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Street Children of Bombay: Their Stresses and Strategies of Coping
Abstract
Using a multi-method approach, this study identifies the stresses and coping strategies of street children in Bombay, particularly of the ‘children of the street’. Semi-structured in-depth interviews, focus group discussions, informal interviews and a case study were used to collect data from 73 street children, five agency social workers and three street workers. The results suggest that children face several challenges in their search for food, safety, employment, shelter and medical care. They commonly depend on their peers, non-governmental agencies, and their own resourcefulness to survive on the streets. While the majority use positive mechanisms to cope with their daily stresses, some children also employ maladaptive strategies such as using alcohol, drugs, and visiting prostitutes. The study also reveals that these ‘children of the street’ are not entirely on their own but depend on various connections with substitute family members and/or their peers to cope with life. The stresses and coping strategies of the ‘children of the street’ are similar to those of other street children who live with their families and work on the streets. Agencies that work with street children may need to recognize these challenges and strengths to provide needed services to improve their condition.
... Behaviors such as engaging in forms of violence within criminal organizations (Atkinson-Sheppard, 2017), leaving one's family to live in the streets (Kombarakaran, 2004;Mizen & Ofosu-Kusi, 2013), yearning for martyrdom (Veronese et al., 2018), and engaging in acts of thefts (Mahati, 2012;Myburg et al., 2015) are described by the various authors (and the participants in their studies) as strategies designed to reduce a sense of vulnerability and improve one's life satisfaction. All these studies also highlight the various destructive and harmful aspects that these agentic practices entail for the children's lives and development (e.g., being arrested or killed). ...
... Similar aspects are described in other studies: "It is better to be on the street, I can get food" (Myburg et al., 2015, p. 3). Abandoned or let down by their families and by public or private assistance services and ignored by those social workers who claim to be advocating for them, these children display a considerable ability to search for security and the satisfaction of their primary needs elsewhere (Atkinson-Sheppard, 2017; Kombarakaran, 2004;Mizen & Ofosu-Kusi, 2013;Myburgh et al., 2015). One further example is provided by the words of migrant working children who move from Zimbabwe to South Africa in search of employment: "we did not come to SA to eat and sleep, we came to work" (Mahati, 2012, p. 71). ...
... The children involved all display a range of negative emotions, which include feelings of helplessness and hopelessness, or even suicidal thoughts. Furthermore, drug use provides an escape from reality and a solution enabling the children to remain in the streets "emotionally," yet entails a whole range of additional health risks that may even threaten their very survival (e.g., unprotected sexual intercourse resulting in exposure to STDs, sexual harassment) (Chikoko et al., , 2019Gigengack, 2006;Johnson et al., 2018;Kombarakaran, 2004). For instance, in a study of street children in Mexico, Gigengack (2006) stresses how their daily survival strategies comprised in the acquisition and consumption of glues and solvents. ...
Background: Research has widely documented how, even in conditions of extreme poverty, deprivation, or oppression, children are competent and situated actors, capable of actively mobilizing internal, external, or social resources to protect themselves from their environments and safeguard their everyday lives. Yet, the ways in which their agency might support their well-being or instead increase their own vulnerability has remained underexplored. Aims: The present study aims to provide an assessment of all those contributions which, over the past 20 years, have focused on both the positive and negative consequences of children's actionability, revealing children's self-destructive acts alongside their self-empowering and protective ones. In the process, it highlights several major theoretical breakthroughs and findings in this area of research. Method: We provide an assessment of peer-reviewed studies that have focused on both positive and negative consequences of children's actionability, through a qualitative narrative literature review. Results: Of the 168 studies identified from online searches of the literature and the three additional sources gathered through bibliography mining, 76 qualified for full review, with 12 studies included in the final synthesis. Overall, the literature explored the different conditions in which children's agentic practices expose them to trauma symptoms and to dangerous or self-harmful situations, thereby failing to safeguard their health and overall well-being. Conclusion: The review highlights the need to focus on the dangerous effect of the agentic practices activated by children in terms of their physical and psychological health.
... Adolescent health care service programs are also still limited in buildings and in schools, and street children become marginalized groups in health services. 4 A person's behavior in utilizing health services is strongly influenced by his perception of the concept of health and sickness, confidence in recovery, and expected results. This behavior is also experienced by street children who often experience discomfort with negative perception of society, which is one of many obstacles in utilizing health services. ...
... This behavior is also experienced by street children who often experience discomfort with negative perception of society, which is one of many obstacles in utilizing health services. 4 High self-efficacy will form a positive perception of oneself because of development of cognitive and moral functions. Self-efficacy is also related to individual's potential to acquire healthy behavior, which is shown by the confidence in committing a behavior to support his health. ...
... 6 Street children basically need these services as a form of social support and effective intervention strategies to prevent maladaptive behavior they often face. 4 Psychosocial support from adults is needed to give love and to help them quit doing maladaptive behavior. 7 ...
... When they are on the street, children are susceptible to any kind of exploitation and act of despising and also far away from ideal condition of life like what Children Right Convention is hoped for (UNICEF, 2005). They also susceptible to starving, diseases, accident, and any kind of exploitation (Kombarakaran, 2004). UNICEF (2005) explains that street child cannot be a part of conflict to some parties who should be protect them, like in some cases when police or competent authorities did act of despising, caning even arresting and murder that were done by societies because of thinking the street children cause problems even in this case often involve district government or does not respected by their district government. ...
... Agnelli (cited in Lalor, 1999) explains that in a -gang‖ a child gets a status, happiness, admiration, protection, and brotherhood from family replacement also as need fulfillment of identity and sometimes strengthen with language that just can be understood by only member of that -gang‖ or in other word esoteric slang. Finding family replacement on the street reflects that street children need to keep emotional relationship with family member even though seem that they enjoy free spirit with there is no parental control but actually they need the warmth and care of a family (Kombarakaran, 2004). ...
... The other strategy that are done by street children is going to social organization for getting food and make it as a protection placed. Kombarakaran (2004) also explained about the usage of facilities that are provided by non-government organization is to fulfill street children needs. In Indonesia, there are non-organization governments or social organizations that are not just functioned to fulfill needs of food and home but also education. ...
This study was conducted to investigate the correlation between perceived social support and mental health among adolescent street children. Perceived social support measured by adapting Multidimensional Scale of Perceived Social Support (MSPSS) that developed by Zimet, Dahlem, Zimet, and Farley (1988) and mental health measured by Mental Health Continuum-Short Form (MHC-SF) that developed by Keyes (2002). Data was analyzed by using Pearson Correlation. A sample of 60 adolescent street children in Jakarta, Bogor, and Depok, cities in Indonesia participating in this study. The result shows positive and significant correlation between perceived social support and mental health (r = 0.377, n = 60, p < 0.01, two tailed). Most of participant have families and maintain contact with their families by returning home. Most of them assumed that parent as significant others of their life.
... Such behaviour may be perceived as unbecoming and risky, but to the actor, it is a way of persuading them to bounce back from any form of deprivation. Some literature (Li, Bottrell & Armstrong, 2017;Cockburn, 2004;Conticini & Hulme, 2007;Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2006;Kombarakaran, 2004;Madu, Meyer, & Mako, 2005) has begun to strongly challenge the notion of street children as incapable, helpless and useless human beings, and maintain that street children "do navigate towards, and negotiate for resilience resources, albeit in unconventional ways" (Macalana & Theron, 2010:318). The fact that street children are regarded as vulnerable does not necessarily mean that they are not resilient. ...
... Such behaviour may be perceived as unbecoming and risky, but to the actor, it is a way of persuading them to bounce back from any form of deprivation. Some research and literature (Li, Bottrell & Armstrong, 2017;Cockburn, 2004;Conticini & Hulme, 2007;Donald, Lazarus & Lolwana, 2006;Kombarakaran, 2004;Madu, Meyer, & Mako, 2005) has begun to strongly challenge the notion of street children as incapable, helpless and useless human beings, and demonstrates that street children "do navigate towards, and negotiate for resilience resources, albeit in unconventional ways" (Macalana & Theron, 2010:318). The fact that street children are regarded as vulnerable does not necessarily mean that they are not resilient. ...
ABSTRACT
There are multiple social problems advancing in the world. Among these is the problem of street children affecting many nations worldwide. The continuous increase of numbers of street children continue to pose a challenge globally and more in developing countries like Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and South Africa.
The aim of this research is to gain in-depth knowledge and understanding of the lived experiences and resilience of street children in Addis Ababa. A qualitative research approach was applied using exploratory, descriptive, contextual, and phenomenological research designs. Purposive and snowball sampling was applied to select street children between the ages 9 to 18 years who have been on the streets of Addis Ababa city, Ethiopia for at least one year.
Data was collected using in-depth interviews and focus group discussions. Data was analysed using Tesch’s steps of qualitative data analysis described by Creswell, (20149:247). The study found out that street children are marginalised, abused by law enforcement officers and are exposed to a number of life-threatening risks. From the findings, the study came up with guidelines for social workers to enhance the social functioning of street children.
KEY TERMS: Child, street children, children of the street, children on the streets, lived experiences, resilience.
