imagery (no modeling) condition for a 2-wk. training period. All subjects were pre- and posttested on forehand and backhand racquetball skill tests. Analysis indicated an effect for forehand shooting, with those given visuomotor behavior rehearsal with videotaped model exhibiting better performance than the relaxation and imagery group, but no effect for backhand shooting.
Introduction
In the field of sports psychology, imagery training plays a significant role in enhancing athletes’ mental preparation and optimizing sports performance. This study aims to investigate the effects of the Virtual Reality-Based Imagery (VRBI) training model on muscle activation and kinesthetic motor imagery skills in athletes. Specifically, the study compares the VRBI model with traditional imagery methods, including Visual Motor Behavior Practice (VMBP) and Video Modeling (VM), to determine its effectiveness in improving neuromuscular responses.
Methods
A quasi-experimental design with repeated measures was employed, involving 30 bodybuilders and fitness athletes who were randomly assigned to VRBI, VMBP+VM, and control groups. Muscle activation was measured using surface electromyography (sEMG) across a 12-week intervention period. The intervention protocols included progressive relaxation, video modeling, and imagery exercises tailored to enhance kinesthetic motor imagery skills.
Results
The results revealed that the VRBI model significantly increased muscle activation levels and kinesthetic motor imagery skills compared to both the VMBP+VM and control groups (p < 0.01). Notably, athletes in the VRBI group achieved peak muscle activation one week earlier than those in the VMBP+VM group, demonstrating a faster adaptation process. Additionally, VRBI training led to a more substantial improvement in imagery skills, suggesting its superiority in mental training interventions.
Discussion and conclusion
The VRBI model offers a more effective approach to enhancing muscle activation and kinesthetic motor imagery skills in athletes. These findings highlight the potential of VRBI as a valuable tool for optimizing sports performance and accelerating peak performance achievement.
This review of research dealing with psychologically induced arousal and motor performance focuses on the hypothesized inverted-∪ function relating arousal to performance. The inverted-∪ hypothesis is supported only in a weak and psychologically trivial fashion: Subjects with incentive will outperform either those with none or those responding to a serious and plausible threat; the arousal level of the first group will be intermediate to those of the other two. However, debilitating states (e.g., anxiety) can occur at arousal levels equal to that optimal for performance (the state of being “psyched up”). The concept of arousal cannot distinguish between these and other states (e.g., anger, sexuality, and fear) because it is an excessively broad physiological construct artificially severed from its psychological context. More useful research in human motor performance would investigate discrete psychobiological states, which include affect and cognition as well as physiology. Examination of profound individual differences in response to incentive and threat suggests that psychobiological states have their genesis in response expectancies and hypnotic-like self-inductions. The cognitive and affective components of these states are highly interactive and perhaps not profitably separated. Because performance anxiety is a central problem in the motor realm, it is carefully delineated and the test anxiety literature is scrutinized. Psychophysiological test batteries and other investigations in the area are described, and guidelines for future research are provided.
Vision is recognized as an important element of sports performance. Which visual factors are important and how to most effectively assess visual performance is the source of much debate. This chapter presents an evidence-based review of the common visual performance factors assessed in athletes. Updates on commercially available instrumentation to assess various visual performance abilities is presented.
