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Blue Space: The importance of water for preferences, affect and restorativeness ratings of natural and built scenes
Abstract
Although theorists have suggested that aquatic environments or “blue space” might have particular restorative potential, to date there is little systematic empirical research on this issue. Indeed the presence of water has, unintentionally, been a confounding factor in research comparing people’s reactions to built and natural environments. Whereas aquatic features (rivers, lakes, coasts) are frequently present in visual stimuli representing natural environments they are rarely incorporated in stimuli portraying built environments. As many towns are, for good reason, located near water this is a potentially significant oversight. The current research collated a set of 120 photographs of natural and built scenes, half of which contained “aquatic” elements. Proportions of “aquatic”/“green”/“built” environments in each scene (e.g. 1/3rd, 2/3rds) were also standardised. Two studies investigated preferences (attractiveness, willingness to visit and willingness to pay for a hotel room with the view), affect and perceived restorativeness ratings for these photographs. As predicted, both natural and built scenes containing water were associated with higher preferences, greater positive affect and higher perceived restorativeness than those without water. Effect sizes were consistently large. Intriguingly, images of “built” environments containing water were generally rated just as positively as natural “green” space. We propose a number of avenues for further research including exploration of the mechanisms underlying these effects.
... The literature on restorative environments suggests that the presence of water features, vegetation, and views with moderate complexity that foster curiosity are significant factors affecting well-being. White and colleagues reported that aquatic environments were rated more positively for restoration than green space alone [55]. In indoor environments, the view area, number of layers, and fragmentation of the view have been identified as quantitative measures of view quality [53,54,56]. ...
... The view of water was consistently rated as the most restorative across both presentation modes, but the relationships between other natural elements varied between the screen-based and VR presentations. These results align with previous research by White et al. (2010), which found that aquatic environments were rated more positively for restoration than green spaces alone [55]. However, the current findings also reveal nuances in the restorative potential of different natural elements, with wooded areas showing higher restorativeness than desert or lawn views in screen-based presentations, but not in VR. ...
... The view of water was consistently rated as the most restorative across both presentation modes, but the relationships between other natural elements varied between the screen-based and VR presentations. These results align with previous research by White et al. (2010), which found that aquatic environments were rated more positively for restoration than green spaces alone [55]. However, the current findings also reveal nuances in the restorative potential of different natural elements, with wooded areas showing higher restorativeness than desert or lawn views in screen-based presentations, but not in VR. ...
Given the increasing prevalence of anxiety and depression, this research aims to identify design features that enhance the sense of restoration, with the goal of supporting mental and behavioral healthcare facility design. This study employed both screen-based and virtual reality (VR) stimuli to evaluate the perceived restorativeness of different interior settings. The key variables analyzed included window view access, view content, materiality, and room geometry. Thirty-five undergraduate and graduate students assessed 16 distinct interior environments. Findings indicate that the VR presentations generally produced higher restorativeness scores compared with screen-based presentations, though this effect varied across stimuli. Repeated-measures ANOVA revealed that larger windows consistently correlated with higher restorativeness scores in both presentation modes. Views of water were rated as most restorative, followed by wooded areas. Natural materials were perceived as significantly more restorative than other materials, particularly in VR presentations. Varied ceiling designs, especially vaulted ceilings, were associated with evaluations of higher restorativeness compared with flat ceiling designs, with this effect more pronounced in VR. This research underscores the potential of VR technology to simulate and assess interior design interventions, offering insights into creating more effective and personalized restorative environments in mental health treatment facilities. The findings can inform evidence-based design strategies for healthcare spaces, supporting treatment processes and patient well-being.
... When discussing the elements of sky and water within built environments, the concept of "blue spaces" is often referred to in research [30,31]. Blue spaces include both natural and urban areas, which encompass water bodies such as oceans, rivers, lakes, fountains and streams. ...
... Traditionally, many healing places were located close to the water sources [37,38]. In environmental psychology, aquatic elements are linked to positive mood effects, aesthetic appeal, and perceived restorative qualities in both built and natural settings [31]. The sounds of water, such as breaking waves, reflections in water as well as activities involving immersion in water, like swimming or bathing, are often regarded as soothing, appealing and revitalizing [31,39]. ...
... In environmental psychology, aquatic elements are linked to positive mood effects, aesthetic appeal, and perceived restorative qualities in both built and natural settings [31]. The sounds of water, such as breaking waves, reflections in water as well as activities involving immersion in water, like swimming or bathing, are often regarded as soothing, appealing and revitalizing [31,39]. In healthcare settings, water elements are introduced in various forms, such as paintings, photographs, aquariums, and even the sound of flowing water. ...
There is substantial evidence regarding the positive influences of natural elements on patients’ health outcomes. However, research has predominantly focused on natural green elements rather than natural blue elements. While sky and water are significant components of what humans perceive as "nature" and both offer considerable restorative effects in various built environments, research about their role in healthcare facilities has been limited. Therefore, this study investigated influences of exposure to natural blue elements on patients in medical imaging environments, specifically in Positron Emission Tomography/Computed Tomography (PET/CT) rooms. Virtual reality (VR) was employed to develop several scenarios with design strategies based on natural blue elements. These scenarios were presented to twenty participants who were former patients of medical imaging settings. The study employed a mixed methods research approach, collecting both subjective (questions on visual perception, positive and negative affects, self-reported stress) and physiological responses (mean heart rate and vagally-mediated heart rate variability). The study supports the idea that virtual reality serves as an effective tool for prototyping PET/CT scan environments. Furthermore, the results show that certain design strategies incorporating all aspects of natural blue elements, such as flowing water and its sound, water motion, water reflection, light in the sky, clouds, and the presence of birds in flight, have the potential to evoke specific positive subjective and physiological responses in participants. The findings also highlight the significant benefits of incorporating motion with natural blue elements, which makes them more realistic and, consequently, brings more life to medical imaging environments.
... The restorative benefits of soundscapes in blue spaces are significantly influenced by the type of water sound, its loudness, and the congruence between audiovisual elements. The synergy of audiovisual components plays a crucial role in the restorative quality of blue space soundscapes, with higher decibel levels of water sounds evoking emotional responses, whereas lower decibels are more effective in soothing emotions and alleviating anxiety (White et al. 2010). Further research indicates that waterfront soundscapes with a higher degree of naturalness are more conducive to mental restoration (Han, Kang, and Meng 2023). ...
... Further research indicates that waterfront soundscapes with a higher degree of naturalness are more conducive to mental restoration (Han, Kang, and Meng 2023). However, the restorative impact of natural sounds does not invariably surpass that of silent environments; the specific content of the sounds can modify mood dynamics (White et al. 2010). Additionally, the method of reproducing audiovisual environments in laboratory settings impacts subjects' perceived restorative gains. ...
... Research indicates that these qualities enable tended environments to evoke greater positive affect and reduce negative affect compared with wild settings, making them particularly appealing to individuals seeking tranquillity and accessibility (Martens et al., 2011;Simkin et al., 2021). Water elements, both natural and artificial, significantly enhance the restorative quality of environments, contributing to stress reduction and cognitive restoration (Völker & Kistemann, 2011;White et al., 2010). ...
... White et al. (2010) emphasized that blue spaces, including water features, uniquely enhance psychological well-being by promoting tranquillity. These benefits likely stem from sensory attributes, such as soothing sounds and reflective surfaces, which align with SRT.Felsten (2009) also noted the role of water features in evoking positive emotions and reducing mental fatigue, further highlighting their broad appeal. ...
Previous research has shown that natural environments and landscape‐related expertise affect psychological restoration and visual behaviour. However, little is known about how subtle differences in naturalness across similar settings, and the role of expertise, influence restorative benefits and eye movements.
This study addresses these gaps by investigating how different nature settings—wild nature, tended nature (includes plaza, lawn, path, pool and waterfall settings), and urban environments—influence human preferences, restorative perceptions and eye movements.
A between‐subjects experimental design was used, with 280 participants randomly assigned to one of seven landscape settings (40 participants per setting). Eye movements were tracked during the experiment to assess visual engagement.
The study found that the type of setting significantly influenced preferences, restorative potential and outcomes. Wild nature, along with two tended nature settings (pool and waterfall), was rated higher in restorative potential compared with urban and plaza settings by both expert and non‐expert groups. No significant differences were observed between pool, waterfall and wild nature settings in these ratings. While expertise influenced preferences in lawn, path and waterfall settings, it did not significantly impact perceptions of restorative potential or outcomes in most settings. Furthermore, settings had a stronger effect on eye movements in non‐experts, with notable differences in eye movement behaviour between the two groups.
This study emphasizes the importance of designing landscapes that cater to the diverse needs and preferences of different user groups. The findings contribute to the interdisciplinary field of people–nature relationships, providing insights for landscape architecture, urban planning and public health.
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... conclusions that windows with a minimum of 30% green space have been associated with observer preferences and restorative effects (Aoki 1991;White et al. 2010). From a viewpoint situated 200 cm from the window, the BGWVI range is 4.41% (Neustadt, Sued, 102) to 48.30% (Hahnwald,207). ...
... The findings indicate that the city-wide mean BGWVI is 31%, suggesting that access to visual green space is satisfactory across the city (Aoki 1991;White et al. 2010). Notwithstanding an indoor viewpoint and a reduced mean value of over 27%, visual access to green spaces in Cologne is more satisfactory in comparison to national and international studies. ...
As urbanization processes, climate disasters such as heat waves, or pandemics such as COVID-19, increase, prioritizing visible green space is crucial to provide equitable access to green spaces for vulnerable groups with limited mobility. In the long term, this will enable sustainable and resilient urban development. In this study, we examined green window views in residential buildings to identify patterns of distributive equity for seniors and children, considering their socioeconomic status for the first time. We combined the methodology around the BGWVI and the methodological framework by Huang et al. (Urban Forestry & Urban Greening 95: 128,313:1–128,313:12, 2024) to measure the visibility potential of green spaces for approximately 160,000 residential buildings in order to geostatistically analyze the equity of the spatial distribution of visible urban green spaces. Using the Gini coefficient, the share index, and the location entropy, an evaluation of the access to visible green spaces according to socio-economic status and age group was carried out at the district level for the City of Cologne, Germany. The results show that children and the elderly have slightly higher percentages of visible green space than the social mean percentage. In addition, the influence of the mean net household income on visual green spaces is low. These findings underscore the importance of visibility as an access alternative in urban green space planning for an equitable and resilient urban environment.
... Neste sentido pesquisas apontam que em ambientes internos, a melhora da qualidade do espaço pode ser percebida de forma progressiva de acordo com o aumento da presença de elementos naturais, luz do dia e vista para o ambiente externo, onde vistas com altas porções de elementos naturais são mais bem avaliadas em detrimento das que possuem elementos artificiais, como prédios e ruas [5][6] e que paisagens naturais são preferíveis em relação às vistas para a cidade [7]. É válido dizer que a faixa de céu encontrada em grandes proporções nas vistas também são mais bem avaliadas pelos usuários [8] e que vistas para espaços com a presença da água em ambientes naturais ou construídos produzem efeito restaurador no usuário e uma relação afetiva positiva em detrimento aos que não a possuem [9]. ...