... Street children faced both fear and anxiety due to the public's ill-perception, badgering by bosses, metropolitan specialists, and police (Khwairakpam & Sukhminder, 2013;Kombarakaran, 2004;Moshood et al., 2021;Reza, 2017). For example, according to the studies conducted by Nwabah and Uko-aviomoh (2006), street children are perceived as a threat to the regular citizens' security. ...
... As a result, they imitate their peers. They described their actions as ways of relaxing or socialising with friends on the street (Kidd, 2003;Kombarakaran, 2004). Peers play an increasingly important role and strongly impact the development, behaviour and attitudes of children (Erwin, 1993;Markey et al., 2004;Rebellow, 2015). ...
Many children have fled their households to find employment and shelter in Khartoum, Sudan. The absence of the basic needs has forced the children to take to the streets where they feel they have better opportunities to survive in their impoverished state. This situation may have made these children vulnerable to risks such as exposure to vice activities as well as victimisation. One of the ways to survive challenges of the street life is to make friends with other street children and in some instances, the children become part of a larger group or syndicate. To address the challenges faced by street children, the study investigates the influence the street peers may have on the children’s behaviour. A total of 12 marketplaces in Khartoum State and its three municipalities, namely, Khartoum, Omdurman, and North Khartoum (Bahri), were selected in the current study as these localities have large numbers of street children. Using geographical clusters of the areas, followed by a systematic sampling technique, 330 street children were chosen as the sample size of the study. The questionnaire survey was used to obtain data from the respondents, the data collected in 2017. The data analysis tool used SPSS 22. The study reveals that street children in Khartoum take part in varying kinds of maladaptive behaviours and peer influence is found to be the determinant of these behaviours. The study suggests that targeted interventions by social welfare agencies and non-profit organisations should be made to ensure the safety and future of these children.
... Araştırmanın bu sonucu; Erkmen ve Çetin'in çalışma sonucu ile paralellik göstermemektedir Bu çalışmada uyuşturucu suçu işlemiş olan kadın hükümlülerin SBTE'nin dine yönelme kaçma-soyutlama (biyokimyasal) alt boyutlarından aldığı puan, fuhuş, gasp, cinayet, sahte evrak, hırsızlık suçu işleyen kadınlara göre daha yüksek bulunmuştur. Kombarakaran (2004)'nın sokak çocuklarının stres kaynakları ve baş etme biçimlerini incelediği çalışmasında, sokak çocuklarının sokakta yaşadıkları streslerle başa çıkabilmek için alkol, uyuşturucu, hırsızlık yapma gibi uygun olmayan yöntemleri kullandıkları sonucuna varmışlardır (Kombarakaran, 2004). Allard (2002)'nın cezaevindeki Afrikan-Amerikan mahkûmlar üzerinde yaptığı çalışmada, mahkûmların %74'ünün stresle baş etme yöntemi olarak madde kullandıkları görülmüştür (Allard, 2002). ...
... Araştırmanın bu sonucu; Erkmen ve Çetin'in çalışma sonucu ile paralellik göstermemektedir Bu çalışmada uyuşturucu suçu işlemiş olan kadın hükümlülerin SBTE'nin dine yönelme kaçma-soyutlama (biyokimyasal) alt boyutlarından aldığı puan, fuhuş, gasp, cinayet, sahte evrak, hırsızlık suçu işleyen kadınlara göre daha yüksek bulunmuştur. Kombarakaran (2004)'nın sokak çocuklarının stres kaynakları ve baş etme biçimlerini incelediği çalışmasında, sokak çocuklarının sokakta yaşadıkları streslerle başa çıkabilmek için alkol, uyuşturucu, hırsızlık yapma gibi uygun olmayan yöntemleri kullandıkları sonucuna varmışlardır (Kombarakaran, 2004). Allard (2002)'nın cezaevindeki Afrikan-Amerikan mahkûmlar üzerinde yaptığı çalışmada, mahkûmların %74'ünün stresle baş etme yöntemi olarak madde kullandıkları görülmüştür (Allard, 2002). ...
Bu çalışma kadın hükümlülerin bağlanma stillerinin ve stresle başa çıkma tutumlarının belirlenmesi amacıyla gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırma ilişkisel, tanımlayıcı türde bir araştırmadır. Araştırma İstanbul ilinde bulunan bir kadın kapalı cezaevinde, 1 Eylül-31 Aralık 2012 tarihleri arasında gerçekleştirilmiştir. Araştırmanın evrenini İstanbul ilindeki bir kapalı cezaevinde bulunan 273 hükümlü oluşturmaktadır. Örneklemi ise amaçlı örneklem yöntemi ile seçilen, araştırmaya alınma kriterlerine uygun ve araştırmanın uygulanacağı tarihte kadın kapalı cezaevinde kalan 130 kadın hükümlü oluşturmuştur. Araştırmada araştırmacılar tarafından hazırlanan sosyo-demografik özellikleri kapsayan veri toplama formu, ilişki ölçekleri anketi ve stresle başa çıkma tutumları envanteri (SBTE) kullanılmıştır. Araştırmaya katılan kadın hükümlülerin yaş ortalaması 34.55±9.223 olarak bulunmuştur. Cezaevinde kalan kadın hükümlülerin stresle başa çıkma tutumlarının ve bağlanma stillerinin, medeni durum, yaş, ebeveyn ile yaşama/yaşamama gibi sosyo-demografik özelliklerinden etkilendiği söylenebilir. Evli olanların ve aktivitelere katılanların daha olumlu stratejiler kullanabildikleri, anne babasından birini ya da her ikisini kaybetmiş olanların daha saplantılı bağlanma gösterdikleri; katılımcıların maneviyat ve dini yöntemlerle baş etme gibi stratejileri kullandığı araştırmadan çıkarılabilecek sonuçlardır.
... Understanding this issue provides us with an insight into the way working children cope with harmful situations and their consequences (Schneiderman et al. 2005;Yamashita et al. 2012). For example, Kombarakaran (2004) studied the coping styles of street children in Mumbai and found that they use inefficient coping styles more frequently. Mambwe (1997) also studied street children in Lusaka (Zambia) and showed that the most stresses experienced by working children are lack of proper home, lack of education, violence, and hunger; moreover, most of these children use avoidant coping styles, which lead to more negative behaviors such as drug abuse and theft. ...
... The main findings of this study on stress-coping strategies revealed that working children use emotion-oriented strategy in a confrontation with stresses more than non-working children, but they also show less avoidance. These results are somewhat consistent with the findings of Kidd and Carroll (2007), Afrasiabi and Akbarzadeh (2007), Hosseini (2006), Kombarakaran (2004), Matud (2004), and Mambwe (1997). Regardless of the group membership, girls presented higher levels of emotion-orientation and boys preferred avoidance. ...
Child labor is a bitter reality in developing countries and is necessary to be addressed in terms of its psychological aspects. Considering the limitations of the conducted studies and cultural environment in Iran, it is still unknown that how these children cope with their stresses, how the quality and type of their attachment styles are, and how resilient they are to inconveniences. In a causal-comparative study, a sample of 100 working children in Tehran using convenient sampling method and a sample of 150 non-working children using purposive sampling were selected; all the samples were asked to fill Endler and Parker Coping Inventory for Stressful Situations(CISS-21), Collins and Read Attachment Styles Scale, and Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale(CD-RISC).The obtained data were analyzed using ANCOVA and MANCOVA in the form of 2 × 2 factorial using SPSS-16. After adjusting for education level, the results showed that working children mostly use emotion-oriented strategy to cope with stress but the avoidance-oriented strategy is less used by these children. Regardless of group member factor, girls and boys used respectively emotion-oriented and avoidance strategies more frequently. However, in the interaction between group and gender, the results revealed that boys in working children group obtained the lowest scores in task-oriented strategy. In addition, working children group (especially girls), compared to non-working children presented more insecurity in terms of attachment style. Finally, it was found that working children were less resilient than non-working children, but the main effect of gender alone and the interaction between group and gender on resilience scores was not statistically significant(p > 0.05). The findings emphasized the protective role of resilience and secure attachment in preventing possible psychological and behavioral disorders in working children. Moreover, the results demonstrated that risky role of emotion-oriented strategy and insecure attachment style in exacerbating the problems of these children, especially for girls.
... Sadak Chaap's informal vocational training program for Mumbai's street children improves living conditions for them and others. 86 Nair & Raghavan's 87 survey highlights the urgent need for outreach programs to educate the homeless about government schemes and eligibility. Accessible toilets, healthcare, and decentralized shelters are recommended. ...
The current study presents a comprehensive narrative review examining the challenges faced by mental health professionals in India during the COVID-19 pandemic. Prior to COVID-19, India's mental health infrastructure was already under strain, characterized by a substantial treatment gap, scarcity of professionals, and a concentration of services in urban areas. The pandemic exacerbated these challenges, necessitating a swift transition to tele-counselling and online interventions, despite inherent limitations and ethical dilemmas. Increased cases of domestic violence, loneliness, and mood disorders during lockdowns highlighted the urgent need for effective mental health support. The paper discusses pre-existing issues such as stigma, lack of training institutes, and misconceptions about mental health in rural areas. It also explores innovative solutions, including the integration of spiritual and community leaders into mental health initiatives, to address the unique cultural context of India. The study underscores the urgent need for policy reforms, enhanced training, and collaborative approaches to bridge the treatment gap and ensure accessible mental health care in both urban and rural settings.