Present study was aimed at investigating the role of Physical, Environmental, Task, Timing, Learning, Emotion and Perspective (PETTLEP) Imagery technique in the improvement of skill precision level of hockey drag flickers. For this purpose, both male (83) and female (38) hockey drag flickers (n=121) of age ranged between 17 and 27 years were selected from different hockey teams belonging to clubs, colleges, universities, departments, regional and national academies of Pakistan. Participants were made to undergo a Pretest-Intervention-Posttest research design consisted of 20 drag flicks and filling of SIAQ questionnaire. Drag Flick Precision Measurement Test (DFPMT) along with Sports Imagery Ability Questionnaire (SIAQ) were used to measure their skill precision levels and their imagery ability. The participants were classified into three categories as per their skill precision levels (Point-based), ranging from 48 Novice (upto12 points), 42 Intermediate (13–18 points) and 31 Elite (19 points and above), and were randomly assigned to one of four intervention groups; Physical Practice (PP), PETTLEP Imagery Practice (IP), Physical Practice+PETTLEP Imagery Practice Combination (CP), and No Practice (NP) Control group. Each group performed their respective tasks for 10 weeks through specially designed physical training programs aided by Imagery scripts. Paired sample t test analysis showed that all groups improved significantly (p<0.05) from pre- to post-test, and the CP group improved more with average improvement value of 8.32 for DFPMT and 5.39 for SIAQ (p<0.05) than the IP, PP and NP groups. However, there was no significant difference found between the PP (Sig. 0.73) and NP (Sig. 0.44) groups in SIAQ. Result extend prior research findings and suggests that PETTLEP Imagery practice used in combination with Physical practice has substantial impact on improving performance of complex motor skills, Present findings showed that PETTLEP imagery model was found to improve player’s precision skill levels, especially when it was combined with physical practice. However, further studies in this connection are needed.
The present study investigated the effectiveness of Visuo-Motor Behavior Rehearsal (VMBR)
intervention on learning archery shooting skill among beginners. The participants were 20 male physical
education trainees with age ranging from 22 to 30 years. The trainees were randomly assigned into
experimental group and control group. The experimental group underwent 4 sessions VMBR training
whereas the control group performs regular archery skill training as usual for 16 sessions. A significant
difference was observed, indicating that the physical practical group performs better than the VMBR
group on the archery shooting skill after the completion of 4 weeks (4 days/week) of archery training.
Keywords: Visuo-motor behavior rehearsal, archery, imagery, AAHPER
ZET Hem spor hem iş koçluğunun psikoloji uygulamaları ile ilgili kişisel bakış açısı, her iki ortamda uygulayıcıları tarafından kullanılan kuram ve modelleri incelemektedir. Bu çalışmada spor ile iş çevrelerinin birlikte gerçekleştirdiği ortak araştırma projeleri, performans talepleri, araştırma örnekleri ve önerileri incelenmektedir. Ayrıca bu çalışmada spor liderlerinden iş liderlerine öneriler özetlenmiş ve sporda dönüşümsel liderlik ile alakalı bir çalışma örneği verilmiştir. Yazarın görüşüne göre, her iki performans ortamında koçluk yapan psikologlar, daha çok uygulamalı araştırma ile ilişkili olan yaklaşımlardan fayda sağlayabilmektedir. SPORT AND BUSINESS COACHING: PERSPECTIVE OF A SPORT PSYCHOLOGIST ABSTRACT This personal perspective on both sport and business coaching psychology practice discusses theories and models utilised by practitioners in both settings. Performance demands and examples of intervention research common to sport and business settings are described, and suggestions on collaborative research projects are offered. Advice that sport leaders have offered business leaders is summarised and a case study example of transformational leadership in sport is provided. In the author's opinion the evidence suggests that coaching psychologists in both performance environments would benefit considerably from more closely linked approaches to applied research.
Our stance on the importance of tasks is simple: We do not see tasks as an adjunct, even a critical adjunct to brief psychotherapy. Rather, we see them as the basis for actiòn in brief psychotherapy. If therapy is to be effective in a short period of time, the therapist must encourage the efficient conduct of the client’s therapeutic activities—both in and outside of the therapy session. The opportunity that tasks provide for the productive use of time outside regularly scheduled hours is extensive. Therapists and clients may use this time for such activities as the observation of naturally occurring events or the practice of skills learned during the therapeutic session. (A more extensive discussion of different types of tasks follows in the next section.)
The purpose of the present chapter is to examine the utility of a variety of cognitive behavioral treatments designed to enhance tolerance for painful stimuli. The chapter is organized into three main sections. First, before describing the specific coping strategies employed, a brief overview of the phenomenon of pain will be provided. Such an overview underscores the complexity and intractability of this universal experience, and reveals the bases for the traditional therapeutic modalities employed to ameliorate pain.