... Critérios [9] que vistas com "alta porcentagem de vegetação" e/ou a presença de "elementos naturais -como a água" promovem efeito restaurador ao usuário, estes últimos parâmetros também devem ser contemplados nestas normas e certificações.Recomenda-se que além dos parâmetros relacionados às "três camadas", que parâmetros relacionados à "conservação das edificações" e "paisagens dinâmicas como exemplo a movimentação de pessoas ou veículos" também possam ser contemplados nas certificações, como já demonstrado serem itens preferíveis pelos usuários nas pesquisas [11].Ademais, é pertinente destacar que a NBR 15.215, apesar de não abordar acerca das proporções das camadas, é dentre as certificações e normas analisadas, a mais completa, trazendo parâmetros que irão colaborar no bem-estar do usuário. Certamente, porém, é preciso considerar que o crescimento populacional e a densificação das áreas urbanas pode comprometer a implementação destes ...
O contato com o ambiente externo e qualidade desta vista são identificados pela comunidade científica como fundamentais para o bem-estar humano e têm sido incorporados em normas e certificações que tratam da iluminação natural. Neste sentido, o trabalho tem como objetivo analisar as normas e certificações no que tange a qualidade da vista, estabelecendo um paralelo com a norma brasileira NBR 15.215. A metodologia é constituída de três etapas: (1) Catalogação de normas e certificações que tratam da qualidade da vista; (2) Levantamento e identificação de “critérios” e suas respectivas abrangências e (3) paralelo entre a NBR 15.215-4 e as normas e certificações internacionais a respeito dos “requisitos avaliativos da qualidade da vista”. Como conclusão é possível identificar divergências entre as certificações LEED, BREEAM, GREEN STAR NZ e CASBEE e a norma brasileira na tratativa do conteúdo da vista, onde pode ser destacado que no item “distância da vista da janela” não há um padrão de medida, apesar de terem sido detectados valores próximos. Contudo observa-se uma unanimidade, dentre as normas e certificações analisadas, com relação a necessidade da vista para uma paisagem natural.
... Sensory Stimulation The sensory experience of water-its sound, movement, and reflective propertiesprovides a calming effect that fosters mindfulness and emotional clarity. White et al. (2010) emphasize that water features create "blue spaces" that significantly enhance mental health compared to purely green spaces. ...
This article explores the therapeutic and psychological benefits of incorporating koi fish ponds into modern living spaces. Integrating natural elements like water and aquatic life into built environments has shown significant positive effects on mental and physical health. Drawing from interdisciplinary research, this paper examines how koi ponds reduce stress, enhance mindfulness, and improve overall well-being. It further investigates cultural, educational, and therapeutic dimensions, emphasizing the role of koi ponds as restorative environments in urban and rural settings.
... The "emotional feeling" (Factor 1) of participants in this study demonstrated that the participants evaluated scenes with water reflection more positively compared to those with pavements. This result corresponds with those of numerous studies that claimed that people consider water bodies an important element of the landscape 1,6,8,43,59 . "Spatial awareness" (Factor 2) showed that participants subjectively felt scenes with water were broader and wider compared to those without water. ...
Water is considered one of the most important elements in landscape design. Studies claim that water expands perceived spatial dimension. In classic Chinese gardens, water is usually used to expand limited garden spaces. However, this information is mostly experience-based. Therefore, this exploratory study compared the differences in characteristics of the observer’s visual and cognitive processing using a typical classic Chinese garden scenery picture with and without water through experiment (repeated measures design). A total of 64 participants were asked to randomly view two pictures respectively. The results showed that water reflection attracts more visual attention than pavement. Moreover, reflections can reduce the proportion of visual attention of a reflected substance and lower its visual attractiveness. The estimation of the actual area size showed that water was not effective for people’s spatial perception. However, participants felt a greater sense of spaciousness when viewing scenes that included water. These results suggest that reflecting on the water enhanced people’s appreciation of the scene.
... In the category of biophilic design experiences, direct experience has the most relevant research, which implies direct contact with nature and natural processes [28]. Although the most popular research objects are plants, landscapes and ecosystems in the built environment, 'water' as a separate natural element is considered to have a restorative role [29], both concerning the sights [19] and sounds [30] of water. The idea of utilising the biophilic benefits of water and integrating it into the built environment has been articulated [31]. ...
While many studies have examined the experience of natural spaces in depth, and have found that biophilic design benefits a high level of human mental health. They understand how the natural element can help human beings and the provision of well-being. However, research on the beneficial effects of integrating ‘water’ in architectural spaces on psychological health is limited. The main aim of this study was to explore ways of designing hydrophilic spaces through parametric design and associating human behaviour with psychological perception. The data was generated from a specific case study and analysed through Grasshopper simulations. The results of the analyses show that hydrophilic spaces have a significant psychological impact. Firstly, parametric analyses can effectively be used to help construct nature-friendly spaces. Secondly, the correlation between human behaviour and the efficiency of perceiving the environment can be quantified. Thirdly, the perception of natural elements can be influenced by spatial design. The findings suggest that biophilic architectural design should broaden the physical and sensory typologies in architectural research to inspire reflection and deepening of design research. Furthermore, future architectural design should take more consideration of integrating natural elements to enhance human comfort and well-being.
... Water, in particular, has been identified as a powerful natural element with significant psychological benefits [10]. The presence of water, whether in the form of oceans, rivers, or even simulated environments, has been linked to increased feelings of tranquillity, reduced anxiety, and enhanced emotional well-being [24,25], resulting in improved attention, memory, and overall cognitive function [26]. The calming effect of water is often attributed to its visual and auditory properties, which can induce a meditative state and promote relaxation [27]. ...
This proposal refers to the design of a modular space habitat that transforms and adapts according to different mission planning and needs, with a focus on the “human factor” framework and the philosophy of habitability. To this direction, the two terms that drove the architectural development of the habitat were adaptability and transformability. It was clear that a design solution that would embrace and respond to different scenarios, would be the most suitable design choice as many different missions with different unique characteristics and needs arise. Furthermore, the use of transformable spatial systems has the ability to improve the qualitative factors of space and increase, through that, the psychological comfort of people. In addition to architectural variability, this proposal makes extensive use of lighting design and projection mapping as main tools in order to address the multitude of scenarios, but also to reduce the harmful effects of extreme environments in human health and psychology. Lighting scenarios are used to increase productivity and human health, through qualitative and quantitative evaluation. Projection mapping serves as a vital tool in extreme and confined environments, transforming any surface into a canvas for dynamic visuals. This capability not only enhances the immersive experience for viewers but also provides a much-needed escape and stress relief in demanding conditions, therefore promoting mental well-being.
... A positively evaluated landscape [9], [10], a simple presence of parks or courtyards, or even better accessibility to nearby green space could lower dissatisfaction with traffic noise [3], [11] or reduce the long-term noise annoyances of dwellers [3], [12]. Views of sea was also found to have noise annoyance moderation capability [13] and also could provide high restorativeness to people [14]. However, noise annoyance moderation capability for different types of natural features may be different. ...
... The quantitative results of this study challenge the common research conclusion that all types of blue spaces are universally beneficial [59,60]. While much of the previous research suggests that being in blue spaces promotes mental health and well-being, this study reveals a more nuanced result. ...
This study develops a predictive model to assess the impacts of urban water blue visual index (BVI) and flow velocity on human brain states using EEG and HRV data in virtual reality simulations. By integrating Gaussian process regression (GPR) and artificial neural networks (ANN), the model accurately captures the relationships between BVI, flow velocities, and brain states, reflecting experimental observations with high precision. Applied across 31 provinces in China, the model effectively predicted regional brain state levels, aligning closely with the birthplace distribution of high-level talents, such as academicians and Changjiang scholars. These results highlight the model’s practical application in optimizing urban water features to enhance mental health, cognitive performance, and societal development.
... Since there is currently no unified classification standard, researchers may propose various criteria from different perspectives, each of which appears reasonable. For example, there are multiple ways to describe and differentiate nature-related environments, including specific physical features, such as high mountains and forest areas (Yuan et al., 2023); water features in landscapes, such as rivers, lakes and seas (Herzog, 1985;Völker & Kistemann, 2015;White et al., 2010); general structural features, such as diversity and complexity (Lückmann et al., 2011;Ode et al., 2009); visual properties, such as visual contrast and colour saturation (Berman et al., 2014); and the presence of straight lines and curves (Kardan et al., 2015). Here, we referred to the basic types of tourism resources specified in the Chinese National Standard GB/T 18972-2017 Classification, investigation and evaluation of tourism resources (2017). ...
The aim of this study was to explore whether and how diverse categories of nature‐related landscape images would influence the emotional dimensions of pleasure, arousal and dominance in the process of aesthetic appreciation, as well as to develop a new nature‐related image system (NIS). A total of 575 high‐quality images across six categories were selected and assessed by 197 students from the dimensions of aesthetic feeling (AF), pleasure, arousal and dominance. The results showed that different categories evoked varying levels of each dimension, and the impact of landscape categories on emotional experiences cannot be overlooked. Specially, flower landscape showed a clear experimental dissociation in terms of AF and pleasure compared to other categories, suggesting that flower images tend to evoke a positive emotional experience overall, regardless of AF level. Moreover, it also suggested that the effects of flowers on emotions could be considered independently from other categories in future research.
... The outcomes of such well-being indicators can vary among types of natural settings. For example, perceived restorative value of nature is greater within 'blue spaces' (e.g., beaches, oceans, rivers, lakes) compared to spaces without water (White et al., 2010), and environments with greater biodiversity further enhance psychological well-being outcomes (Fuller et al., 2007). Additionally, exposure to degraded and polluted systems may diminish psychological well-being (e.g., self-reported happiness; Welsch, 2006) as well as physical wellbeing (e.g., microplastic pollution health hazards; Sharma and Chatterjee, 2017). ...
... Street spatial characteristics significantly influence public behavioral traits, with the presence of water exerting a particularly pronounced effect on activity levels. Environments featuring water are generally more appealing to the public [40], aligning with prior research that indicates spaces near water are more attractive and that water plays a significant role in influencing static behaviors in parks [16,17]. Conversely, the proportion of green space has a notable negative impact on public behavior. ...
The design of street spaces significantly influences public behavior and quality of life. Understanding how various urban street spatial characteristics affect public behavior, alongside the role of multi-sensory perception, enables designers and planners to create more human-centered urban environments. Grounded in landsenses ecology, this study employs correlation analysis, regression analysis, and Partial Least-Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) to examine the effects of different urban street spatial characteristics on public behavior and the mediating role of multi-sensory perception. The findings reveal that street spatial characteristics, particularly the Water Surface Ratio (WSR) and Waterfront Density (WD), have a pronounced impact on behavioral traits, with higher public activity frequencies in areas with elevated WSR and WD. Notably, WSR significantly affects static behaviors, such as sunbathing (β = 0.371, p < 0.001), and dynamic behaviors, such as walking (β = 0.279, p < 0.001). While road and water characteristics directly influence behavior, buildings and green spaces mainly affect public behavior through multi-sensory perception. Different sensory perceptions show varying effects, with olfactory perception playing a significant role in these experiences, alongside a notable chain-mediated effect between tactile perception and psychological cognition. These results provide valuable insights for integrating multi-sensory experiences into urban design.