... They are deprived of educational and societal opportunities with limited access to health care and welfare services. In addition to physical and mental health problems, they experience physical injuries, discrimination, harassment, and stigmatization (Iqbal, 2008;Kaiser & Sinanan, 2020;Kombarakaran, 2004;Manjengwa et al., 2016;to survival and development (Cuevas-Parra, 2021). More specifically, the pandemic disproportionately affected the poor, vulnerable, disadvantaged, and socially excluded groups of children. ...
The outbreak of COVID-19 exacerbated the plight of street-connected children. This qualitative study was conducted to elucidate child welfare service providers’ (CWSPs) experiences regarding the massive impact of COVID-19 on street-connected children in Dhaka city of Bangladesh. Ten CWSPs with direct experience of serving street-connected children during
the pandemic were recruited purposively. Findings unveil that government administrative actions taken through lockdowns and restrictions disrupted the lives and livelihood of street-connected children. The pandemic situation caused job losses and restricted children’s opportunities to earn, and intensified their sufferings from hunger, homelessness, and physical and sexual abuse. The children were displaced and detached from their peer network. They were deprived of education, healthcare, social services, and treatment facilities. Despite the risks of COVID-19 and movement restrictions, CWSPs came forward to serve the children with
food aid and emergency services in collaboration with a few community-based voluntary organizations. However, the services were not enough to address children’s needs and problems. Findings suggest that CWSPs should adopt strategies for community engagement and multi-stakeholder collaboration to provide better services to the street-connected children during emergencies.
... As the only major urban Centre in a predominantly rural state of Bihar, Patna naturally attracts a large number of rural migrant workers in search of work with their families including children. Kombarakaran (2004) had stated that the children living on the street encounters with the numerous challenges in finding food, security, work, accommodation and health care. Most of the time they complete these requirements through their own peers, NGO's and own resources to ...
... Abate et al. (2022) reported that forced sex has contributed to the poor health status of Harar, Eastern Ethiopia street children. Also, in the city of Mumbai, India, younger boys exchange sexual favors for protection, food and movie tickets (Kombarakaran, 2004), and the majority number of street children use drugs and engage in survival sex as coping mechanisms in Lahore, Pakistan (Sherman et al., 2005). In Nepal, Injecting Drug Users are vulnerable to transmission of HIV and HCV (Kakchapati et al., 2017). ...
Background: Street children are a marginalized group considered the most
at-risk population (MARPs). Because of their substance abuse practice,
ranging from glue sniffing to injecting drugs and unsafe sexual behavior, they
are vulnerable to transmitting HIV and other blood-borne diseases. Numerous
studies have been conducted on street children in Kathmandu. However, there
are gaps in studying hardcore substance abuse and unsafe sexual behavior.
Objectives: This study aims to assess the state of substance abuse and practice
of unsafe sexual behavior among the street children of Kathmandu city.
Methods: This research applied both exploratory and descriptive study
designs. Using the non-probability sampling of snowball sampling technique,
we interviewed 50 respondents (including six females) from purposively
selected three location clusters, i.e., New-road, Thamel and Gaushala/
Pashupati Temple area of Kathmandu)have been interviewed. We used both
open-ended and close-ended questions to collect data.
Results: The findings of the study disclosed that substance abuse transitioned
from solvent use in the earlier ages of 11 to 13 years to the progress towards
injecting drugs as they grow older, 14 to 16 years old. Of the total, 14% of
the respondents sharing the needle/syringe with others while injecting drugs.
Likewise, 88% of the male respondents have reported practicing unsafe sexual
behavior, with their friends, in exchange for food and money.
Conclusions: The street children of Kathmandu are living a risky life.
Substance abuse and unsafe sexual activities are the most high-risk behavior,
making them vulnerable to transmission of HIV, HCV, HBV and STIs.
However, the policies to respond to the issue of street children in Nepal are
simply inadequate and ineffective.
... Moreover, population growth, urbanization, war, and HIV epidemics affect the stability of economic and social institutions in developing countries; when these institutions are unstable, families and individuals migrate to urban centres that are themselves economically depressed and thus offer limited opportunities. Some families disintegrate under these conditions and children are forced to take to the streets for survival (Kombarakaran, 2004). 1 UNICEF and other organizations identify two types of street children: Children on the street are those who use the street for economic activities and return to their family home. Children of the street, on the other hand, are homeless and live and sleep on the streets. ...
... This view is further complicated when we consider the nuances of ableism, racism, imperialism, and classism impacting on Rathore's experiences as a "street child." For example, the expectation that Rathore ought to conform disregards the consideration that Rathore was being asked to perform a particular identity or way of thinking, a way of being and doing which were likely divorced from the pattern of interactions and behaviours he himself experienced on the streets (where autonomy and critical thinking, rather than conformity, are necessary for safety) (Kombarakaran, 2004). Additionally, Rathore (who did not have access to schooling) would likely not have had as many opportunities as his peers to practice communicating across different cultural and social sites. ...
The words “behaviour” and “resistance” often conjure up fear-invoking images that prevent us from reflecting on what it is that we, as educators, understand behaviour to mean. In this article, we use resistance theory to rethink behaviour as communication by counter-storying one observation of resistance involving children and teachers in India. Offering parallel interpretations of this experience, we unpack how resistance as “dignity work” requires us to listen and respectfully re-engage with children and ourselves. We conclude by exploring pedagogical possibilities and the need for preserving our dignity and shared humanity when reflecting on (our own and children’s) behaviours.
... Other experiences that cause them deep traumas are beatings leading to injuries, kidnapping, alcohol use and stigmatization that form part of their day-to-day pains as they strive to survive on the streets (Asante, 2016;Ungar, 2004; United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2012). Meanwhile, exposure of young people to unpleasant treatments could breed behaviours such as delinquent acts and violence (Asante, 2016;Cénat et al., 2018;Kombaraka, 2004). ...
In Ghana, a population of teenage head porters have made the streets their sole living and breathing space. They are faced with several challenges as they live and work on the streets. The era of COVID-19 amidst several safety protocols that should be followed including maintaining physical and social distance as well as reducing movements appears to be detrimental to the survival patterns of teenager head porters as they live and work on the streets. Consequently, the study explores the experiences of teenage head porters in the wake of the pandemic to draw practice implications. Evidence was collected using semi-structured qualitative interviews with 20 teenage head porters in Kumasi, Ghana. Narratives were analyzed thematically using reflective thematic analysis procedures. The study identified Kinship neglect and high exposure to infection as over-arching challenges experienced by teenage head porters on the streets amidst COVID-19. The study suggests providing emergency state intervention programs to aid teenage head porters' survival. Findings also support working with social workers to spearhead the campaign for these interventions as a humanitarian profession and recommend that the Department of Social Welfare collaborates with some agencies and organizations like the street children’s project in Accra and Kumasi to provide alternative economic engagements like vocational training to take them out of the streets.
... Therefore, a child, however supported, may not necessarily perform better in all contexts. For example, when vulnerable children and youth leave their homes and adopt streetism they could be thought to be less resilient however; in the context of streetism, they have consistently demonstrated buoyancy (Malindi 2014;Kombarakaran 2004;. This proves that resilience is a slippery concept that is context-specific (Dass-Brailsford 2005). ...
... Therefore, a child, however supported, may not necessarily perform better in all contexts. For example, when vulnerable children and youth leave their homes and adopt streetism they could be thought to be less resilient however; in the context of streetism, they have consistently demonstrated buoyancy (Malindi 2014;Kombarakaran 2004;. This proves that resilience is a slippery concept that is context-specific (Dass-Brailsford 2005). ...
... A growing body of literature from non-Western countries breaks away from the traditional victim discourse. Some of these studies focus on street children's agency, work experience, subculture and resilient coping mechanisms (Beazley, 2003;Kombarakaran, 2004;Theron and Malindi, 2010;Aptekar and Stoecklin, 2014). A small but growing body of literature also focuses on group membership, social relationships and informal support networks (Mizen and Ofosu-Kusi, 2010;de Benítez, 2011;Eriksen and Mulugeta, 2016). ...
In Bangladesh, an estimated one to three million street children face poverty, violence and social stigma daily. This qualitative study of seventy-five child participants from three sites in Dhaka, Bangladesh, explores how street children in Bangladesh engage in financial transactions in their social networks to build resiliency and sustain contextual well-being under conditions of extreme adversity. For these street children, contextual well-being refers to the context of living and surviving on the street (i.e. access to food, shelter, safety, sense of belonging). Our findings indicate that both significant vulnerabilities and adaptive responses in street children’s lives are common across participants. Daily life for these children consists of attaining money and then spending it quickly as a means of survival. Significant vulnerabilities for these children are the need to engage in daily income generation along with income uncertainty; an adaptive response among the participants is the engagement in financial transactions within their peer networks. Findings also show that street children are deeply embedded in these social networks, which work to sustain their well-being. We argue that interventions for Bangladeshi street children should be peer-based, grounded in a strengths perspective, and promote resilience.