Anxiety, tension, and stress are significant and pervasive problems in our society, so much so that the twentieth century has sometimes been called the Age of Anxiety. The magnitude of anxiety-related problems is reflected by the fact that Valium and Librium are two of the most frequently prescribed drugs in this country. The major focus of this chapter will be on the chronically anxious patient, the patient who experiences an extreme degree and amount of anxiety. Although the chronically anxious patient will be our primary focus, we will also discuss briefly stress-disease relationships in other patients.
There is a considerable overlap between behavioral medicine and the closely related field of sport and exercise psychology. Both deal with the human body, its interactions with the physical and social environment, and have as their goals to help that body function as effectively as possible, whether achieving and maintaining health or, at the other end of the continuum, performing at a world class level in an athletic event. The emphasis of this chapter, however, will be on sport and exercise applications of psychological principles, rather than on the more clearly medical applications. The point of view taken will be primarily from a behaviorological perspective.
An emetophobic child is nonresponsive to conventional systematic desensitization and has her anxiety responses counterconditioned by using Competence Imagery instead of physical relaxation responses while progressing through her fear hierarchy.
From basic eye care services to visual performance enhancement training, this evidence-based resource explores a wide range of sports vision services, addressing many of the questions you may have regarding assessment and treatment procedures, outcome expectations, and applications to sport. You'll find a thorough review and discussion of the role of vision care in an athlete's performance, as well as practical recommendations for applying current research findings to clinical practice. The accompanying CD-ROM enables you to easily print your own copies and versions of evaluation forms, screening forms, sample profiles, and patient handouts, plus other samples and resources used in client assessment and training! Evidence-based information covers a wide range of sports vision services. A task analysis approach used throughout the text allows the reader to develop solid reasoning skills and evaluate information needed for clinical practice. Coverage of goals, expectations, and strategies assists in determining the treatment options for a multitude of sports. Practical, clinically oriented chapters on assessment, prescribing, and ocular injuries provide the essential information needed for clinical practice in an easy-to-use reference. Addresses vision training from the certified athletic trainers (ATC) perspective, reflecting the collaboration between athletic trainers, optometrists, and ophthalmologists in managing athletes. Visual aids including photographs, tables, and boxed text help to clarify important concepts and allow ease of access to important information. A CD-ROM is included allowing quick access to important resources used in client assessment and training.
Many gastroenterology treatments would be minimally effective if patients did not adhere to prescribed therapeutic regimens. However, considerable evidence exists that patients often do not adhere. Factors associated with nonadherence include the physician's or other health care provider's behavior, the prescribed regimen, and the illness. These factors affect patient adherence such that: 1) patients do not have the skills or knowledge necessary to complete an assignment; 2) patients do not believe that they will be helped by the prevention or intervention activity, or they do not accept the activity because they do not believe that its value will outweigh its costs; and 3) patients' environments are not supportive of, or interfere with, adherence. Strategies that can increase adherence include attention to the physician/patient relationship, direct skill training, setting up a reward structure, and reminders, among others. Specific methods that gastroenterology health care providers can utilize to enhance adherence in their practice are presented. (Am J Gastroenterol 1999;94:1733-1742. (C) 1999 by Am. Coll. of Gastroenterology).
This study examined the effectiveness ofvisuo-motor behavior rehearsal(VMBR) as a method of reducing acute stress and improving police officer performance. Fifty-four recruits were randomly assigned to a treatment and a nontreatment condition prior to undergoing a highly stressful, critical event training scenario involving “live fire.” A manipulation check showed that participants who received VMBR displayed significantly lower scores on the cognitive state anxiety subscale of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2; somatic state anxiety and self-confidence were unaffected by the VMBR treatment. Most importantly, participants in the VMBR training condition displayed better performance on the critical event scenario, including significantly more assailant “hits.” The findings are discussed with respect to the four-stage model of stress and human performance of Salas and colleagues.