... These lakes typically enhance comfort and beauty, fulfilling functions such as flood mitigation and fresh water supply (Ribbe et al., 2023). Urban lakes and ponds are commonly found in parks or surrounded by green belts and vegetation, making them "green spaces" and "blue spaces" that provide essential facilities for urban residents (White et al., 2010;Mishra et al., 2020;Mitroi et al., 2022). ...
Urban lakes are critical in flood mitigation, providing fresh water, and offering green spaces in urban environments. However, many urban lakes face increasing ecological pressures from various human activities. This study assesses the water quality and morphometric conditions of three urban lakes—Dori, Walini, and Dora in the Cibinong Botanical Garden Complex in Bogor Regency, located in a high-rise residential area. The study aims to evaluate the current water quality, identify contributing factors to water quality degradation, and compare conditions across the three lakes. Data was collected between January and April 2023, utilizing a Geographic Information System (GIS) for morphometric analysis and water quality measurements. Water quality was assessed in accordance with the standards set by Government Regulation No. 22 of 2021. Results indicate that Lake Dori, Walini, and Dora have surface areas of 3,406.96 m², 7,668.37 m², and 13,599 m², respectively. Based on water quality classifications, both Lake Walini and Lake Dori meet Class III standards (suitable for water use), while Lake Dora, though also in Class III, exhibits milder pollution indicators. These findings provide important insights for managing urban lakes and can guide future environmental policies.
... Other indicators that have been considered in the literature refer to size of green space (KPI 1.4) [37], presence of water or coastline (KPI 1.5) [38] and environmental qualities e.g. vegetation species (KPI 1.6), trees size (KPI 1.7) and species origin (KPI 1.8) [39,40]. ...
This study constitutes a first step towards a better understanding of the associations between human Health and Well-Being (H&WB) and urban green space characteristics. Utilizing various Key Performance Indicators for two green spaces in the city of Chania, we report their capacities in terms of greenness availability, accessibility, usage, air temperature reduction, as well as air pollution removal. Our report consists of in-situ measurements, modelling results and questionnaire data. Despite Municipal Garden of Chania’s (MGC) lower total carbon storage, it demonstrates denser vegetation, leading to efficient carbon sequestration and higher Normalized Difference Vegetation Index values. Accessibility favors MGC, with both spaces offering similar attractiveness, safety and acoustic comfort. Saint Apostoles Park (SAP) proves more effective in air pollutant reduction. Temperature differentials between green and urban areas are pronounced, with SAP and MGC showing lower temperatures. The findings underscore the importance of strategic urban planning to bolster human H&WB.
... The first area investigates the impact of natural elements within a city. This includes water bodies, parks, playgrounds, and urban forests [67,111,134]. Research in this domain aims to elucidate how these features influence the overall auditory and visual perception of the urbanscape. The second area encompasses a more comprehensive evaluation of the entire urban environment, encompassing both built and natural elements. ...
Audio-visual characteristics of an urban environment significantly shape the individual experience. Researchers have employed various multidisciplinary approaches and tools to assess the auditory and visual elements, gaining insights into user preference, comfort, and restorative capabilities of different urban spaces. This review highlights these approaches and tools adopted for the audio-visual assessment of urbanscape. Additionally, it categorizes the tangible and intangible parameters utilized in the evaluation of these environments. For audio and visual assessment, researchers have primarily adopted three kinds of experimental approaches: in-situ experiment, reproduced in the laboratory using manually collected data, and laboratory experiment utilizing archives and crowdsourced data. In-situ approach provides real-world user experience but has limited control over variables. Laboratory experiments offer a controlled environment but may not represent on-ground complexities. Additionally, the chosen approach significantly impacts the spatial extent of the study. The adoption of computer vision techniques has enhanced the ability to quantitatively assess the intricate details of both audio and visual characteristics of physical environments. The review highlights the importance of combining the objective measurement of the physical environment along measurement of physiological and subjective ratings to holistically assess the audio-visual sensory perception of the urban environment.
... There is a substantial body of research showing that there is a general, strong preference for aquatic environments (Kaplan and Kaplan 1989;White et al. 2010), and that this preference translates to increased visitation rates (Kienast et al. 2012). The presence of water was the most common characteristic of forests used in forest therapy studies (Gobster et al. 2022), and there is strong evidence for the link between spending time near water and human wellbeing (White et al. 2020). ...
Forests’ ability to provide opportunities for recreation is an important ecosystem service. This has prompted attempts to create indicators to assess forests' suitability for recreation, although hitherto with limited success. This study introduces a novel framework for indicators of potential and realised recreational values of forests, with a primary focus on Sweden and Fennoscandia. We divided forest attributes into intrinsic qualities (i.e. the structure and composition of the forest), extrinsic qualities (i.e. the location of the forest in relation to other components of the landscape), and facilitation qualities (i.e. the presence of recreational infrastructure). Using Fennoscandia as a case study, we performed a literature review to find specific indicators of recreational values, as well as evaluate the current availability of spatial data suitable to map the forest qualities on a national scale. The most important intrinsic quality we identified was tree size/age, whereas for extrinsic quality it was proximity to water. Systematic monitoring of recreational use is essential to estimate realised recreational values. The conceptual framework proved to be a valuable tool for identifying potential indicators, and applying it in other regions is likely to yield useful outcomes.
... In addition, to interpret the use of the element of water, scholars used two methods, either bringing or simulating. Based on studies showing that individuals prefer water-containing landscapes more than water-free landscapes, the water-based landscapes helps to boost mood and increase feelings of calm and lower blood pressure (Jo et al., 2019;M. White et al., 2010. Additionally, there are studies showing auditory and tactile access to water can help to relieve stress . Consequently, designers bring in and simulate natural water features through visual access to rainfall, water wall, constructed waterfall, aquarium, and fountains (Ardiani et al., 2020). Further, hearing the sounds made by running w ...
Biophilic design (BD) is defined as a design approach that promotes human-nature connectedness (HNC) in the built environment (BE), resulting in a significant impact on human health, well-being, and productivity, in addition to several economic, social, and environmental benefits. This study presents a critical analysis of the most important proposed frameworks and strategies for the application of BD from 2008 to 2022 to identify points of confusion and weaknesses and try to avoid them. The study concluded by presenting a Four-Component Framework as a new architectural translation that seeks to facilitate the application of BD in the design of the BE to achieve the benefits of HNC. The proposed framework focuses on separating the elements of nature from the methods in which these elements are used, from the desired experiences from the BD's intended goals. As a result of this separation, architects and designers may find that by applying this framework, the application of BD becomes easier, more tangible, and unambiguous.
... marine biology, underwater archaeology etc.) are rarely discussed at least on the subject of the capacity of marine biota and its images to convey messages and feelings. This is despite the fact that aquatic environments have the capacity to promote the mental well-being of people and that Blue Space [16] is often associated with higher preferences and more positive subjective reactions. Certainly, is not a coincidence if in the titles of psychological literature we find direct links between benefits and interaction with nature or the restorative effects of natural environments. ...
... The ART and SAT theories propose that natural elements possess esthetic and semantic characteristics. Features such as moderate complexity (Ullman et al., 2002), a high degree of structure (Tveit et al., 2006), and the presence of water (White et al., 2010) are often easily processed by the sensory system. These features are considered to have certain psychological evolutionary significance. ...
Various auditory and visual factors influence people’s perception and restoration experiences in the spatial environments. However, few studies have treated these factors as a comprehensive system phenomenon to reveal their integrated effects. Therefore, a specific explanation of the primary pathways and factors that contribute to the main effects of park soundscapes and visual features and the resulting perceived restorativeness remains unclear. The study surveyed 861 visitors in five urban parks in China and collected audiovisual information. Using Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM), the research explored the direct, indirect, and moderating effects of common audiovisual environments in parks on perceived restorativeness, emotional states, and preferences. The results indicate that most natural-related visual and auditory factors provide direct benefits for people’s perceived restorativeness, emotional state, and preference. Additionally, certain landscape features and types of sound sources, such as trees and water sounds, have indirect effects on activating restoration through preference and emotion mediation. The study also reveals the moderating effects of landscape features and sound source types on emotional and perceived restorativeness. Another noteworthy finding is the significant relationship between bird songs and the positive impact on perceived restorativeness, emotional state, and preference, which is closely related to acoustic quality indicators. These findings offer new insights for creating urban park spaces through visual and auditory interactions.
... Natural environments exhibit a variety of forms, types, colors, and vegetation. There are various ways to describe and distinguish natural environments, including the following: specific physical features, such as high mountains and forest areas; water features in landscapes, such as rivers, lakes, and seas (Herzog, 1985;Völker & Kistemann, 2015;Wang et al., 2019;White et al., 2010;Yuan et al., 2023); general structural features, such as diversity and complexity (Liu et al., 2021;Lückmann et al., 2013;Ode et al., 2009); visual properties, such as visual contrast and color saturation (Berman et al., 2014); and the presence of straight lines and curves (Kardan et al., 2015). The present study follows the study by Franěk (2023), which classified natural environments according to two characteristics: attractiveness and spatial openness. ...
The interaction between music and the environment has been widely investigated in various domains; however, the effects of music on the perception of outdoor environments have not been adequately examined. A better understanding of audio-visual interactions between music and the natural environment is important for music psychology, because the field is currently employing natural sounds, yet their pairing remains poorly understood. Furthermore, this understanding is vital for soundscape research, given that individuals are increasingly listening to music on headphones in natural settings. This has practical implications wherever music and the natural environment are paired. This study explored the audio-visual interaction between music and the perception of natural environments. Four types of natural images were presented based on their attractiveness/unattractiveness and visual openness/closedness. At the same time, the participants listened to sad or happy music. Both self-reported assessment data and data obtained through automated software analysis of emotional facial expressions represented in the form of emotional engagement were analyzed. The results showed that, compared to listening to sad music or no music, exposure to happy music resulted in an increase in self-reported environmental preference. However, sad music did not significantly decrease self-reported environmental preference or self-reported pleasant feelings compared to the control no-music condition. Analysis of the engagement in facial emotional expressions showed that sad music decreased engagement compared to the no-music condition in all types of environments; however, when listening to happy music, the participants’ engagement was lower in unattractive environments but not in attractive environments compared to when they did not listen to any music.
... As a result, environments that meet these needs are more likely to be preferred. Preferences are not solely based on aesthetic appeal; they also involve an immediate pleasurable sensation and a physiological reaction that can motivate either avoidance or a desire to visit the environment (Ulrich, 1986;White et al., 2010). In the context of university campuses, ornamental flowers contribute significantly to psychological well-being by creating visually attractive and restorative spaces that can promote emotional recovery and relaxation among students and faculty ...