... Resilience is a very important factor that allows people with traumatic experience to return to their ordinary lives (Hills, Meyer-Weitz, & Asante, 2016;Ungar, 2008). Prior studies suggest that resilience is related to local community networks, peer support, self-efficiency, access to basic life needs, intelligence, problem-solving ability and social-cultural resources (Theron & Malindi, 2010;Kombarakaran 2004;Cheunwattana & Meksawat 2002;D'Abreu, Mullis, & Cook, 1999;Donald & Swart-Kruger 1994). Resilience has a significant effect on PTSD and serves as a protective factor (Reyes, et al., 2019;Song, 2017). ...
... Street conditions are far from child-friendly (Aptekar , L.1994). Once they leave home, many street children move around often because of the fear that their relatives will find them and force them to return home (Kombarakaran, Francis A. 2004). Sadly, many children are kidnapped and treated as slaves by the kidnappers. ...
A democratic country like India focuses on the welfare of its
citizens by eradicating the discriminations having in any ground.
Welfare is meant for ensuring development by adding quality and
bringing improvement in the prevailing conditions. Street children
are those children who are living on the streets of a city or town,
these children are found in urban areas mainly at railway stations,
bus stands/stops, religious places, and other public places. The
education of street children in India is very poor and often nonexistent.
A study of street children in Bombay in 1989 found that
54.5 percent had never been enrolled in school and 66 percent of the
children were illiterate. This paper is based on interaction with few functionaries and analysis of research
paper and newspaper articles to focus upon some major issue and problem are being faced by them to follow
it. It also enlists some priorities for challenges and provision for developing street children scenario.
... Using a multi-method approach, Kombarakaran [13] identified the stresses and coping strategies of street children. The results of his study suggest that children face several challenges in their search for food, safety, employment, shelter and medical care. ...
Background: Street children are exposed to the harshest of living experience. They start experiencing the cruelest form of life from an age when they are supposed to be raised amidst nothing but care and love. Aims: This study attempts to understand the lived experience of street-working children, the daily challenges they face, their coping strategies, and the social network they maintain for a living. Methodology: Using a quantitative, and to some extent, ethnographic method, a sample of 110 street-working children aged 5-15 years was drawn from Dhaka University campus and surrounding areas: Shahbag, New Market, Chankharpool and Ramna in Dhaka city. A structured questionnaire with a series of close-ended questions was used for interview schedules. Results: Analysis of data revealed that most of the children came to Dhaka in pursuit of a better living standard. They are mostly engaged in flower, water or chocolate-selling. The amount of their daily earnings is very low and is hardly enough to manage three meals a day. Most of them sleep on the pavements and those places are not even fixed. They keep changing places depending on wherever they find a place. Sleeping on filthy places under open sky, no wonder they suffer from different skin diseases and are vulnerable to various other diseases. They live through continuous change of coping strategies. Their parents, siblings, relatives and peer groups are at the center of their social network relying on which they survive in the city. Conclusion: To put it simply, sufferings of street-working children know no bounds. They fight much more hardship than we can even imagine from the outside.
... Previous work reports how street children use transactional sex as a means to address their most urgent needs at the time (Cumber and Tsoka-Gwegweni, 2015;Kombarakaran, 2004). This is consistent with the findings of this study, with the urgent needs of study participants ( food, shelter and hygiene) driving many of the girls to transactional sex/sex work (Owoaje and Uchendu, 2009). ...
Purpose
The United Nations continues to identify street children as one of the most vulnerable sub-populations of children and youth globally. The purpose of this paper is to present social and contextual perspectives of 11 girls living on the streets of Abidjan, Côte d’Ivoire. Implications with respect to the development and delivery of effective sexual/reproductive and mental health interventions and services are discussed.
Design/methodology/approach
Through semi-structured interviews and applied qualitative thematic analysis, this paper aims to achieve in-depth understanding about the lives of 11 girls living on the street. A socio-ecological framework is utilized to interpret the experiences of the girls at the individual (micro), community (mezzo) and structural (macro) levels.
Findings
Six main themes evolved from the thematic analysis of interview transcripts: exposure to violence and abuse before and on the street, exposure to violence and sex work, risk and vulnerability to HIV, substance use and sex work, substance use and physical and reproductive health and ways of coping and future planning.
Originality/value
The interplay of experiences illustrates how girls navigate their lives, and along with an appreciation of intersectionality validates the need for an integrated approach to health and social care related to health and mental health services. Integrated interventions should focus on common issues such as improving access to HIV testing and contraceptives for young girls living on the street.
... Because children in street homes lack protection from the family and the law, employers often exploit them, making them virtual prisoners, sometimes withholding their pay, and abusing them. Employers that do not maltreat the children often will not hire them because they are seen as too great of a risk (Kombarakaran, 2004). One of the most common economic activities done by the children is scavenging for recyclable materials, such as plastics, papers and metals. ...
The study sought to identify the risk factors associated with street homes and the security implications of street homes. The study adopted a social survey design where a probability sampling, specifically the systematic sampling and simple random sampling techniques were used to select 200 respondents consisting of 120 children who lived in street homes, 60 parents who stayed in street homes and 20 police personnel. Interview questionnaire was the main tool for the data collection. Quantitative approach was used for the data analysis. The study found that risk factors associated with street homes included; victims of rape and sexual assault, engagement in all social vices, school drop-out, engagement in child labour, health problems, teenage pregnancy, victim of child prostitution, engagement in robbery and stealing, engagement in drug addiction, environmental pollution and influence by bad peers. Security personnel considered street homes as a major national security threat which had many security implications in the country; hence the researcher recommended that government should provide accommodation for parent/s who live in street homes with their family.
... In the context of the developing world, UNICEF (1986), has categorized street Mounir et al., 2 children as: 'children at risk', those who live in families but work on the streets to supplement the family income, 'children on the street', those who have some family support but work on the streets, and 'children of the street', those who live and work on the streets without any family support. 2 Many of these children survive by begging, theft, prostitution, or some other marginal activity. Others are engaged in occupations such as shoe-shining, selling cigarettes, car washing, etc. ...
Background: Today developed and developing countries are facing the problem posed by street children. The continuous and unrestrained exposure to the street and its associated lifestyles makes these children vulnerable to a range of health, social, and other problems. Objective: The aim of the present work was to assess the profile of street children and their living condition from different aspects, in addition to assessment of some psychological disorders among them. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 50 street boys present at El-Horreya institute for Children Community Development, which is a non-governmental organization in Alexandria. An equal control group of 50 school boys were selected at random from the first and second grades of one governmental boys preparatory school of the Middle District of Alexandria. Every child was subjected to an interviewing questionnaire. The Arabic version of Revised Ontario Child Health study scale, children Depression Inventory and the Cooper-Smith Self-Esteem Inventory,were used to identify children with conduct disorder, depression, and assess self-esteem, respectively. Anthropometric measurements including weight and height were measured for each street child and BMI was calculated. Results: The present study revealed that more than half of street children (58.0%) came from large size families, about three-quarters (72.0%) reported insufficient income, most of them had low educated parents and unskilled fathers, 80.0% reported not living with both parents before coming to the institute, and 91.2% reported bad inter-parental relationship. Family history of drug abuse, alcohol intake, smoking, and imprison were significantly higher among street children compared to school children (p
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
This edited volume examines child exploitation in the Global South. It introduces several case studies and interviews articulated around two features: exploitation within the family and exploitation in relation to social contexts. The research shows that both of the features are linked and, generally, they are not separate. It makes several important arguments which challenge the most common view on how children are perceived and exploited in Africa, Latin America, and the Middle East. Additionally, it explores the social representation of exploited children as well as their general well-being.
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often analysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
The media have often presented child labour as one of the most striking symbols of poverty. Although it first came to attention in the Western world with the advent of the industrial revolution (Schlemmer 2006), child labour, particularly in developing countries, was thrust into the spotlight in the mid-1990s with the Convention on the Rights of the Child in 1989 and the creation of the International Programme on the Elimination of Child Labour (IPEC) by the International Labour Organization (ILO).
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
Every day, local newspapers in Lima report accidents involving mototaxi drivers: many of these drivers are young. The northern districts of Lima are very steep, so as drivers gain speed, it is not uncommon for them to have difficulty braking at intersections. The risk of accidents is high. Driving a mototaxi may therefore be considered as hazardous work .
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
In this article we present the results of a qualitative survey on teenage mothers in Mauritius. We expose the causes and consequences of teenage motherhood in Mauritius. The causes of child pregnancy are household poverty, personal characteristics of children and the social environment. One of the consequences of teenage motherhood in Mauritius is prostitution. We show how children are involved in prostitution.
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
Talibés are children, usually boys, who have been sent to Koranic schools, also known as daaras. This is a widespread phenomenon in French-speaking West Africa.
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
In September 2000, the British broadcast BBC (http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/946952.stm) presented a provocative documentary “The Bitter Taste of Slavery” on children slavery in cocoa farms in West Africa.