Although many types of relaxation techniques are available, definitive data are needed to examine their effectiveness. The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of a 6-week program of visuomotor behavior rehearsal, and a control on slow fire, timed fire, rapid fire, and composite (total) pistol-shooting performance of 15 male and 15 female undergraduates. A 3 treatment (Transcendental Meditation, Visuomotor Behavior Rehearsal, Control) × 2 (Trial 1, 2: Pretest, Posttest) randomized design was used to examine the data. The visuomotor behavior rehearsal group showed a consistent increase from pretest to posttest on all four types of pistol-shooting performance. Results were discussed in relation to cognitive and somatic types of relaxation and their effect on specific sport skills.
The present study compared the effects of correcting errors in a typical tennis class to selectively ignoring these errors while praising appropriate tennis performance. The effects of this behavioral procedure, differential reinforcement, were assessed using a multiple baseline design across subjects (three junior high students) and three tennis skills: forehand, backhand, and serve. The results demonstrated that differential reinforcement increased performance two to four times over baseline. These results extend the findings on differential reinforcement and suggest this procedure as a method for developing sports skills.
This paper reviews the mental practice literature as well as more current research on the effect of specific mental preparation strategies on skilled performance. A synopsis of the mental practice literature indicated that mental practice was generally effective in enhancing performance. For maximum effectiveness, mental practice should be used in conjunction with physical practice and should not be thought of as a replacement for physical practice. The degree of effectiveness of mental practice is dependent on a number of variables, such as conceptualizing ability, previous experience, task type, and length of practice session. Recently, researchers have begun to study the effect of specific mental preparation on motor performance. Some of the more popular techniques include imagery, selfefficacy statements, attentional focus, preparatory arousal, and relaxation. In addition, several recent techniques such as stress innoculation training and visuomotor behavior rehearsal use a combination of the techniques. Although preliminary empirical research is encouraging, more controlled outcome studies are necessary to determine the effectiveness of these techniques in enhancing skilled performance.
One theme in discussing physical activity and stress is the relationship between emotional arousal and motor performance. Different research models have produced converging evidence for the notion that motor performance relates to a state of optimal arousal. Themes emerging from the literature and recommendations for future consideration are examined. (SM)
This personal perspective on both sport and business coaching psychology practice discusses theories and models utilised by practitioners in both settings. Performance demands and examples of intervention research common to sport and business settings are described, and suggestions on collaborative research projects are offered. Advice that sport leaders have offered business leaders is summarised and a case study example of transformational leadership in sport is provided. In the author's opinion the evidence suggests that coaching psychologists in both performance environments would benefit considerably from more closely linked approaches to applied research.
Research examining imagery use by athletes is reviewed within the context of an applied model for sport. The model conceptualizes the sport situation, the type of imagery used, and imagery ability as factors that influence how imagery use can affect an athlete. Three broad categories of imagery effects are examined: (a) skill and strategy learning and performance, (b) cognitive modification, and (c) arousal and anxiety regulation. Recommendations are offered for the operationalization and measurement of constructs within the model, and suggestions are provided for how the model may guide future research and application. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
IntroductionInjury preventionInjury rehabilitationPractical considerationsFurther reading
Il lavoro in Polizia è riconosciuto in letteratura come altamente stres-sante. Basti pensare che, fin dai primi anni Ottanta, Spielberger aveva ide-ato uno strumento volto proprio a misurare lo stress nelle forze di Polizia chiamato Police Stress Survey (Spielberger et al., 1980). In Europa, negli Stati Uniti e in Australia sono state effettuate numerose ricerche al fine di indagare i molteplici aspetti del benessere, della qualità della vita lavorati-va e della salute mentale dei poliziotti (Anshel, Robertson e Caputi, 1997; Dick, 2000; Mayhew, 2001; McNeill, 1996). Quando si vogliono comprendere gli effetti della vita lavorativa sul benessere psicologico e sull'adattamento psicologico di un agente di Poli-zia, così come per altri ambiti professionali, è opportuno prendere in consi-derazione la molteplicità delle dimensioni negli aspetti positivi e negativi. stressanti a cui sono esposti sono inerenti alle mansioni (scon-tri violenti, incidenti, disastri) e al contesto di lavo-ro (clima organizzativo, norme culturali). Le diffe-renze individuali nella percezione degli stressor e nelle strategie di coping spiegano la complessità della relazione stress-salute. L'ultima sezione è dedicata agli interventi più efficaci per prevenire il burnout e ridurre il disagio psicologico e i comportamenti a rischio tra gli operatori di Polizia.