Ornamental plants provide several advantages to individuals, including emotional and mental wellbeing, physiological health, social relationships, and economic and financial circumstances. The correlation between flowers and aesthetically pleasing plants has been widely acknowledged as having a favorable influence on psychological wellbeing throughout the history of humanity. This study investigates the role of ornamental flowers in the psychological wellbeing of students and staff. This descriptive study used a quantitative approach. The study sample was 350 (male =212, female=138), including students and employees at the University of Okara. The study revealed that Ornamental flowers in universities are linked to significantly reduced stress levels and enhanced mood in the university community. The benefits of this beautiful campus environment with ornamental flowers are a reduction in stress levels, improved mood, and a peaceful aesthetic appreciation for residents. More psychological wellbeing and economic benefits were discovered with the presence of flowers in males compared to females. Staff well-being, meanwhile, was perceived as higher than for students impeding the perception that ornamental plants may be generally more beneficial to professional roles within a setting. Their findings indicate that we need to integrate natural elements in our environments, specifically at the university level, to create an enriched learning experience and environment perfect for creating general wellbeing. Such research also can shed light on the value of ornamental plants and their ability to generate a sense of wellbeing and encouragement in campus ambience.
... Moreover, results show that stays in parks and natural areas with water features are considered to be more psychologically restorative than stays in parks and natural areas without water features. This applies to streams, rivers and lakes, but also artificial ponds and fountains [92,93,117,125]. ...
All over the world, teenagers suffer from stress-related mental illness, and research shows that being in natural environments can bring about recovery. However, centrally located areas in cities where teenagers like to hang out are being densified at the expense of green spaces. The health-promoting function of small, centrally located parks is thus becoming increasingly important. This study examines Iranian teenagers’ assessment of the restorative potential of small, centrally located parks. Such parks include attributes typical of city centers, such as trees, lighting, park benches and flowers. A discrete sampling method was used to collect responses from a sample of 265 Iranian teenagers. They were asked to randomly rate the perceived recovery potential of digitally designed models of green spaces. The results show that the teenagers evaluated the presence of water in waterbeds to have a strong positive effect on recovery possibilities. The entire green area should also be screened off from the rest of the city and convey a soft impression. It should have lighting from tall lampposts, contain plant beds and, not least, have distinctive cultural attributes such as crescent arches and fountains. In the discussion of the article, we address the practical and theoretical implications of the findings.
... The restorative power of natural environments has been well-documented. White et al. (2010) and Severin et al. (2023) found that exposure to coastal landscapes, particularly rocky shores, helps reduce stress and promotes overall well-being. Such benefits make these environments indispensable for urban populations seeking natural respite. ...
Ecosystem services offered by rocky shores significantly enhance human well-being. However, these benefits are increasingly at risk due to the rising demand for recreational resources and tourism facilities in coastal areas, compounded by the threats of sea level rise and coastal erosion linked to climate change. These coastal ecosystems are crucial for providing food and habitat for fish, and they sustain artisanal fishing communities that utilize low-draft vessels and traditional fishing gear. These communities have developed a profound understanding of local fisheries, enabling them to live in harmony with their environment. However, they are increasingly exposed to the pressures threatening coastal resources. In response, they have formed alliances to secure legal recognition for what have often been overlooked as marginal economies, advocating for defined property rights and resource access. Additionally, rocky shores are celebrated for their rich marine biodiversity and breathtaking landscapes, offering extensive recreational and educational opportunities. These areas function as natural classrooms and therapeutic retreats, fostering conservation and improving community well-being. They also serve as centers of cultural heritage, inspiring artists and preserving traditional practices within local communities. This chapter delves into the complex role of rocky shores in fostering economic and cultural ecosystem services.
... Nature Views and Water Features: Offering views of natural landscapes or outdoor areas from treatment rooms and common areas can create a sense of safety and peace for patients with PTSD, reducing feelings of hyper alertness and anxiety (Kaplan, 1995) and integrating water components such as fountains or indoor waterfalls can elicit a sense of tranquility and relaxation, helping persons with PTSD manage symptoms of arousal and distress (White et al., 2010). ...
This research analyzes the potential of Biophilic design as a sustainable healing technique in rehabilitation centers situated in the Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Drawing from the rich biodiversity and cultural past of the region, Biophilic design concepts are investigated as a technique to boost the physical and mental well-being of patients undergoing rehabilitation. By integrating natural components and patterns into the constructed environment, rehabilitation institutions can provide therapeutic places favorable to healing and recovery. In the context of rehabilitation institutions, adopting Biophilic design concepts can provide several benefits to patients, including stress reduction, enhanced mood, and speedier recovery. This paper presents strategies for applying Biophilic design in the Niger Delta’s rehabilitation centers and examines the socio-environmental benefits of such an approach.
... In their study of soundscapes in National Forest Park, Bai and Zhang observed that the perception of water sounds was associated with a notable increase in positive emotions and a reduction in negative emotions among participants 71 . White's study indicated that the presence of water in a landscape can result in a greater degree of perceptual restoration than would be the case in a landscape devoid of water 72 . This study is in alignment with the proposition that water is an aesthetically pleasing element in a range of forest environments. ...
At present, the effects of forest and psychological and physiological restoration are mostly limited to forests with different characteristics, but tourists with different personality characteristics experience significantly different effects of restoration in the same forest, and there are many gaps in the research in this area. This study took Tianjiling National Forest Park in China as the research site. Physiological and psychological responses of 74 college students in different forest landscape Spaces were monitored and evaluated using POMS (Emotional state Profile) scale, electroencephalogram (EEG) and heart rate (HR) indicators. The results showed that: (1) semi-open forest landscape had the best effect on promoting psychological and physiological recovery, which was obviously better than open and closed forest environment; (2) The combination of different landscape elements has a significant impact on the recovery effect, among which the combination of "bamboo forest + water flow" is the most effective in promoting relaxation and lowering heart rate, while the combination of "forest + building + rich species" has more health benefits in psychological recovery than other elements; (3) The increase of plant species richness has a positive effect on the restoration effect of all types of forests, especially in open forest space; (4) Individual attributes, such as gender and personality traits, had some influence on the recovery effect, but gender had no significant influence on the psychophysiological response in the three forest environments, and negative personality traits had a strong correlation with the reduction of positive emotions and the increase of heart rate. The results show that the open degree, vegetation density and spatial structure of forest landscape are the key factors affecting the psychological and physiological recovery of tourists. In addition, this study also put forward several suggestions: (1) increase the semi-open forest space, appropriately increase the species richness, pay attention to the reasonable combination of soft and hard landscape elements, and (2) select the appropriate forest environment according to personal characteristics. This study provides a scientific basis for landscape planning, design and policy formulation of national forest parks in China.
In the face of mounting pressures in modern society, research into restorative environments has emerged as a crucial field addressing issues related to mental health and environmental wellbeing. This study presents a comprehensive bibliometric analysis of 919 publications on restorative environment research, spanning from 1993 to 2024, utilizing VOSviewer and CiteSpace for data visualization, based on the Web of Science database. The main objective of this bibliometric analysis is to provide scholars and researchers with a deeper insight into the current state and evolving trends in restorative environment research, while also pinpointing areas that warrant further investigation. The study examines research patterns across several key dimensions, including publication volume, keywords, journals, academic disciplines, countries, institutions, and individual researchers. The results of this analysis highlight the following key points: (1) Research on restorative environments has experienced significant growth since 2014, with a marked acceleration during the COVID-19 pandemic. (2) The primary research foci include environmental psychology, the relationship between nature and social wellbeing, and urban ecosystems with aesthetic health, with environmental psychology and cognitive restoration emerging as the most interconnected core themes. (3) Leading journals in restorative environment research include the Journal of Environmental Psychology, the International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, and Frontiers in Psychology. (4) The main academic fields contributing to this body of research are psychology, public health, landscape architecture, and urban planning. (5) The United States has the highest number of publications on restorative environments (212 papers), followed by China (159 papers), the United Kingdom (90 papers), Sweden (67 papers), and Australia (55 papers). (6) Uppsala University has emerged as the most prolific institution, with 35 publications, followed by the Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences (32 papers) and the University of Exeter (24 papers). Finally, environmental psychology and cognitive restoration, the connection between nature and social wellbeing, and urban ecosystems with aesthetic health are identified as the leading and most dynamic research areas. These findings suggest that restorative environment research has made significant strides over the past 3 decades and is poised to continue expanding in the years ahead.
Nature exposure has numerous health benefits and might reduce self-reported acute pain. Given the multi-faceted and subjective quality of pain and methodological limitations of prior research, it is unclear whether the evidence indicates genuine analgesic effects or results from domain-general effects and subjective reporting biases. This preregistered neuroimaging study investigates how nature modulates nociception-related and domain-general brain responses to acute pain. Healthy participants (N = 49) receiving electrical shocks report lower pain when exposed to virtual nature compared to matched urban or indoor control settings. Multi-voxel signatures of pain-related brain activation patterns demonstrate that this subjective analgesic effect is associated with reductions in nociception-related rather than domain-general cognitive-emotional neural pain processing. Preregistered region-of-interest analyses corroborate these results, highlighting reduced activation of areas connected to somatosensory aspects of pain processing (thalamus, secondary somatosensory cortex, and posterior insula). These findings demonstrate that virtual nature exposure enables genuine analgesic effects through changes in nociceptive and somatosensory processing, advancing our understanding of how nature may be used to complement non-pharmacological pain treatment. That this analgesic effect can be achieved with easy-to-administer virtual nature exposure has important practical implications and opens novel avenues for research on the precise mechanisms by which nature impacts our mind and brain.
Color and form are closely related to our daily lives and can directly and rapidly affect people’s emotions, and it is of great significance to study the effects of color and form of garden plants on the body and mind of urban residents. In this study, the shrub Camellia japonica L., which has rich germplasm resources, was selected as the research object. It aims to address the following research questions: how flower colors and flower types of Camellia japonica L. affect human physiology and psychology? In this study, we recruited 158 participants to participate in a controlled experiment to quantitatively measure and analyze physiological (heart rate, blood pressure, oxygen saturation, electroencephalogram [EEG]) and psychological (anger, panic, nervousness, energy, fatigue, depression, and self-esteem) indices before and after viewing pictures of Camellia japonica L. of all colors and flower types, as well as of them in different colony configurations. The results of evaluating physiological indexes and POMS values showed that different types of Camellia japonica L. images had different restorative benefits. From the physiological indicators, blood pressure metrics were more sensitive as an evaluation of recovery effects than those of heart rate and oxygen saturation, and stress recovery was more significant after color stimulation than petal category and landscape type. Color, petal type, and landscape configuration type affect relaxation, concentration restoration, and other moods differently reflected by α wave and β wave of EEG. POMS questionnaires showed that viewing different types of picture processes of Camellia sinensis significantly reduced nervousness, anger, fatigue, depression, panic, and self-esteem, and the effect was significant in males than in females. Our findings provide a theoretical basis and selection for the garden application of Camellia japonica L. in a broader sense, intending to improve their health benefits and maximize the restorative effects of urban environments.