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
Debt bondage is a violation of human rights. Landless households take advances to survive in their village. Child labour is used to increase household productivity. We use data from a survey conducted in Tamil Nadu, India, to test the relationship between child labour their specialization in the brick kiln industry and debt bondage. Probit model is used to test the determinant factors of children’s specialization. Children are mainly involved in two activities, moulding and clay preparation. The main results show that the specialization of children depends on age. Clay preparation is an activity has a positive effect on household debt repayment, and moulding activity allows the household to increase its production of bricks.
... Begging is generally associated with cases of children who have fled the family home, while research on child labour generally assumes that children work for the household to which they belong. Child begging is thus generally viewed as just one survival tactic among many for street-living children (Patel 1990;Kombarakaran 2004;Ballet 2006, for a description of other such activities) and is not associated with child labour that occurs within a familial setting. Second, aside from cases of children who have left their family homes, child begging is often ana- lysed from the viewpoint of highly specific cultural contexts, for instance in countries where Koranic schools make children beg as a learning activ- ity (Loimeier 2002;). ...
Child labour is universally condemned by international bodies, including United Nations agencies, and has been deemed as a violation of human rights in various conventions over the years.
... Beazley (2003) described a symbiotic relationship between newcomer and older children in Indonesia where older youth initiate younger ones into street career. Studies from India (Kombarakaran, 2004), Ethiopia (Eriksen and Mulugeta, 2015), Ghana (Orme and Seipel, 2007), Bangladesh (Conticini, 2005), and South Afirca (Malindi and Theron, 2010) also mentioned children's use of social relationships in employment. However, many of these studies treated the role of social relationships in employment in a cursory manner often without explaining the support process. ...
Despite a plethora of research on the lives of street children globally, little is known about how they find employment in competitive, informal economies in developing countries. To understand how children connect to informal jobs through street relationships, 75 street children ranging from 10 to 17 years old were interviewed in three sites in Dhaka city, Bangladesh. Findings show that social networks play a crucial role in finding work. Network ties help children find new jobs, as network members provide job information, recommend friends or acquaintances to employers, and persuade the employers to hire them. Friends often voluntarily train those who are self-employed in the informal service sectors or those who intend to switch to a new job.
... Beazley (2003) described a symbiotic relationship between newcomer and older children in Indonesia where older youth initiate younger ones into street career. Studies from India (Kombarakaran, 2004), Ethiopia (Eriksen and Mulugeta, 2015), Ghana (Orme and Seipel, 2007), Bangladesh (Conticini, 2005), and South Afirca (Malindi and Theron, 2010) also mentioned children's use of social relationships in employment. However, many of these studies treated the role of social relationships in employment in a cursory manner often without explaining the support process. ...
This qualitative study explores how the estimated 1–3 million street children of Bangladesh cope with the verbal, physical, and sexual violence inflicted upon them on an almost daily basis. Drawing on a sample of 75 street children aged 10–17 in the capital city of Dhaka, the study is based on multiple interviews with participants. Interview data and social network theory yielded insights about the types of violence endured and how age, gender, and location impacted risks faced by street children. The study also highlights the complex, varied roles that social networks and group solidarity, as well as the actions of individual peers, play in the survival of this vulnerable population.
Purpose
The purpose of this study aims to investigate the estimated symptoms of posttraumatic stress (PTSD) among the residents of the violent line of control (LoC) of Azad Kashmir.
Design/methodology/approach
This study is a quantitative, exploratory study. The sample comprised 235 males and 225 females, aged 18–35years ( N = 460). The traumatic appraisal questionnaire (TAQ) was applied to the determined sample and their responses were statistically analyzed.
Findings
It was identified through quantitative research that people living near the LoC had higher PTSD symptoms as compared to those living farther away. Moreover, females exhibited higher PTSD than males. Religious beliefs were identified as the most common coping mechanism used by residents of LoC.
Practical implications
Awareness sessions and seminars will be conducted with the help of mental health professionals in those areas with high estimated PTSD symptoms. This research will also help mental health professionals in Azad Kashmir to understand PTSD issues of LoC people.
Originality/value
This study focuses on estimating PTSD symptoms among residents living near the LoC in Azad Kashmir, an area characterized by violence and conflict. This research offers practical implications for mental health interventions, such as conducting awareness sessions and seminars with the help of mental health professionals. Furthermore, the study can enhance the understanding of PTSD among LoC residents, aiding mental health professionals in providing more effective support and care.
Background:
The objectives of this study were to determine the association between the vulnerability factors linked to human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and other sexually transmitted infection among the young women who sell sex (YWSS) group (15-24 years) and adult sex workers, engaged in consensual sex for money (AFSW).
Methods:
A cross-sectional study was conducted among AFSW involved in commercial sex transactions. Prevalence ratios (PR) analysis was carried out using log-binomial regression model.
Results:
The prevalence of HIV-1 was 29.4% among YWSS compared to 19.6% among female sex worker (PR = 1.43 [1.07-1.91]). Consistent condoms use last 3 months were very low at 22.3% and 41.2%, respectively (PR = 0.52 [0.37-0.74]), the low education level among YWSS versus AFSW (PR = 0.55 [0.40-0.76]); YWSS having been a victim of sexual violence in the last 12 months (PR = 2.00 [1.52-2.63]), were also more likely to be HIV positive.
Conclusions:
The YWSS had a high prevalence of HIV, experienced other socioeconomic vulnerabilities and remain a key population for comprehensive HIV programs. To reach all YWSS, programs need to consider many outreach programs and address the shared determinants of HIV risk.
There are tens of millions of children and youth in street situations (CYSS) worldwide, the majority of whom are males living in low- and middle-income countries. Many of these children demonstrate impressive adaptability and resilience. The focus of the current research was on the resilience of male CYSS in León, Nicaragua. Qualitative data were collected through individual interviews and focus groups with CYSS, their family members, community members, and staff of a local nonprofit, with the objective of exploring and consolidating local understandings of resilience. Grounded theory analysis of qualitative data yielded a context-specific conceptual model of resilience as it pertains to CYSS in León. Six qualities were identified to represent the experience of resilience in this group: agency, belonging, flexibility, protection, self-regulation, and self-worth. The knowledge generated from this research can serve as a foundation to develop and implement resilience-promoting interventions for CYSS.
International scholars suggest that rights-based frameworks such as the United Nations Convention on the Rights of the Child (United Nations, Convention on the Rights of the Child. United Nations, 1989) can act as tools for shifting understandings about the role and status of children in society. From this standpoint, the consideration of the rights of infants and toddlers has continued to develop, with growing discussion of the differing nature of rights. However, in highlighting the limitations of rights theories, critics argue that rights-talk tends to overlook the complexity of economic, political, cultural and socio-historical factors that underpin the reality of children’s access to, and experience of, their rights. Indeed, research from across the world continues to report on the violations and abuses experienced by groups of children, including infants and toddlers. In the Indian context, the multi-layered oppression faced by groups, such as children living in slum communities, has been well documented, but little research has focused specifically on the rights of infants and toddlers living in slum communities, beyond their right to life, survival and development. This gap in knowledge reveals the importance of questioning the tangible (e.g. access to water and sanitation) and invisible (e.g. hidden curriculum) factors influencing the actualisation of children’s rights in the Indian context. Drawing on insights from critical pedagogy, this chapter unpacks data from a research case study to story the experiences of teachers and toddlers in an early childhood program. In doing so, this chapter aims to reflect on the position and status of children’s rights whilst questioning the international and universal gaze used to frame and analyse children’s rights in the Indian context. The chapter concludes by discussing possibilities for reconceptualising and actualising the rights of infants and toddlers living in slum communities, through a focus on education for critical consciousness in the early years.KeywordsInfants and toddlersIndiaChildren living in slum communitiesChildren’s rightsCritical pedagogy
Inclusive education refers to an educational setup where children with diverse learning needs are accommodated in general classroom and have equitable opportunities of quality education. Since long, India has been taking initiatives to provide equitable and inclusive educational opportunity to all children regardless of their diverse learning needs. In April, 2010 India implemented RTE Act which provides a legal framework to make quality inclusive education, the right of every child at elementary level. But having great cultural, social, economic and language diversity the goal is challenging. Many children, across the country come from socially disadvantaged backgrounds and extremely vulnerable socioeconomic conditions, such as scheduled castes and scheduled tribes' communities; ethnic and religious minorities, poor economic conditions. They constitute the maximum drop-out population. This paper is an attempt to discuss the concept of inclusive education with reference to need of inclusive education in India. Further, article suggests a countrywide practice and strategy that may prepare a ground for successful inclusive education.
Objective
This study was aimed to identify determinant factors of stunting and wasting among street children aged 5–18 years in Northwest Ethiopia.
Method and Material
A community-based cross-sectional study design was employed. An interviewer-administered, structured, and pre-tested questionnaire was used to collect the data. A convenience sampling technique was used to recruit participants. Stunting and wasting were defined as having of Height–for–Age and Weight–for–Height of Z–score < -2 standard deviations respectively. Both bivariable and multivariable logistic regression analyses were fitted to identify factors associated with stunting and wasting. A 95% CI and a p-value < 0.05 were used to declare statistical significance.