An experiment was designed to investigate the nature and impact of cognitive psyching strategies employed by competitive weight lifters on an analogue strength task. At an Olympic-style weight-lifting meet, volunteer subjects were randomly assigned to either an experimental or a control group. After baseline assessment of strength, experimental subjects were asked to use their favorite psyching strategy as a means of improving their performance on a final strength test. Control subjects were urged to strive toward improving their performance but were not instructed to psych themselves up. To minimize the effects of spontaneous (unrequested) psyching, control subjects were asked to engage in a distracting cognitive task during the preperformance interval. Results indicated that subjects who had been asked to psych themselves showed greater improvements in strength than did control subjects. Post experimental interviews suggested that four basic psyching strategies had been employed: (1) statements bearing on selfefficacy, (2) control of attention, (3) preparatory arousal, and (4) imagery techniques. Focus of attention was the most popular strategy. Implications of this study are briefly discussed.
This study compared the effectiveness of electromyographic (EMG) biofeedback and relaxation treatment in producing flexibility increases at the hip joint. Retention of flexibility gains and changes in sprinting performance were also examined. Fifteen male and 15 female athletes, predominantly sprinters, were matched according to age, sex, and flexibility and were randomly assigned to one of three groups. The control group received only the testing, the biofeedback group received visual and auditory EMG training, and the relaxation group received modified PMR and imagery exercises. Subjects in the two experimental groups were given eight twice-weekly 10-minute sessions and then were retested for flexibility. Retention of flexibility was reassessed 2 and 4 weeks later. Sprint performance improved for all groups. EMG biofeedback and relaxation treatment methods were no more effective than stretching exercises used by the control group for improving flexibility during the treatment period, but they did produce evidence of superior flexibility gains in the retention period. This may be important as flexibility has been reported to be related to the incidence of injuries.
The effectiveness of two treatments for reducing stress associated with the Type A behavior pattern was evaluated. One treatment, Stress Management Training, was a replication of a previously reported treatment. The Cognitive Therapy treatment, based on the principles of rational-emotive therapy, was designed specifically for this study. Both treatment groups were compared with a waiting list control group on several self-report and physiological measures. For subjects who initially had the highest degree of Type A characteristics, Cognitive Therapy was more effective than Stress Management Training or no treatment in reducing self-perceived levels of Type A behavior. Both treatments reduced self-reported anxiety levels, and were more effective than no treatment. Neither treatment reduced subjects' cholesterol levels or blood pressure.
The steps of brief treatment promoted by Watzlawick, Weakland and Fisch (1974) and Haley (1976, 1987) elude the novice family practitioner, especially in deriving end-of-the session task interventions from earlier assessment. The gap between the suggested procedure and the beginning clinician''s results is just starting to surface in brief therapy research. This paper compares the above authors'' interactional and problem-solving approaches, contextualizing their theories in light of training issues emerging from preliminary research. The ensuing myths of brief family therapy task intervention typically espoused by the neophyte are thus demystified, making what experience teaches more accessible.