Objectives
This research describes four aspects of the development of the Sense of Safety Theoretical Framework for whole person care: exploring the meaning of the phrase “sense of safety”—the whole person language; the range of human experience that impacts sense of safety—whole person scope; the dynamics that build sense of safety—the healing goals; and the personal and cross-disciplinary trauma-informed practitioner skills and attitudes that facilitate sense of safety.
Methods
This qualitative participatory study was conducted in two phases. Researchers iteratively explored the concept of sense of safety using focus groups and semi-structured interviews. Overarching research questions were: “Does the transdisciplinary concept of Sense of Safety make sense as an approach to the whole person in distress?”; “How do participants describe the meaning of the phrase “sense of safety”?”; “What does a person experience when they feel safe?” and “What can practitioners do to facilitate a sense of safety?” Phase One involved rural and urban family doctors, mental health clinicians across multiple disciplines, people with lived experience of mental distress, and Indigenous Australian academics. Phase Two widened the scope of disciplines involved to iteratively reflect on their clinical and personal experience with “sense of safety” and included international family doctors, physiotherapists, occupational therapists, social workers, teachers, multidisciplinary rural clinicians and multidisciplinary clinicians with a lived experience of physical trauma, grief, and severe mental illness.
Results
The everyday language “sense of safety” was found to describe a whole person experience that integrates awareness of self, others, and context. The scope of human experience that impacts sensed safety was found to include seven domains: Environment, Social Climate, Relationships, Body, Inner Experience, Sense of Self and Spirit/Meaning (Whole Person Domains). Five dynamic healing goals were identified that build sense of safety: Broad Awareness; Calm Sense-Making; Respectful Connection; Capable Engagement; and Owning Yourself (Sense of Safety Dynamics). Five practitioner skills and attitudes that facilitate sense of safety were named: Valuing the Whole Picture; Holding Story Safely; Being with You; Learning Together; and Validating Dignity (Sense of Safety Practitioner Skills).
Conclusion
The Sense of Safety Theoretical Framework developed in this study focusses on an experience that is a fundamental prerequisite of health. Sense of safety is affected by, and influences, life story, relationships, meaning, sense of self, and – physical health: the whole person. The language “sense of safety” communicates an integrative experience that can help clinicians to see the whole person and describe a cross-disciplinary goal of care. The Whole Person Domains clarify the scope of care required, while the Sense of Safety Dynamics offer practical processes of care. The Sense of Safety Practitioner Skills describe trauma-informed skills and attitudes that facilitate a sense of safety. Each of these parts of the Sense of Safety Theoretical Framework translate practitioner, lived experience, and First Nations wisdom and a wide existing transdisciplinary literature into a framework and language ready for practice. Assessing and building sense of safety prioritizes a healing-oriented and trauma-informed approach. The Sense of Safety Theoretical Framework facilitates a paradigm shift that towards integrating sensation, subjective experience, physiology, and social determinants into everyday quality care in health, education and public policy.
This study examined the structural relationship between the fascination with Jeju Island as a destination and memorable tourism experiences, attitudes, subjective norms, and revisit intentions based on the Theory of Reasoned Action. An online survey was conducted with tourists who visited Jeju Island using a convenience sampling method, resulting in a total of 426 responses. Three responses from Jeju Island residents were excluded, leaving 423 responses for analysis using SPSS 25.0 and SmartPLS 4.0. The results indicated that destination fascination had a significant effect on memorable tourism experiences, attitudes, and subjective norms. Additionally, memorable tourism experiences, attitudes, and subjective norms significantly influenced revisit intentions. However, memorable tourism experiences did not have a significant effect on attitudes. The findings of this study provide theoretical and practical implications for increasing sustainable revisit intentions to Jeju Island.
i>Against the backdrop of increasing urbanization and subsequent disconnection from nature, there has been growing interest in the role that spending time in natural environments can play in promoting well-being. However, most research to date has focused on the health potential of green spaces and neglected the relationship between blue spaces (bodies of inland and coastal water) and well-being outcomes. Studies have shown that spending more time by the sea, or living in close proximity to the coast, is linked with better mental and general health, but have typically neglected to consider how individuals may uniquely experience different types of urban nature. Hence, this study aimed to explore, in-depth, the lived experience of looking out to sea and how it may play a role in well-being. Four self-selected females, living and working in a coastal city, were interviewed using semi-structured techniques. Interviews were recorded and transcribed; and data was analyzed using Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results revealed each had a strong and enduring bond with the sea as ‘part of self’, and as transcending the self. Looking out to sea was a multisensory, embodied experience that captivated them in the present, and was perceived to play an important role in the restoration and enhancement of their hedonic and eudemonic well-being. As researchers and policy makers begin to understand potential links between loss of contact with nature and deteriorating public health, better understanding the relationship between the sea and well-being could have significant global value.</i
Protection of marine ecosystems is vital for biodiversity conservation as it ensures the health of our oceans and seas, moreover it supports the livelihoods of millions who rely on them. Nevertheless, there are global issues that put at risk biodiversity levels, inter alia, climate change, invasive species, eutrophication, waste, and pollution. This study provides novel policy insights into Sustainable Development Goals (SDG) 14 by reviewing and comparing willingness-to-pay (WTP) levels for
marine ecosystem protection and conservation across different locations worldwide. The analysis covered 220 valuation studies conducted between 2000 and 2023, sourced from the Environmental Valuation Reference Inventory (EVRI) and Ecosystem Services Valuation Database (ESVD). WTP levels are presented from both national and sea/ocean perspectives, offering a holistic approach to understanding the non-market values of biodiversity and marine ecosystem protection.
Socioeconomic parameters such as age, gender, education, and income were also analyzed, revealing
their influence on individuals' WTP for marine conservation initiatives. The findings suggest that
WTP levels can serve as a powerful tool for policymakers and demonstrate core policy implications
regarding the achievement of SDG 14
Nature connectedness refers to the emotional and cognitive bond of an individual with nature, a concept widely studied due to its benefits for the well-being of people. However, there is a tendency to ignore the aversive elements of nature. Therefore, the purpose of this research is to study the role of these elements with respect to connectedness. The first study conducted ( N = 160) found that different types of aversive elements have a different impact on people. This impact is not related to connectedness, since people usually focus only on the positive elements of nature when reporting on their connectedness. The second study ( N = 143) provides evidence that people consider the positive elements of nature as being more representative. Therefore, it is important to take nature into account in a global way, considering not only its positive aspects but also the negative ones, when studying nature connectedness.
Greenways are important natural environment places in cities, which have a great restorative effect on human physiological and mental health. The restoration effect of urban greenways on the physical and mental health of urban residents is affected by the type of greenway space. In order to reveal the restorative effects of different types of urban waterfront greenway spaces on the human body and explore restorative environmental factors, this paper firstly used the expert survey method to construct an AHP (analytic hierarchy process) model, which yielded three types of criterion-level indicators and eight types of sub-indicators. Second, taking Nanxun Avenue Greenway in Wenjiang District, Chengdu City, Sichuan Province, China, as an example, it was divided into three types of greenway spaces—waterfront space, underwood space, and lawn space—on the basis of field surveys. A total of 30 subjects participated in this outdoor experience and collected their physiological and psychological data. The results of the experiment showed that all three types of spaces in the Nanxun Avenue Greenway had a restorative effect on human physical and mental health, and all of them were effective in lowering blood pressure and heart rate, as well as eliminating negative emotions and increasing positive emotions for most of the participants. The waterfront space had the best restorative effect, followed by the underwood space and the lawn space. The main restorative environmental factors differed among each of the three types of spaces. This paper provides insights and examples for exploring the restorative benefits of urban greenways.
Anger and stress management have become important issues in the modern workplace. One out of four American workers report themselves to be chronically angry, which has been linked to negative outcomes such as retaliatory behavior, revenge, interpersonal aggression, poor work performance, absenteeism, and increased turnover. We hypothesized that people who work in office environments decorated with aesthetically engaging art posters would experience less stress and anger in response to task-related frustration. Two hundred and ten college students were randomly assigned to different office conditions where abstract and nature paintings were hung on the walls. Participants performed four mild anger-provoking computer tasks and then reported their levels of state anger and stress. Results indicate that different office conditions had a significant influence on state anger and stress for males but not for females. Males experienced less state anger and stress when art posters were present. Through mediation analysis, we found that increased proportions of nature paintings decreased state anger because of decreased levels of stress.
The authors investigated the impact of perceived danger on judged likelihood of restoration. Participants imagined that they were in a state of directed attention fatigue and then that they were taking a walk in a potentially restorative setting. The authors varied two properties of the setting in a factorial design. The setting was either a nature trail or a busy urban street, and it contained either no obvious source of danger or an ominous stalker. Measures of perceived danger and of judged likelihood of restoration were obtained. For both types of measures, in the low-danger condition the two setting categories differed, with the natural setting seen as less dangerous and more likely to be restorative. In the high-danger condition, the difference between the setting categories was eliminated. The authors conclude that the presence of a serious and potentially uncontrollable source of danger can damage the perceived restorative potential of a setting.
Groups of subjects judged one example of two different types of outdoor scene on each of the items of the Perceived Restorative Scale, on two preference scales and a familiarity scale. It was argued that the previously demonstrated large variations in preference between different types of scenes were the result of participants using the restorative value of a scene as an implicit frame of reference for the preference judgment. Preference and the Perceived Restorative Scale score correlated .81, whereas familiarity and the Restorative Scale correlated .31, and preference and familiarity correlated .32. This result supports the hypothesis regarding the use of the restorative value of a scene as an implicit frame of reference for preference judgments. It is further argued that variations in the preference and restorative value of scenes may be associated with fractal geometry.
Restorative environments help renew psychological resources depleted in environments that do not fully support intended functions. The design of restorative environments can be aided and underlying theory elaborated with a means for measuring psychological factors thought to work in restorative experiences. This paper reports on four studies carried out to develop such a measure, the Perceived Restorativeness Scale (PRS). Each study employed several strategies for assessing reliability and validity. Factor analysis was used to examine the stability of the measure's factor structure across different sites and studies. To assess criterion, convergent, and discriminant validities, measures of emotional states and other environmental qualities were also completed for each site. The sites selected for evaluation differed on theoretically relevant dimensions (natural-urban; outdoor-indoor), enabling checks on the PRS's sensitivity to meaningful differences among environments. The results were consistent across the studies, which also involved different subject populations (American, Swedish, Finnish) and presentation modes (on-site, video, photographic slides). Although the factor analytic results introduce some interpretive qualifications, substantial validity coefficients and sensitivity to meaningful differences between sites speak to the utility of the measure.