Result
The overall prevalence of stunting and wasting was 46.4% [95% CI: 41.6–51.5%] and 15.3 % [95% CI: 11.7–19.0%] respectively. Age [AOR=0.18, 95% CI: 0.08, 0.47], substance use [AOR=2.07, 95% CI: 1.33, 3.21] and loss of appetite [AOR=2.00, 95% CI: 1.31, 3.04] were independently associated with stunting. Whereas, age [AOR= 0.49, 95% CI: 0.27, 0.89], illness [AOR=2.38, 95% CI: 1.27, 4.48] and open defecation [AOR=2.27, 95%CI: 1.14, 4.51] were factors associated with wasting.
Conclusion
Stunting and wasting were critical problems among street children. Age, loss of appetite, and substance use were significantly associated with stunting, whereas child age, illness, and open defecation practice were significantly associated with wasting. Thus, tailored nutritional interventions are urgently required among this population to improve their nutritional status.
Consequent to the widely recognized influence of rapid population growth on streetism, this paper examines the spatial and socio-economic dimensions of the street children
phenomenon in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study analyses the intraurban pattern of child streetism and analyses the characteristics of street children in the study area. The study
participants are children working and or living on the streets of Ibadan, the administrative headquarters of Oyo state, Nigeria. The study enumerates street children in selected activity nuclei in urban high, medium and low residential densities. 10% of the observed number of street children was included in the survey using the convenience sampling method. In all, a total of one hundred and fifty-two (152) copies of questionnaires
were administered to the willing street children. The study employs Z-scores to compare the intensity of the problem and ANOVA to analyze the variation in the incidence of street
children within urban residential densities. The result of the ANOVA shows that with f=14.587 and p= 0.001, there is a significant difference in the observed variations in the
incidence of street children among residential densities. The study also confirms that the street children phenomenon is a function of social issues such as poverty (79.8%) and family maladjustment (68%). It concludes that the incidence of street children is related to urban social-economic and physical attributes. The study recommends poverty alleviation
programmes, effective land use planning and management, and sustainable rehabilitation.
Consequent to the widely recognized influence of rapid population growth on streetism, this paper examines the spatial and socio-economic dimensions of the street children phenomenon in Ibadan, Nigeria. The study analyses the intra-urban pattern of child streetism and analyses the characteristics of street children in the study area. The study participants are children working and or living on the streets of Ibadan, the administrative headquarters of Oyo state, Nigeria. The study enumerates street children in selected activity nuclei in urban high, medium and low residential densities. 10% of the observed number of street children was included in the survey using the convenience sampling method. In all, a total of one hundred and fifty-two (152) copies of questionnaires were administered to the willing street children. The study employs Z-scores to compare the intensity of the problem and ANOVA to analyze the variation in the incidence of street children within urban residential densities. The result of the ANOVA shows that with f=14.587 and p= 0.001, there is a significant difference in the observed variations in the incidence of street children among residential densities.
This review assessed the effectiveness of interventions for improving outcomes among street‐connected children and young people, and for reducing some important health‐related risks; and to improve access to and integration into society, education, and employment opportunities.
Eligible study designs compare outcomes from interventions for street‐connected children and young people aimed at reintegration, education, employment, improving health and/or harm reduction, and provision of shelter, versus a comparison group (e.g. shelter/drop‐in service as usual). The review identified 13 studies evaluating 19 interventions. All studies were conducted in the USA except one (South Korea). The outcome for integration was not measured in included studies. The same was the case for education and employment related outcomes – none of the included studies measured literacy, numeracy, or participation in education or skills‐based employment. Several studies measured health‐related outcomes.
Five studies investigate the effect of interventions to encourage safe or reduced sexual activity (e.g. numbers of partners, frequency of sex, HIV knowledge, unprotected sex, condom use and rates of abstinence). The results are mixed, lacking enough evidence to support any of the interventions.
Eight studies report outcomes of interventions promoting safe or reduced substance use. The outcomes used a variety of measures in different studies at various times making it difficult to get a clear overview. The overall effect was mixed; some studies report positive effect and the others reported negative or no effect. Three studies investigate the effect of family therapy on substance abuse and report improvements in some of the measures.
Eight studies investigate the effect of therapeutic interventions to improve mental health (including self‐esteem and depression) in street‐connected kids. In general, there is no significant improvement in the intervention group compared to the control group. In some instances, both groups improved from the baseline. Finally, two studies investigate the effect of family‐based approaches on family functioning. No differences were found between intervention and control conditions on most of the outcome measures used.
Plain language summary
Lack of evidence on the effectiveness of interventions to reintegrate street‐connected children
There are a range of interventions to improve the integration and well‐being of street‐connected children, yet no studies measure integration, education or employment outcomes. There appears to be no effect on and mixed evidence for mental health. There may be reductions in substance abuse.
What is this review about?
Millions of street‐connected children throughout the world are at risk of exploitation, violence, substance abuse, and health problems, and are not receiving skills‐based education. Interventions to promote access to education, healthy and settled lifestyles, and reduction of risks are intended to give this group a better chance in life and prevent marginalization from society.
What is the aim of this review?
This review assessed the effectiveness of interventions for improving outcomes among street‐connected children and young people, and for reducing some important health‐related risks; and to improve access to and integration into society, education, and employment opportunities.
This review investigates the effects of interventions for street‐connected children to promote integration to the society, skills‐based education, prospects of employment and health risk reduction.
What are the main findings of this review?
What studies are included?
Eligible study designs compare outcomes from interventions for street‐connected children and young people aimed at reintegration, education, employment, improving health and/or harm reduction, and provision of shelter, versus a comparison group (e.g. shelter/drop‐in service as usual). The review identified 13 studies evaluating 19 interventions. All studies were conducted in the USA except one (South Korea).
The outcome for integration was not measured in included studies. The same was the case for education and employment related outcomes – none of the included studies measured literacy, numeracy, or participation in education or skills‐based employment. Several studies measured health‐related outcomes.
Five studies investigate the effect of interventions to encourage safe or reduced sexual activity (e.g. numbers of partners, frequency of sex, HIV knowledge, unprotected sex, condom use and rates of abstinence). The results are mixed, lacking enough evidence to support any of the interventions.
Eight studies report outcomes of interventions promoting safe or reduced substance use. The outcomes used a variety of measures in different studies at various times making it difficult to get a clear overview. The overall effect was mixed; some studies report positive effect and the others reported negative or no effect. Three studies investigate the effect of family therapy on substance abuse and report improvements in some of the measures.
Eight studies investigate the effect of therapeutic interventions to improve mental health (including self‐esteem and depression) in street‐connected kids. In general, there is no significant improvement in the intervention group compared to the control group. In some instances, both groups improved from the baseline. Finally, two studies investigate the effect of family‐based approaches on family functioning. No differences were found between intervention and control conditions on most of the outcome measures used.
What was the quality of the evidence?
The quality of evidence was from low (i.e. for risk reduction in sexual activity and family therapy) to moderate (i.e. mental health improvement, harm reduction in substance abuse).
What do the findings of this review mean?
There is a dearth of evidence from controlled trials on interventions to improve integration of street‐connected children and young adults into society and providing skills‐based education. The evidence from health interventions aimed at engaging in safe sexual practices, and at improving mental health vary widely and are inconclusive as to their effectiveness. Some of the interventions aimed at reducing the risk of substance abuse may be effective. Further research in this area will be useful in understanding the effectiveness of these approaches and validating the effect of some of the interventions that are supported by moderate evidence.
How up‐to‐date is this review?
The review authors searched for relevant studies until April 2015. This Campbell review was published in 2016.
Abstract
Background
Millions of street‐connected children and young people worldwide live or work in street environments. They are vulnerable to many risks, whether or not they remain connected to families of origin, and despite many strengths and resiliencies, they are excluded from mainstream social structures and opportunities.
Objectives
Primary research objectives
To evaluate and summarise the effectiveness of interventions for street‐connected children and young people that aim to:
• • promote inclusion and reintegration;
• • increase literacy and numeracy;
• • facilitate access to education and employment;
• • promote mental health, including self esteem;
• • reduce harms associated with early sexual activity and substance misuse.
Secondary research objectives
• • To explore whether effects of interventions differ within and between populations, and whether an equity gradient influences these effects, by extrapolating from all findings relevance for low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs) (Peters 2004).
• • To describe other health, educational, psychosocial and behavioural effects, when appropriate outcomes are reported.
• • To explore the influence of context in design, delivery and outcomes of interventions.
• • To explore the relationship between numbers of components and duration and effects of interventions.
• • To highlight implications of these findings for further research and research methods to improve evidence in relation to the primary research objective.
• • To consider adverse or unintended outcomes.