Psychologists have just recently shown interest in the field of sports. Researchers studied a number of phenomena related to athletes, especially regarding competitive anxiety (Epstein & Fenz, 1962; Fenz, 1975; Mahoney & Avener, 1977; Vanek & Cratty, 1972). Mahoney and Avener (1977) in a correlational study showed that successful American gymnasts had a tendency to be more anxious prior to the competition than the less successful ones. Although all gymnasts' anxiety decreased during the event, the best performers in gymnastics showed a greater decrease of their anxiety compared to the less successful ones. Furthermore, they found that the gymnasts who used primarily internal images (i.e., feeling our own body sensations as if we were in actual competition) performed better than the ones using external imageries (i.e., viewing ourselves from the perspective of a movie character). These authors recommended channeling the anxiety in a productive way, rather than trying to eliminate it. A previous study by Epstein and Fenz (1962) showed that the knowledge of the level of anxiety may lead to a misinterpretation of the athletes' abilities. Therefore it is more important to know how the athlete copes with anxiety than to know his/her level of anxiety. These findings were further confirmed by Fenz (1975), who reported that the heart rate patterns are different between experienced and inexperienced parachutists. The same report showed that parachuting skills seem to be related to the way the individual controls his autonomic responses. Mahoney and Avener (1977) and Vanek and Cratty (1972) maintained that an optimal level of tension is an essential condition for an excellent
Systematic desensitization has been used almost solely for the purpose of overeoming emotional responses blocking adaptive behavior.I, ~, 6,11 There have been extremely few studies attempting to use desensitization to establish new adaptive behaviors directly. Suinn and Richardson 9 relied upon desensitization procedures to cl~ssically condition alertnes~s in a client who frequently fell asleep driving. Morgax~stern and Ratliff 4 had clients visualize smoking scenes until they lo.st their urge to smoke. Lazarus 3 and Suinn' applied a combination of imagination and rehearsal for therapeutic purposes, but none of these dealt with clients, with the level of obses~sivenes,s and the par.anoid overtones of the case study reported in this paper. The c~se reported here involved desensitization to achieve (1) the reduction of anxiety in interpers, onal situatior~s, and (2) the establishraent of feelings of self-confidence and social competency. CASE STUDY Background Data The client, a 35-yecg.old mathematician with a doctoral degree from a major university, has held two responsible positions, losing one through budget cutbacks and resigning from the other. He and his wife appear to be estranged but living under the same roof.
This article reviews studies relating relaxation treatments to motor performance and attempts to explain these treatments from a psychological perspective. The inverted-U hypothesis is evaluated for this purpose and found deficient for several reasons. It is based on arousal which has serious construct validation problems and is essentially a physiological, rather than a psychological, construct. As such, arousal cannot distinguish among fear, anger, sexuality, and other psychobiological states. Predictive validity is consequently low in the area of motor performance, where it appears that debilitating anxiety can occur at the same arousal level as the state optimal/or performance, being “psyched up.” The inverted-U hypothesis is effectively refutable in current usage, and empirically supported in only a weak and psychologically trivial fashion. Relaxation treatments are reconceptualized as relatively nonspecific psychological therapies, potentially useful in alleviating dysphoric, debilitating psychobiological states. These treatments are particularly apt for athletics, where performance anxiety is a pervasive problem. Additionally, sports psychology seems an ideal proving ground for wider clinical application of these techniques.