This study examined 274 college students' psycho-physiological responses to the six major terrestrial biomes (desert, tundra, grassland, coniferous forest, deciduous forest, and tropical forest), while taking into account the influences of three perceived physical variables (complexity, openness, and water features) presented in the biomes. The purpose of the study was to examine which specific natural setting can evoke the most positive reactions from people. ANCOVA tests and post hoc comparisons using the setting scores across the participants' data on the responses to 48 biome slides regarding scenic beauty, preference, the Short-version Revised Perceived Restorativeness Scale and the Short-version Revised Restoration Scale were performed. The results indicated that tundra and coniferous forest were the most favored biomes, whereas desert and grassland were the least favored. These findings appeared to support the forest hypothesis rather than the long-held savanna hypothesis. In addition, the results of multiple regression analyses indicated that the three perceived physical factors explained 9% more variance of the respondents' reactions than the biome classification. This finding suggested that a nonhabitat-specific approach to environmental responses holds more promise than a habitat-specific approach.
Factor-analytic evidence has led most psychologists to describe affect as a set of dimensions, such as displeasure, distress, depression, excitement, and so on, with each dimension varying independently of the others. However, there is other evidence that rather than being independent, these affective dimensions are interrelated in a highly systematic fashion. The evidence suggests that these interrelationships can be represented by a spatial model in which affective concepts fall in a circle in the following order: pleasure (0), excitement (45), arousal (90), distress (135), displeasure (180), depression (225), sleepiness (270), and relaxation (315). This model was offered both as a way psychologists can represent the structure of affective experience, as assessed through self-report, and as a representation of the cognitive structure that laymen utilize in conceptualizing affect. Supportive evidence was obtained by scaling 28 emotion-denoting adjectives in 4 different ways: R. T. Ross's (1938) technique for a circular ordering of variables, a multidimensional scaling procedure based on perceived similarity among the terms, a unidimensional scaling on hypothesized pleasure–displeasure and degree-of-arousal dimensions, and a principal-components analysis of 343 Ss' self-reports of their current affective states. (70 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Shifting the focus from fear, guilt, and indignation related to deteriorating environmental quality, the authors hypothesized that people who see greater potential for restorative experiences in natural environments also do more to protect them by behaving ecologically, as with recycling or reduced driving. University students (N = 488) rated a familiar freshwater marsh in terms of being away, fascination, coherence, and compatibility, qualities of restorative person-environment transactions described in attention restoration theory. They also reported on their performance of various ecological behaviors. The authors tested a structural equation model with data from a randomly drawn subset of participants and then confirmed it with the data from a second subset. For the combined subsets, perceptions of the restorative qualities predicted 23% of the variance in general ecological behavior. As the only direct predictor, fascination mediated the influences of coherence, being away, and compatibility.
Argues that evolutionary heritage underlies humans' consistent preference for stimuli from the natural environment and that research on affective and aesthetic responses is needed to understand human interaction with the environment. It is noted that the rapidly expanding empirical record concerning aesthetic and affective responses to natural environments is in need of a well-developed theoretical foundation. An integrated conceptual framework to address this theoretical lack, drawing on recent theory and research on emotion, is proposed. This framework explains how affects arise in the natural environment; postulates their functions; and links them to cognition, activity in physiological systems, and behavior. The present author, in developing the framework, questions the view that feelings result from cognitive processes, asserting that feelings (not thoughts) are the initial response in environmental encounters. The observer's initial feeling reaction shapes subsequent cognitive events. The relative sequence of feeling and thinking in environmental encounters represents a fundamental issue in understanding human interaction with the environment. (98 ref) (PsycINFO Database Record (c) 2012 APA, all rights reserved)
Environmental preferences vary with the environments evaluated and the people who evaluated them. When research has considered the explanatory power of person variables, it has focused on traits or demographic characteristics. Little research has considered how environmental preferences vary with regularly occurring psychological states, such as attentional fatigue. In this experiment, we investigated the need for psychological restoration as a within-individual determinant of the common preference differential between natural and urban environments. We treated preference as an attitude, constituted of beliefs about the likelihood of restoration during a walk in a given environment and the evaluation of restoration given different restoration needs. College students (N=103) completed the procedure just before a morning lecture (less fatigue condition) or immediately after an afternoon lecture, which itself followed the passage of time and other activities over the day (more fatigue condition). In both fatigue conditions, participants reported more favorable attitudes toward a walk in a forest than a walk in a city center, but this difference was larger with the more fatigued. This result apparently owes to the more fatigued participants’ more positive evaluation of attentional recovery, and a greater judged likelihood of restoration when walking in the forest.
We used a direct rating approach based on definitions of each construct to measure the four components of a restorative environment proposed by attention restoration theory (ART): being away, extent, fascination, and compatibility. We used the same approach to measure two criterion variables, perceived restorative potential (PRP) of a setting and preference for the setting, as well as four additional predictor variables (openness, visual access, movement ease, and setting care). Each participant rated 70 settings, 35 each from urban and natural environments, for only one of the variables. Mean ratings were higher for the natural than the urban settings for both criterion variables and all four restorative components, with differences significant in all cases except for fascination. Correlations across settings generally followed the predictions of ART, but collinearity appeared among several sets of variables, most notably being away and setting category, PRP and preference, and extent and fascination. Despite these problems, regression analysis showed that being away and compatibility predicted PRP and that the pattern of prediction for PRP and preference was somewhat different. r 2002 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd.
Restorative environments are environments that can help restore depleted attention resources or reduce emotional and psychophysiological stress. These effects have been demonstrated not only in real environments, but also in mediated (projected, broadcasted, etc.) environments. However, the importance of simulation qualities to restoration outcomes has not been systematically studied. The present experiment investigates the importance of immersion in a mediated environment in relation to restoration. Is a projected natural environment more restorative when one is more immersed in it, and hence feels more present in it? The hypothesis was that a more immersive projection would show stronger stress-reducing effects of a mediated restorative environment. After performing a stress-inducing task, participants watched a nature film on either a high or low immersive screen. Physiological measurements (heart period and skin conductance level) were taken throughout the experiment. In addition, we measured self-reported affect and presence using the ITC-Sense of Presence Questionnaire. Significant effects of the screen size manipulation appeared on physiological measures, but not on self-reported affect. The data showed an interaction between screen size and restorative phase on heart period and skin conductance level, indicating stronger restoration for the immersive screen condition over time. We therefore conclude that immersion enhances restorative potential of a mediated natural environment. Self-reported affect did correlate significantly with experienced presence, illustrating the relevance of this experiential counterpart of immersion, although a mediating effect of presence has not yet been established.
College students spend much of their time on campus engaged in activities that require sustained directed attention, which may lead to attention fatigue. They would benefit from campus settings that provide effective restoration breaks and allow them to return to their work cognitively refreshed. Studies have found direct exposure to nature, viewing nature through windows, and viewing images of nature are restorative. In the present study, college students, instructed to imagine themselves cognitively fatigued, rated the perceived restorativeness of indoor campus settings that varied by view of nature: some had no views of nature, some had window views of nature with built structures present, and some had views of simulated nature depicted as large nature murals. Students rated settings with views of dramatic nature murals, especially those with water, more restorative than settings with window views of real, but mundane nature with built structures present. Students rated settings that lacked views of real or simulated nature least restorative. The findings suggest that large nature murals in indoor settings used for study breaks may provide attentionally fatigued students with opportunities for restoration when views of nature are unavailable or limited in restorative potential.
Preferences for waterscapes were studied as a function of content categories, viewing time and six predictor variables: spaciousness, texture, coherence, complexity, mystery, and identifiability. A non-metric factor analysis of the preference ratings for the longest viewing-time condition yielded four dimensions: (1) Mountain Waterscapes, (2) Swampy Areas, (3) Rivers, Lakes, and Ponds, and (4) Large Bodies of Water. Mountain Waterscapes was the most preferred category and Swampy Areas by far the least preferred. The Mountain Waterscapes category was characterized by rough surface textures, while within the category spaciousness, coherence, and mystery were positive predictors of preference. The Swampy Areas category was low in spaciousness; within the category, coherence was a positive predictor of preference. With longer viewing times, Mountain Waterscapes were liked better but Swampy Areas were liked less. The results indicate that type of waterscape, viewing time and the predictor variables all play a role in determining preference. Some broad implications of these findings for environmental planners were suggested.
Different conceptual perspectives converge to predict that if individuals are stressed, an encounter with most unthreatening natural environments will have a stress reducing or restorative influence, whereas many urban environments will hamper recuperation. Hypotheses regarding emotional, attentional and physiological aspects of stress reducing influences of nature are derived from a psycho-evolutionary theory. To investigate these hypotheses, 120 subjects first viewed a stressful movie, and then were exposed to color/sound videotapes of one of six different natural and urban settings. Data concerning stress recovery during the environmental presentations were obtained from self-ratings of affective states and a battery of physiological measures: heart period, muscle tension, skin conductance and pulse transit time, a non-invasive measure that correlates with systolic blood pressure. Findings from the physiological and verbal measures converged to indicate that recovery was faster and more complete when subjects were exposed to natural rather than urban environments. The pattern of physiological findings raised the possibility that responses to nature had a salient parasympathetic nervous system component; however, there was no evidence of pronounced parasympathetic involvement in responses to the urban settings. There were directional differences in cardiac responses to the natural vs urban settings, suggesting that attention/intake was higher during the natural exposures. However, both the stressor film and the nature settings elicited high levels of involuntary or automatic attention, which contradicts the notion that restorative influences of nature stem from involuntary attention or fascination. Findings were consistent with the predictions of the psycho-evolutionary theory that restorative influences of nature involve a shift towards a more positively-toned emotional state, positive changes in physiological activity levels, and that these changes are accompanied by sustained attention/intake. Content differences in terms of natural vs human-made properties appeared decisive in accounting for the differences in recuperation and perceptual intake.
The study investigated restorative experiences in relation to respondents' everyday favorite places and analysed the associations between the use of favorite places, restorative experiences, their determinants and aspects of self-rated health. A simple random sample of 1273 inhabitants, aged between 15 and 75 years, of two major cities in Finland (Helsinki and Tampere) completed a postal questionnaire. A subsample of the answers from inhabitants with a self-reported distance from home to a favorite place of 15 km or less (n = 1089) was analysed. Restorative experiences in favorite exercise and activity outdoor areas, waterside environments and extensively managed natural settings (mainly urban woodlands) were stronger than in favorite places in built urban settings or green spaces in urban settings (mostly parks). The results revealed a link between the need for restoration (worries and stress), the use of environmental self-regulation strategies (favorite places) and restorative outcomes. The more worries about money and work (during the last month) a person had, the more stressed a person had felt during the last year, the less energetic s/he had felt, the lower was the number of visits to the favorite place (during the last 6 months) and the lower the typical level of restorative experiences. Inconsistently, the direct path suggested that the more worries about money and work, the higher the typical level of restorative experiences. The findings increase knowledge of health-enhancing environments and have implications for stress and work recovery research.