Search methods
We searched the following bibliographic databases, searched for the original review, from inception to 2012, and various relevant non‐governmental and organisational websites: Cochrane Central Register of Controlled Trials (CENTRAL); MEDLINE and Pre‐MEDLINE; EMBASE and EMBASE Classic; Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature (CINAHL); PsycINFO; Education Resource Information Center (ERIC); Sociological Abstracts; Social Services Abstracts; Social Work Abstracts; Healthstar; Latin American Caribbean Health Sciences Literature (LILACS); System for Grey literature in Europe (OpenGrey); ProQuest Dissertations and Theses; EconLit; IDEAS Economics and Finance Research; JOLIS Library Catalog of the holdings of the World Bank Group and International Monetary Fund (IMF) Libraries; British Library for Development Studies (BLDS); Google and Google Scholar. We updated the search in April 2015 for the review update, using the same methods.
Selection criteria
This review includes data from harm reduction or reintegration intervention studies that used a comparison group study design; all were randomised or quasi‐randomised studies. Studies were included if they evaluated interventions provided for street‐connected children and young people, from birth to 24 years, in all contexts.
Data collection and analysis
Two review authors independently extracted data and assessed risk of bias and other factors presented in the Discussion and Summary quality assessment (Grades of Recommendation, Assessment, Development and Evaluation (GRADE)). We extracted data on intervention delivery, context, process factors, equity and outcomes, and grouped outcomes into psychosocial outcomes, risky sexual behaviours or substance use. We conducted meta‐analyses for outcomes where the outcome measures were sufficiently similar. We evaluated other outcomes narratively.
Main results
We included 13 studies evaluating 19 interventions from high‐income countries (HICs). At update stage (from our 2015 search), one previously included study was removed and three new studies added (since our 2012 search). We found no sufficiently robust evaluations conducted in low‐ and middle‐income countries (LMICs). Study quality overall was low and measurements used by studies variable. Participants were classified as drop‐in and shelter‐based. No studies measured the primary outcome of reintegration and none reported on adverse effects. We found no consistent results on a range of relevant outcomes within domains of psychosocial health, substance misuse and sexually risky behaviours . Interventions evaluated consisted of time‐limited therapeutically based programmes that proved no more effective than standard shelter or drop‐in services and other control interventions used for most outcomes in most studies. Favourable changes from baseline were reported for outcomes for most participants following therapy interventions and standard services. We noted considerable heterogeneity between studies and inconsistent reporting of equity data. No studies measured the primary outcome of reintegration or reported on adverse effects.
Authors' conclusions
Analysis revealed no consistently significant benefit for focused therapeutic interventions compared with standard services such as drop‐in centres, case management and other comparable interventions for street‐connected children and young people. Commonly available services, however, were not rigorously evaluated. Robust evaluation of interventions, including comparison with no intervention, would establish a more reliable evidence base to inform service implementation. More robust research is needed in LMICs to examine interventions for street‐connected children and young people with different backgrounds and service needs.
Children who are susceptible to street life are estimated to be 100 million globally, comprising of (a) street living children who have migrated either temporarily or permanently and live on the streets without their families, (b) street-working children—who spend most of their daytime working on the streets to earn a living and may return home and (c) children from families dwelling on the streets. These children easily become victims to abuse of all forms, violence, exploitation and inhuman treatment by antisocials and criminals and they remain vulnerable and helpless to further victimization. Challenges they fight with on a daily basis are many—lack of shelter, clothing and food, inaccessibility to education and health care, unaddressed chronic physical illness such as gastrointestinal diseases and STDs and other physical alignments and psychological disturbances, maladaptive personality traits, alcohol and psychoactive drug addiction are some of them. The search for the means of survival often drags them into gambling and robbery, thereby increasing the probability of them maintaining a severe criminal record later in life. A high proportion of the children being raped, kidnapped, trafficked and killed are from the streets and the number is ever increasing. It is inevitable to pay ample attention to such children at disadvantage for two important reasons—(a) to ensure that this valuable human resource is given the right ambience to evolve to its best version and be utilized for nation-building, and (b) to protect their right and dignity as citizen of the nation. This chapter is an attempt to understand the issues faced by these little lives on the streets. With the aid of hands-on experience and case studies, their miserable living conditions, deprivations and challenges are explained along the lines of humanitarianism as well as denial of justice. To understand the situation better, the number of governmental, legislative and constitutional measures taken in line with this social issue are also discussed. The chapter proposes various preventive, interventional and rehabilitative action plans for the betterment of the lives of children on the streets. This chapter closes by recommending a few effective steps to ensure the implementation of needed intervention programs through earnest efforts.
The problems that occur in street adolescents inflict heavy burdens upon the family, which the family should be able to withstand.
Objective:
This study aims to identify the families' experiences of strengthening their resilience in helping street adolescents to adapt as they grow and develop.
Method:
This qualitative study took a phenomenological approach of recruiting six participants after saturating the data.
Results:
The study showed that the main reason why adolescents had occupations in the street was to assist their families financially. Other reasons were the influence of friends and imitating the parents' previous jobs. The families' anxieties over their adolescents' safety were psychological responses that emerged later. Investment in spiritual values became a coping source for these families.
Conclusions:
The families' acceptance of their fears did not occur because of their powerlessness but rather indicated their resilience in facing the situation.
This chapter extends the discussion from Chap. 5. It explores the relationship street-frequenting young people have on the streets: comradery with their peers, substituting a sense of loneliness that can characterise street life. It also highlights that street-frequenting young people have allies outside of their family and the authorities whom they often resent. The chapter ends with a discussion of the young people’s experience with the police, who for them personify morality and righteousness. The outcome is often one of confrontation instead of mutual understanding, creating the need to creative ways of engaging with street-frequenting young people.
This chapter describes what street-frequenting young people call the ‘system’; it embodies what has now become their home, where they eat, earn money and engage in leisure and sleep. The chapter illustrates how these young people appropriate space, engage in meaningful work spaces, contest moral perceptions about them and resist in both explicit and masked ways. The chapter notes that a street-frequenting existence is less different from any other form of survival. It involves a constant negotiation of life paradoxes which can be fun and futile, safe and risky, and lawful and illegal.
In this study, risk and protective factors for substance use were explored to develop an intervention program and test its efficacy among male street-based adolescents. Twenty expert interviews and key informant interviews were conducted. In addition, 30 street adolescents (15 substance-users and 15 non-users) participated in four focus group discussions for needs assessment, wherein risk and protective factors were discussed. Based on the identified needs, an intervention package was developed and validated by experts. The package was implemented in a natural environment of 50 street adolescents. After the intervention, about 60% of the respondents quit or cut down on their substance use substantially, and approximately 40% of the respondents agreed to reunite with their respective families, while 20% did not change their substance use habits. The results showed that if several protective factors were present, there was a lower risk of substance use. Many factors contribute to substance use and protective factors need to be strengthened in order to make interventions effective.
This mixed-methods, exploratory study investigates the gambling activities of street youth in Mumbai, India. Data from surveys and brief interviews of 70 youth aged 12–24, two focus groups, and ethnographic observations offer descriptive snapshots of the gambling behavior of participants. The article includes details about games played, popular venues, initiation patterns, time spent gambling, and interactions with the police.
Street youth gamble for social benefits, such as group membership and fun; it is also a leisure activity enabling time to go by quickly. Individual benefits include intermittent rewards and a high after winning or being referred to as a gambler. The inability to save, the lack of recreation options, living in groups, and the environment of the streets structure and sustain gambling. This study discusses the group and social dimension of gambling among street youth, and how this dimension makes their participation different from adolescent gambling in general and General Addictions Theory. It contributes to the literature by emphasizing that for street youth the social/group aspects of gambling predominate the psychological. The paper concludes with a discussion of the implications for practice, highlighting the need to develop recreational, income-saving, and educational awareness programs.
The article presents a description and critique of a large range of anthropological methods used in research with children in Nepal. It highlights the importance of a comparative, multidisciplinary and emic perspective. The value of empirical biological research methods, their potential for triangulation with social methods and validity for policy and programming are discussed. Data collected on physical and psychological well-being of children facilitate a comparison of homeless street children with other rural and urban control groups. The nature of researcher-informant relationships is crucial to the quality of information gleaned from traditional methods of demographic survey and observation.
The hypothesis that drug use among Honduran street children is a function of developmental social isolation from cultural and structural influences is examined. Data from 1,244 children working and/or living on the streets of Tegucigalpa are described, separating "market" children from "street" children. The latter group is then divided into those who sniff glue and those who do not to identify salient distinguishing factors. An OLS regression of drug usage on these variables results in a model that explains 75% of the variance, where family relations, length of time on the street, and delinquency are the most important factors.
This paper examines the findings from recent studies of street children in Ethiopia.
Following a discussion of the term "street children," comparisons are drawn between Latin American and Ethiopian street children in terms of gender, age, reasons for going to the streets, family relations and structure, delinquency, drug use, groups and the outcomes of street life. In particular, the victimization of street children in Ethiopia is examined.
Widespread abuse of street children was reported. More than half of the street boys questioned reported being "regularly" physically attacked. Street life is also highly victimogenic for street girls. Sexual offences, in particular, were widespread. Forty four percent had been raped and a further 26% had been sexually attacked.
Similarities between Latin American street children and their Ethiopian counterparts regarding gender, background and street life experiences are noted. Comparisons concerning the victimization of street children were not possible, as this is an issue that is relatively unexamined in the Latin American context. Also, issues such as the developmental outcomes of street life and the process of leaving street life remain to be examined.