Objectives. To investigate equivocal findings within the literature addressing the relationship between competitive anxiety responses and psychological skills. Intensity (i.e. level) and direction (i.e. interpretation of intensity as facilitative or debilitative) dimensions of competitive state anxiety and self-confidence were examined in performers with different levels of psychological skills usage.Design. Cross-sectional design assessing psychological constructs during competition. The independent variable was psychological skill usage (“high” and “low” groups) and dependent variables were competitive anxiety responses.Method. Non-elite competitive swimmers (N=114) completed a modified version of the Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 (CSAI-2) which examined both intensity and direction dimensions prior to racing. Following the event these participants completed the Test of Performance Strategies (TOPS) which measures psychological skills usage. Based on the TOPS scores the swimmers were dichotomised using post-hoc median-split into high and low usage groups for certain psychological skills.Results. MANOVAs revealed significant differences in the CSAI-2 scores between the high and low usage groups for the skills of relaxation, self-talk and imagery. ANOVAs indicated significant differences on all CSAI-2 subscales for relaxation groups, and differences on cognitive intensity, somatic direction and self-confidence for self-talk groups, and self-confidence for the imagery groups.Conclusions. Non-elite swimmers, in contrast with previous research examining elite swimmers (Hanton, S. & Jones, G. (1999a). The acquisition and development of cognitive skills and strategies: I. Making the butterflies fly in formation. The Sport Psychologist, 13, 1–21), primarily use relaxation strategies to reduce and interpret their anxiety intensity levels as facilitative, relying minimally on other psychological skills.
Sporcunun performansını arttırmak amacıyla kullanılan yöntemlerden birisi olan zihinsel antrenmana olan ilgi giderek artmaktadır. Bu çerçevede, zihinsel antrenman, sporcunun performansına olumlu katkıda bulunması ve fiziksel antrenmanlarla birlikte uygulamaya dâhil edilmesi açısından son zamanlarda en çok araştırılan psikolojik kavramlar arasında yer almaktadır. Bu derlemenin amacı; sporcunun performansını yükseltmek amacıyla kullanılan zihinsel antrenman metodunun tarihsel gelişimi hakkında bilgi vermek, sporcunun performansına olan olumlu etkilerini yazılı kaynaklarda yer alan çalışmalar çerçevesinde özetlemek ve daha çok yurt dışında kullanılan bu yöntemin ülkemiz sporunda da daha kapsamlı bir şekilde ele alınması için önerilerde bulunmaktır.
A procedure is described for teaching patients the use of relaxation as a coping skill. The procedure, called Stress Management Training, combines Progressive Relaxation and Clinical Meditation into a standardized but flexible seven-session protocol. The technique has been used to treat a variety of stress-related medical and psychological problems. The training consists of three components. The first is giving the patient a cognitive understanding of stress and relaxation. The second, teaching the patient to relax by controlling the muscle tension and sympathetic nervous system activity. The third, teaching the patient to generalize the relaxation skill to real-life stress situations. Patients are also instructed in the relationship between stress, basic health practices, and physical health status.
A procedure is described for teaching elderly persons the use of relaxation as a coping skill. The procedure, called Stress Management Training, seeks to provide the client with: 1) a cognitive understanding of stress and relaxation, 2) the ability to relax by controlling muscle tension and sympathetic-nervous-system activity, and 3) the ability to extend the relaxation skill to real-life stress situations. A case report demonstrates the process, which is an educational model rather than a medical model. The role of the psychotherapist as an educator and the potential usefulness of the social learning theory as a basis for conceptualizing mental health problems are discussed.
Systematic desensitization has been used almost solely for the purpose of overeoming emotional responses blocking adaptive behavior.I, ~, 6,11 There have been extremely few studies attempting to use desensitization to establish new adaptive behaviors directly. Suinn and Richardson 9 relied upon desensitization procedures to cl~ssically condition alertnes~s in a client who frequently fell asleep driving. Morgax~stern and Ratliff 4 had clients visualize smoking scenes until they lo.st their urge to smoke. Lazarus 3 and Suinn' applied a combination of imagination and rehearsal for therapeutic purposes, but none of these dealt with clients, with the level of obses~sivenes,s and the par.anoid overtones of the case study reported in this paper. The c~se reported here involved desensitization to achieve (1) the reduction of anxiety in interpers, onal situatior~s, and (2) the establishraent of feelings of self-confidence and social competency. CASE STUDY Background Data The client, a 35-yecg.old mathematician with a doctoral degree from a major university, has held two responsible positions, losing one through budget cutbacks and resigning from the other. He and his wife appear to be estranged but living under the same roof.