We compare the restorative effects on cognitive functioning of interactions with natural versus urban environments. Attention restoration theory (ART) provides an analysis of the kinds of environments that lead to improvements in directed-attention abilities. Nature, which is filled with intriguing stimuli, modestly grabs attention in a bottom-up fashion, allowing top-down directed-attention abilities a chance to replenish. Unlike natural environments, urban environments are filled with stimulation that captures attention dramatically and additionally requires directed attention (e.g., to avoid being hit by a car), making them less restorative. We present two experiments that show that walking in nature or viewing pictures of nature can improve directed-attention abilities as measured with a backwards digit-span task and the Attention Network Task, thus validating attention restoration theory.
The ratings of discomfort from a wide variety of images can be predicted from the energy at different spatial scales in the image, as measured by the Fourier amplitude spectrum of the luminance. Whereas comfortable images show the regression of Fourier amplitude against spatial frequency common in natural scenes, uncomfortable images show a regression with disproportionately greater amplitude at spatial frequencies within two octaves of 3 cycles deg(-1). In six studies, the amplitude in this spatial frequency range relative to that elsewhere in the spectrum explains variance in judgments of discomfort from art, from images constructed from filtered noise, and from art in which the phase or amplitude spectra have been altered. Striped patterns with spatial frequency within the above range are known to be uncomfortable and capable of provoking headaches and seizures in susceptible persons. The present findings show for the first time that, even in more complex images, the energy in this spatial-frequency range is associated with aversion. We propose a simple measurement that can predict aversion to those works of art that have reached the national media because of negative public reaction.
Whilst urban-dwelling individuals who seek out parks and gardens appear to intuitively understand the personal health and well-being benefits arising from 'contact with nature', public health strategies are yet to maximize the untapped resource nature provides, including the benefits of nature contact as an upstream health promotion intervention for populations. This paper presents a summary of empirical, theoretical and anecdotal evidence drawn from a literature review of the human health benefits of contact with nature. Initial findings indicate that nature plays a vital role in human health and well-being, and that parks and nature reserves play a significant role by providing access to nature for individuals. Implications suggest contact with nature may provide an effective population-wide strategy in prevention of mental ill health, with potential application for sub-populations, communities and individuals at higher risk of ill health. Recommendations include further investigation of 'contact with nature' in population health, and examination of the benefits of nature-based interventions. To maximize use of 'contact with nature' in the health promotion of populations, collaborative strategies between researchers and primary health, social services, urban planning and environmental management sectors are required. This approach offers not only an augmentation of existing health promotion and prevention activities, but provides the basis for a socio-ecological approach to public health that incorporates environmental sustainability.
Both physical activity and exposure to nature are known separately to have positive effects on physical and mental health. We have investigated whether there is a synergistic benefit in adopting physical activities whilst being directly exposed to nature ('green exercise'). Five groups of 20 subjects were exposed to a sequence of 30 scenes projected on a wall whilst exercising on a treadmill. Four categories of scenes were tested: rural pleasant, rural unpleasant, urban pleasant and urban unpleasant. The control was running without exposure to images. Blood pressure and two psychological measures (self-esteem and mood) were measured before and after the intervention. There was a clear effect of both exercise and different scenes on blood pressure, self-esteem and mood. Exercise alone significantly reduced blood pressure, increased self-esteem, and had a positive significant effect on 4 of 6 mood measures. Both rural and urban pleasant scenes produced a significantly greater positive effect on self-esteem than the exercise-only control. This shows the synergistic effect of green exercise in both rural and urban environments. By contrast, both rural and urban unpleasant scenes reduced the positive effects of exercise on self-esteem. The rural unpleasant scenes had the most dramatic effect, depressing the beneficial effects of exercise on three different measures of mood. It appears that threats to the countryside depicted in rural unpleasant scenes have a greater negative effect on mood than already urban unpleasant scenes. We conclude that green exercise has important public and environmental health consequences.
Views are very attractive to most people. Their monetary value is hard to quantify, however. Indications for the value of views are derived from the pricing of hotel rooms in Zürich, Switzerland. The higher price, which is charged for rooms with a view compared with those without a view, directly reflects the market value of the view. This type of information, though site specific, and therefore not necessarily representative, may be more persuasive to the public than information that is derived from sophisticated estimation procedures.
There is a growing body of evidence on using art as a positive distraction to improve health outcomes. However, there is little research on art for patient rooms, patients' stated art preferences, and how these compare with the art preferences of those with an art or design background. This article addresses the issue and describes the findings of an art survey containing both best-selling art images and images considered appropriate for health care. Sixty-seven hospital patients, 75 interior design students, and 50 building science/architecture students were surveyed. Images were rated on emotional response (how does this picture make you feel) and selection (would you put this picture in your room). Significant differences across the three populations were found for art preferences along the two rating scales and correspondence between emotional impact and selection of artwork. In addition, level of design exposure and gender were also seen to have an effect.
Potential benefits for learning that the outdoors may hold have been brought into increased focus in the UK by the recent introduction of a manifesto for learning outside the classroom (DfES, Learning outside the classroom: manifesto; Nottingham, Department for Education and Skills, 200610.
DfES. 2006. Learning outside the classroom: manifesto, Nottingham: Department for Education and Skills. View all references). This article draws on two recent studies of outdoor learning practices—a survey of 334 practitioners with children aged between 2 and 11, and a case study in a primary school in the West of England. The survey asked practitioners about their memories of outdoor experiences, and in the case study, the children talk of what they remember of their learning outdoors. With reference to relevant literature, the article reflects on how the quality of outdoor experience may sustain and support engagement and memory.
Three experiments were designed to test the hypothesis that exposure to restorative environments facilitates recovery from mental fatigue. To this end, participants were first mentally fatigued by performing a sustained attention test; then they viewed photographs of restorative environments, nonrestorative environments or geometrical patterns; and finally they performed the sustained attention test again. Only participants exposed to the restorative environments improved their performance on the final attention test, and this improvement occurred whether they viewed the scenes in the standardized time condition or in the self-paced time condition. Results are in agreement with Kaplan's [(1995). The restorative benefits of nature: Toward an integrative framework. Journal of Environmental Psychology, 15, 169–182] attention restoration theory, and support the idea that restorative environments help maintain and restore the capacity to direct attention.
We tested propositions about the influences of social context and need for psychological restoration on preferences for natural and urban environments. We framed preference in terms of (1) beliefs about the likelihood of restoration during a walk in each type of environment and (2) the evaluation of restoration given differing restoration needs. Imagining themselves as alone or in the company of a friend, and as attentionally fatigued or fully refreshed, the 106 participants first evaluated recovery, reflection, and social stimulation outcomes. Next, they viewed slides simulating a walk through a forest or an urban center. They then rated the likelihood of recovery, reflection, and social stimulation outcomes from such a walk, as well as how safe it would be while walking. This procedure was repeated with the second environment. Attentional fatigue increased preference for the natural over the urban environment. Company increased preference for the urban environment but not for the natural environment. The absence of a general effect of company in the natural environment owes to two opposed effects: company enabled restoration through its effect on safety, while solitude enhanced restoration when safety was controlled for in the analysis.
In densifying cities, small green spaces such as pocket parks are likely to become more important as settings for restoration. Well-designed small parks may serve restoration well, but earlier research on restorative environments does not provide detailed information about the specific components of the physical environment that support restoration. In this study we assessed the extent to which hardscape, grass, lower ground vegetation, flowering plants, bushes, trees, water, and size predicted the judged possibility for restoration in small urban green spaces. We took individual parks as the units of analysis. The parks were sampled from Scandinavian cities, and each park was represented by a single photo. Each photo was quantified in terms of the different objective park components and also rated on psychological variables related to restoration. The ratings on the psychological variables being away, fascination, likelihood of restoration, and preference were provided by groups of people familiar with such parks. The variables most predictive of the likelihood of restoration were the percentage of ground surface covered by grass, the amount of trees and bushes visible from the given viewing point, and apparent park size. Formal mediation analyses indicated distinctive patterns of full and partial mediation of the relations between environmental components and restoration likelihood by being away and fascination. Our results provide guidance for the design of small yet restorative urban parks.
The present study was an attempt to evaluate the relaxation potential of the flotation environment, employing both subjective and objective measures. The subjects were 20 male and 20 female adult volunteers who were floated in a commercially produced tank for up to 150 minutes for each of three runs at intervals of one week. Phsyiological monitoring of heart rate was done just before and just after each run and during all the flotation periods. Most subjects remained for about 2/3rds of possible time in tank. Heart rate appears to follow a general trend across and within floats starting at a higher value, proceeding to a lower value, and then increasing again. Post-run differences in subjective indices of well-being, relaxation, or anxiety appear to be associated with the age and sex of subjects. Thus, while this environment does seem generally to be a relaxing one, the degree of relaxation potential is related to individual subject differences.
We compared psychophysiological stress recovery and directed attention restoration in natural and urban field settings using repeated measures of ambulatory blood pressure, emotion, and attention collected from 112 randomly assigned young adults. To vary restoration needs, we had half of the subjects begin the environmental treatment directly after driving to the field site. The other half completed attentionally demanding tasks just before the treatment. After the drive or the tasks, sitting in a room with tree views promoted more rapid decline in diastolic blood pressure than sitting in a viewless room. Subsequently walking in a nature reserve initially fostered blood pressure change that indicated greater stress reduction than afforded by walking in the urban surroundings. Performance on an attentional test improved slightly from the pretest to the midpoint of the walk in the nature reserve, while it declined in the urban setting. This opened a performance gap that persisted after the walk. Positive affect increased and anger decreased in the nature reserve by the end of the walk; the opposite pattern emerged in the urban environment. The task manipulation affected emotional self-reports. We discuss implications of the results for theories about restorative environments and environmental health promotion measures.
This study aimed to compare the restorative effects of 30 min relaxation in a natural environment with an indoor simulation of the same natural environment. A repeated-measure design was carried out and 18 participants suffering from stress and/or burnout syndrome were counterbalanced into the two conditions. Both physiological measures and psychological instruments were applied. Further, qualitative descriptions of experiences were obtained. A phenomenological analysis of the qualitative data resulted in six categories for the natural environment: Intensified sensory perception; A feeling of harmony and union with nature; Well-being and quality of life; Renewed energy and awakening; “Here-and-now” thinking; and A sense of tranquillity, while for the simulated natural environment, there were five categories: Restlessness and anxiety; Lack of concentration; A sense of being cut off from nature's sensory input; A longing to be in ‘real’ nature; and Positive emotions. The natural environment yielded a significantly higher rating of degree of altered states of consciousness (ASC) and energy than the simulated natural environment. The results suggest that both environments facilitated stress reduction, with the natural environment additionally bringing increased energy and ASC, thus possibly enhancing and promoting restoration.
People perceive places differently because of the different material, social, and symbolic aspects of the locations and because individuals have different backgrounds and different reasons for being at the locations. Two studies examined how role and religious beliefs affect perceptions of the environment at the Magh Mela, an annual religious festival at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna Rivers in north India. In the first study (n=375), we interviewed individuals who were at the Mela for one of six reasons (religious pilgrims, sweepers, boatmen, police, businessmen, or student volunteers) about their religious beliefs and their perceptions of the Mela. Results indicated that the evaluations of pilgrims, who were at the Mela for religious reasons, were associated with evaluations of physical amenities and religious social support, whereas the other five groups, who were at the Mela primarily for nonreligious purposes, evaluated the Mela on the basis of material characteristics only. In the second study (n=311), we found that religious leaders’ evaluations of the Mela were affected by material characteristics, religious social support, and intrinsic religious belief.