Children who live on the street in low- and middle-income countries have high rates of substance abuse, according to a meta-analysis carried out by researchers from the United States, Kenya, and Canada (Embleton L et al. Addiction. doi:10.1111/add.12252 [published online July 12, 2013]).
The article reviews the literature on street children and points out why there are street children in certain cultures and not in others. The reasons for their existence are related to poverty, abuse, and modernizing factors. Street children are defined and distinguished from working and refugee children. Details about the family struc ture of street children are given. How the children cope and their level of psychological functioning are discussed. The article gives reasons for why the children are treated with such violence and gives attention to methodological research problems that include the children's ability to distort information, the researcher's procliv ity to under- or overestimate the children's emotional condition, distortions of facts created by the press and international organiza tions, and general cross-cultural research issues.
The life style of homeless children in two South American cities is reported in this chapter. The chapter describes a society within a society complete with mores, sanctions and values. The author's use of the term "street children" forces the reader to consider the dramatic and distruptive effect of poverty on children. The conclusions suggest a national policy review if the United State is to avoid a similar situation.
This paper draws on interviews with children on the street, in corrective institutions and in low-income households to describe the pressures that eject them from homes, and the abuse and exploitation they have suffered at the hands of the police, the corrective institutions and, often, their own families. It also describes the inappropriate laws and public attitudes that underlie such problems.
Street children, hotel boys and children of pavement dwellers and construction workers in Bombay-how they meet their daily needs describes their situation. For instance, where they wash, defecate, sleep and who helps them when they are ill. It describes the circumstances which lead to children being in such a situation and the inadequacies of public provision in meeting their needs; and how involving these children in the survey became a means of establishing better contact between them and the government agencies and voluntary organizations seeking more effective public responses to their needs and problems.
Using the Schwandt and Halpern model of auditing a constructivist study, the article describes an audit from the perspectives of both the auditor and the inquirer requesting the audit. Presented are the steps of the audit as enacted, the issues raised during the experience, and recommendations for those seeking and performing audits of construc tivist inquiries.
Validation of qualitative research is here discussed in relation to postmodern conceptions of knowledge. A modernist notion of true knowledge as a mirror of reality is replaced by a postmodern understanding of knowledge as a social construction. Of the common psychometric concepts of validity, predictive validity is related to a modernist correspon dence theory of truth, whereas construct validity may be extended to encompass a social construction of reality. Three approaches to validity are outlined in some detail. First, validity is treated as an expression of craftsmanship, with an emphasis on quality of research by checking, questioning, and theorizing on the nature of the phenomena investigated. Second, by going beyond correspondence criteria of validity, the emphasis on observation is extended to include conversation about the observations, with a communicative concept of validity. Third, by discarding a modern legitimation mania, justification of knowledge is replaced by application, with a pragmatic concept of validity. In conclusion, the validity of the validity question is questioned.
Contrasts the naturalistic research paradigm with the scientific model, noting that the naturalistic paradigm assumes multiple reality, subject-object interrelatedness, and contextuality. Skills required for the pursuit of naturalistic inquiry are described. (JEG)
Discusses the programs and services which are provided for street children by the Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD) of the Philippine government. Linkages and networking of the DSWD are also briefly outlined. (RJC)
Children throng the streets of urban Latin America. Visitors from developed nations, unused to unsupervised children in such profusion and accosted by importunate children selling trivial goods or services, wonder who they are, where they come from, where they go. They are often explained as the abandoned offspring of the very poor or the product of delinquency and degeneracy, giving rise to ambivalent feelings of pity and fear in both local and foreign observers.
Systematic and careful studies of this large population have been lacking. Observers often take the self-serving and mendacious responses of these gamines as true indicators of their lives, tending to reinforce the highly colored and romanticized view of street children. Aptekar's rigorous study of these children, based on a year of close contact, provides real information on where they come from, where they go at night, and how they survive socially and economically. The resulting picture reveals not only the social realities in Latin America but also the adaptability and resourcefulness of children in ways startling to Western middle-class conceptions of child development. (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Poverty, rapid urbanization, population growth rate, family instability and the declining role of the extended family system are among the key factors responsible for the prevalence of child abuse and neglect in Nairobi. In this state of flux, cases of children who have been battered, abandoned, abused and neglected by their families or displaced as a result of armed conflict in the region have increased at an astounding pace over the past several years. One out of every three children from poor urban families in Kenya is regularly battered or subjected to other forms of maltreatment by a parent or other family members, the public and the authorities. Basically, there are two levels of abuse and neglect. There is abuse and neglect which children experience at home and which drives them onto the streets. There is also abuse and neglect which street children endure while on the streets. This paper discusses some of the ways in which abuse and neglect affect the lives of street children and families. It also highlights the plight of a sample of street children as exemplified by the kinds of difficulties which they endure while on the street. © 1997 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Providing a complete portal to the world of case study research, the Fourth Edition of Robert K. Yin's bestselling text Case Study Research offers comprehensive coverage of the design and use of the case study method as a valid research tool. This thoroughly revised text now covers more than 50 case studies (approximately 25% new), gives fresh attention to quantitative analyses, discusses more fully the use of mixed methods research designs, and includes new methodological insights. The book's coverage of case study research and how it is applied in practice gives readers access to exemplary case studies drawn from a wide variety of academic and applied fields.Key Features of the Fourth Edition Highlights each specific research feature through 44 boxed vignettes that feature previously published case studies Provides methodological insights to show the similarities between case studies and other social science methods Suggests a three-stage approach to help readers define the initial questions they will consider in their own case study research Covers new material on human subjects protection, the role of Institutional Review Boards, and the interplay between obtaining IRB approval and the final development of the case study protocol and conduct of a pilot case Includes an overall graphic of the entire case study research process at the beginning of the book, then highlights the steps in the process through graphics that appear at the outset of all the chapters that follow Offers in-text learning aids including 'tips' that pose key questions and answers at the beginning of each chapter, practical exercises, endnotes, and a new cross-referencing tableCase Study Research, Fourth Edition is ideal for courses in departments of Education, Business and Management, Nursing and Public Health, Public Administration, Anthropology, Sociology, and Political Science.
Incl. app., bibl. pp. 445-469, index, biographical notes on the contributors
Summary in English. Word processed copy. Thesis (M.Med. (Paediatrics))--University of Cape Town, 1990. Includes bibliographical references.
This study sets out to investigate the phenomenon of street children and its relationship to their home background. The project stemmed from the fact that there is an enormous increase of children nowadays roaming the streets. Our premordial aim here is to investigate whether misunderstanding between parents and their children resulting from home-rearing patterns can influence children to run away from home.
The research was carried out in specific areas of the Yaounde urban center where most of these delinquent children have their meeting points. Out of about 900 street children, 21 of them were sampled for this exercise. The nonprobability or purposive sampling technique was used. The main tool for data collection was the questionnaire. Two hypotheses were formulated and tested with the chi-square test of independence.
From the data analysis, there is a highly positive relationship (chi2 = 68.0, P = .001 ) existing between home-rearing patterns and the children found in the street. The analysis also stipulates that there is an equally positive but low relationship (chi2 = 10.5, P = .05 existing between the level of family income and children running away from home.
From the analysis of fundings, it can be concluded that the economic crisis which many Cameroonian families are facing cannot be considered as a major factor responsible for children abandoning the home for the street as family income has been shown to have only a weak connection with the street children phenomenon. On the contrary, authoritarian parenting which characterizes 62.86% of parents is revealed as the major factor responsible for children running away from home. The researcher recommends that interventions should focus on how parents treat their children without neglecting to deal with the means required to meet family needs.
This paper sought to achieve two objectives: First, to identify the social correlates attributable to street-children in south-western Nigeria as well as predisposing factors to this behavior; second, it also tried to uncover the survival mechanisms of street children.
The study was carried out in Ibadan and Lagos metropoles in south-western Nigeria. A pilot study was first conducted to clarify issues like location of the children on the streets, time of the day suitable for interview, and adequacy of the instruments. The main study involving a comparative 202 and 201 street-children and non-street children, respectively, was carried out using the questionnaire and case study approach in the two cities. Data analytical procedures involved both quantitative and qualitative methods.
Street-children are mostly males, have low-levels of education, are predominantly Yoruba, and come from families with five or more siblings. Parents of street-children commonly had low education and were mainly found in unskilled occupations: were in contract polygynous marriages which are also often characterized by marital disruption. Street children also left home because of parental/familial reasons, chiefly among which was the inability of their parents to meet with their expectations. They survive on the streets engaging in some income-yielding activities, and are also faced with many hazards.
The findings revealed that polygyny, large family, family disruption, and child labor were all central issues and predisposing factors to living on the streets by children. The poverty factor clearly came out as a very important factor.
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The statistical story of Indian street children
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Robbed of humanity: Lives of Guatemalan street children Children in especially difficult circumstances
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Adrift in the city: A comparative study of street children in Bogotá, Colombia, and Guatemala City
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Drug abuse among street children
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