The current literature on restorative environments generally leads to the conclusion that urban environments are inherently deficient in stress-reducing and mood-enhancing capacities. We challenge this view in our study. The participants we asked to take part were naturally stressed after taking an exam. We provide empirical evidence, making use of an abbreviated version of the Profile of Mood States (POMS) questionnaire, that a well-designed and attractive urban environment can have a stress-reducing and mood-enhancing power equal to that of an attractive natural environment. We attempt to identify the physical characteristics that contribute to the perceived restorative effect of the urban environment we selected for our study.Another issue we explored was the impact of a narrative on the attractiveness and interestingness of the natural and urban environments. We wrote a story to go with each of our environments, describing some of the meanings embedded in their physical properties. The addition of cultural and historical information about our natural and urban environments resulted into a 25% increase in their perceived interestingness and a 14% increase in their perceived attractiveness. We conclude that significant parts of the story behind an environment as well as any experiential qualities related to them remain inaccessible to an observer and can only be appreciated by providing some explicit commentary.
Italy is a country highly vulnerable to floods and landslides. The present study aims to investigate disaster preparedness and perception of flood risk in a group of people living in an alpine valley in the north of Italy. Four hundred seven adult residents in nine communities exposed to hydrogeological risk were interviewed by using a structured questionnaire. Participants were asked about the adoption of a set of protective behaviors that can prevent negative consequences of floods. Perception of flood risk was assessed by means of a one-dimensional scale that was developed and validated by the authors. Items included in this scale asked participants to estimate likelihood of occurrence of different flood consequences and to express feelings of worry associated to them. Socio-demographic and experiential information on respondents were also collected. Overall, results showed that most of respondents were fairly well prepared to deal with a future flood disaster. Correlational and regression analyses indicated that disaster preparedness was positively associated with risk perception. In accordance with literature, there was not a significant relation between likelihood judgments and adoption of protective behaviors, while feelings of worry were associated with disaster preparedness. Authors interpret their results in relation to the socio-environmental characteristics of the studied communities. Theoretical, empirical and practical implications of the findings are also discussed.
This study is based on a theoretical view which suggests that under increased demands for attention, individuals' capacity to direct attention may become fatigued. Once fatigued, attentional restoration must occur in order to return to an effectively functioning state. An attention-restoring experience can be as simple as looking at nature. The purpose of this study was to explore whether university dormitory residents with more natural views from their windows would score better than those with less natural views on tests of directed attention. Views from dormitory windows of 72 undergraduate students were categorized into four groups ranging from all natural to all built. The capacity to direct attention was measured using a battery of objective and subjective measures. Natural views were associated with better performance on attentional measures, providing support for the proposed theoretical view.
Does the widely documented tendency to prefer natural over built environments owe to the perception of greater restorative potential in natural environments? In the present experimental study we tested the mediating role of restoration in environmental preferences. Participants viewed a frightening movie, and then were shown a video of either a natural or a built environment. We used two examples of each type of environment. Participants’ mood ratings were assessed before and after they viewed the frightening movie, and again after viewing the environmental video. Participants also rated the beauty of the environment shown (to indicate preference) and performed a test of concentration after viewing the environmental video. The results indicate that participants perceived the natural environments as more beautiful than the built environments. In addition, viewing natural environments elicited greater improvement in mood and marginally better concentration than viewing built environments. Mediational analyses revealed that affective restoration accounted for a substantial proportion of the preference for the natural over the built environments. Together, these results help substantiate the adaptive function of people's environmental preferences.
An attractive environment is likely to influence house prices. Houses in attractive settings will have an added value over similar, less favourably located houses. This effect is intuitively felt, but does it always occur? Which environmental factors make a location an attractive place to live in? The present study explored the effect of different environmental factors on house prices. The research method was the hedonic pricing method, which uses statistical analysis to estimate that part of a price due to a particular attribute. Nearly 3000 house transactions, in eight towns or regions in the Netherlands, were studied to estimate the effect of environmental attributes on transaction prices. Some of the most salient results were as follows. We found the largest increases in house prices due to environmental factors (up to 28%) for houses with a garden facing water, which is connected to a sizeable lake. We were also able to demonstrate that a pleasant view can lead to a considerable increase in house price, particularly if the house overlooks water (8–10%) or open space (6–12%). In addition, the analysis revealed that house price varies by landscape type. Attractive landscape types were shown to attract a premium of 5–12% over less attractive environmental settings.
Evolving from the water immersion sensory deprivation techniques of the 1960s, tank flotation has recently become a popular recreational activity, with commercial manufacturers and facilities available in most major American cities. This paper reviews research using two versions of the technique, and evaluates the responses of 27 customers using one such commercial facility. These customers indicate relaxation and pleasant mood, findings that are compatible with popular treatments and other reports but differ widely from earlier stereotypes about the experience.
Directed attention plays an important role in human information processing; its fatigue, in turn, has far-reaching consequences. Attention Restoration Theory provides an analysis of the kinds of experiences that lead to recovery from such fatigue. Natural environments turn out to be particularly rich in the characteristics necessary for restorative experiences. An integrative framework is proposed that places both directed attention and stress in the larger context of human-environment relationships.
Two studies tested the hypothesis that certain positive emotions speed recovery from the cardiovascular sequelae of negative emotions. In Study 1, 60 subjects (Ss) viewed an initial fear-eliciting film, and were randomly assigned to view a secondary film that elicited: (a) contentment; (b) amusement; (c) neutrality; or (d) sadness. Compared to Ss who viewed the neutral and sad secondary films, those who viewed the positive films exhibited more rapid returns to pre-film levels of cardiovascular activation. In Study 2, 72 Ss viewed a film known to elicit sadness. Fifty Ss spontaneously smiled at least once while viewing this film. Compared to Ss who did not smile, those who smiled exhibited more rapid returns to pre-film levels of cardiovascular activation. We discuss these findings in terms of emotion theory and possible health-promoting functions of positive emotions.
The debate surrounding the use of subjective measures of well-being for policy purposes has intensified in recent years. Many social scientists are arguing that the time is right for policymakers to extend their traditional focus on material well-being and economic development to include the impact policies have on how people think and feel about their lives. However, policymakers may have many legitimate goals beyond making people happy. In this article, we begin by presenting three archetypal accounts of well-being that policymakers could use to guide policy (mental-state, objective-list, and desire-fulfillment accounts) and discussing some of the normative and methodological limitations of each. We discuss how a subjective (mental-state) approach could be used to aid the achievement of objective-list and desire-fulfillment policy goals. We then consider ways in which a subjective approach may benefit policymakers in its own right, such as by aiding the valuation of hard-to-quantify costs and benefits, providing a standard unit of measurement for comparisons of well-being across domains, and helping to set policy defaults. We conclude with a discussion of some of the remaining measurement issues and general policy implications.
© 2007 Association for Psychological Science.
Four studies examined the effects of nature on valuing intrinsic and extrinsic aspirations. Intrinsic aspirations reflected prosocial and other-focused value orientations, and extrinsic aspirations predicted self-focused value orientations. Participants immersed in natural environments reported higher valuing of intrinsic aspirations and lower valuing of extrinsic aspirations, whereas those immersed in non-natural environments reported increased valuing of extrinsic aspirations and no change of intrinsic aspirations. Three studies explored experiences of nature relatedness and autonomy as underlying mechanisms of these effects, showing that nature immersion elicited these processes whereas non-nature immersion thwarted them and that they in turn predicted higher intrinsic and lower extrinsic aspirations. Studies 3 and 4 also extended the paradigm by testing these effects on generous decision making indicative of valuing intrinsic versus extrinsic aspirations.
Coastal areas have always attracted humans. Whether permanent residents or visitors, the presence of the sea motivates outdoor activity and enhances wellbeing. It reminds us of our intimate relationship with natural ecosystems. The Blue Gym programme attempts to not only encourage physical activity and time spent outdoors to help improve health and wellbeing, but also to make people aware of the value of the marine environment. It has the potential to increase understanding of our coasts, allows us to view threats in an appropriate context, and also generates support for preserving the richness and beauty of our seas and oceans. We neglect these human health aspects of our coasts at our peril.
To determine whether distraction therapy with nature sights and sounds during flexible bronchoscopy (FB) reduces pain and anxiety.
Randomized controlled trial.
Teaching hospital in Baltimore, MD.
Consecutive adult patients (n = 80) undergoing FB with conscious sedation.
Nature scene murals were placed at the bedside, and patients were provided a tape of nature sounds to listen to before, during, and after the procedure. Patients assigned to the control group were not offered either the nature scene or the sounds. Measurements and results: The primary outcomes were patient ratings of pain control (a 5-point scale ranging from poor to excellent) and anxiety. In a multivariate ordinal logistic regression model, the odds of better pain control were greater in the intervention patients than in the control patients (odds ratio [OR], 4.76; 95% confidence interval [CI], 1.35 to 16.7), after adjustment for age, gender, race, education, health status, and dose of narcotic medication. Older patients and patients with better health status reported significantly less pain. There was no difference in patient-reported anxiety between the two groups (OR, 0.87; 95% CI, 0.39 to 1.96).
Distraction therapy with nature sights and sounds significantly reduces pain in patients undergoing FB. Although the precise mechanism of this beneficial effect requires further investigation, clinicians should consider this nonintrusive strategy in addition to standard analgesic medications in patients undergoing painful, invasive procedures.
In this functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) study, we investigated the neural basis of mental auditory imagery of familiar complex sounds that did not contain language or music. In the first condition (perception), the subjects watched familiar scenes and listened to the corresponding sounds that were presented simultaneously. In the second condition (imagery), the same scenes were presented silently and the subjects had to mentally imagine the appropriate sounds. During the third condition (control), the participants watched a scrambled version of the scenes without sound. To overcome the disadvantages of the stray acoustic scanner noise in auditory fMRI experiments, we applied sparse temporal sampling technique with five functional clusters that were acquired at the end of each movie presentation. Compared to the control condition, we found bilateral activations in the primary and secondary auditory cortices (including Heschl's gyrus and planum temporale) during perception of complex sounds. In contrast, the imagery condition elicited bilateral hemodynamic responses only in the secondary auditory cortex (including the planum temporale). No significant activity was observed in the primary auditory cortex. The results show that imagery and perception of complex sounds that do not contain language or music rely on overlapping neural correlates of the secondary but not primary auditory cortex.
The assumptions that underpin the conventional economic model of ‘rational agents’ tend to be substantially violated by data from surveys that try to elicit people’s values for health, safety and environmental goods. Psychological research suggests that there may be a large affective component in people’s responses to such surveys, with the result that those data are not amenable to the ‘logic’ of economic rationality. This raises questions both about the way we model human judgment and decision processes, and also about the use of survey data to guide public policy in these and other areas.