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Whey and whey proteins—From ‘gutter-to-gold’
Abstract
Whey was discovered about 3000 years ago. Apart from being valued as a medicinal agent in the 17th and 18th centuries, whey has primarily been considered a waste by the dairy industry, and thus destined for the ‘cheapest gutter’. In the late 20th century, regulations prevented disposal of untreated whey. At the same time, recognition of the value of whey components accelerated. Modern science has unravelled the secrets of whey proteins and other components, and established a sound basis for their nutritional and functional value. In parallel, technology developments exploited this underpinning knowledge, manifested as advanced whey-processing regimes. These advances have continued through the early 21st century with the focus more on the biological functionality of whey components. Cost effectiveness has been a driver in recent whey-processing developments, manifested as novel separation techniques for a range of functional isolates. This paper traces the history of whey, and highlights milestones that have seen whey and whey proteins transformed from ‘gutter-to-gold’.
... formulation [2,3]. WP processing by conventional methods (hydrolysis, fermentation) and green technologies (ultrasound, microwave, hydrostatic pressure, pulsed electric field and subcritical water) release peptides with healthy properties [7]; recently, in silico approaches have been used to discover and investigate the biological activity of bioactive peptides (BAPs), increasing their yield and activity, improving their stability and reducing time for their production, identification and separation [8]. ...
... Whey proteins (WPs) are predominantly composed of β-lactoglobulin (β-LG) and α-lactalbumin (α-LA), along with minor fractions, including bovine serum albumin (BSA), immunoglobulins (IGs) and lactoferrin (LF), and have a high biological value, representing a rich source of essential and branched-chain amino acids [1][2][3]. The nutritional and physiological benefits of WP-based foods are well known, as previously documented [4][5][6]. ...
... The nutritional and physiological benefits of WP-based foods are well known, as previously documented [4][5][6]. In addition to their remarkable nutritional properties, WPs display significant technofunctional characteristics, including solubility, emulsification, gelling and foaming properties, as depicted in Figure 1, which are of considerable value in food formulation [2,3]. BAPs from whey proteins are endowed with several biological activities, such as antimicrobial, antihypertensive, antithrombotic, anticancer, antioxidant, opioid, immunomodulatory, mineral-binding and regulation of gut microbiota [4,[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]; recent evidence also reports effects on the central nervous system, such as anti-inflammatory and antioxidant activity on glia and astrocytes [23,24]. ...
Whey is a natural by-product of the cheese-making process and represents a valuable source of nutrients, including vitamins, all essential amino acids and proteins with high quality and digestibility characteristics. Thanks to its different techno-functional characteristics, such as solubility, emulsification, gelling and foaming, it has been widely exploited in food manufacturing. Also, advances in processing technologies have enabled the industrial production of a variety of whey-based products exerting biological activities. The beneficial properties of whey proteins (WPs) include their documented effects on cardiovascular, digestive, endocrine, immune and nervous systems, and their putative role in the prevention and treatment of non-communicable diseases (NCDs). In this regard, research on their application for health enhancement, based on the optimization of product formulation and the development of pharmaceuticals, is highly relevant. Beyond the health and nutritionally relevant effects as in in vivo animal studies, the allergenicity of WPs and WP hydrolysates is also herein tackled and discussed, as well as their potential role as therapeutics for immune tolerance and so-called tolerogenic effects. Grounded on the WPs’ health-promoting functions, this paper presents the latest research showing the potential of whey-derived peptides as an alternative strategy in NCD treatment. This work also reports a careful analysis of their current use, also revealing which obstacles limit their full exploitation, thus highlighting the future challenges in the field. Concluding, safety considerations, encompassing WP allergenicity, are also discussed, providing some insights on the role of WPs and peptides in milk allergen immunotolerance.
... In the 16th century, two famous Italian sayings highlighted the benefits of whey: "If you want to live a healthy and active life, drink whey and dine early" and "If everyone was raised on whey, doctors would go bankrupt" (Saxena et al., 2015). Incidentally, the well-known whey houses thrived in Europe during the 17th and 18th centuries for medicinal purposes (Smithers, 2008). Due to increasing research focused on whey and its benefits, a greater understanding justifies its prolonged use. ...
... In addition, the popular Rivella has been produced and marketed in Switzerland since the beginning of the 1950s. This beverage is crafted from carbonated whey permeate, flavored with extracts from various herbs (Ryan & Walsh, 2016;Smithers, 2008). ...
... Due to its growing market and nutritional value, they can also be mixed with fruit juices (Smithers, 2008), as demonstrated by Rajoria et al. (2015) when formulating a beverage using Central Composite Rotating Design (CCRD), where it was found that the preferred formulation of the panelists (p = 0.981) had WPC (4.98 g), sugar (15.7 g), guar gum (0.93 g) and tomato (100 g). In similar studies, Saxena et al. (2015) developed a low-calorie, high-fiber watermelon drink based on whey, using sucralose as it has advantages over other sweeteners, such as greater sweetness, Values below 3.0 NMP/mL of coliforms were observed at 35° and 45°C. ...
O soro de leite é considerado um co produto da indústria de laticínios. Gerado em grandes quantidades, é considerado um efluente de impacto ambiental significativo, pois possui um alto poder poluente, necessitando de um manejo adequado. Contudo, o soro de leite também é uma boa fonte de nutrientes, como proteínas, lactose e minerais. Diversos são os processos desenvolvidos para reutilizar o soro de leite, com destaque para a aplicação na alimentação humana, um setor que vem crescendo acentuadamente. Considerando as propriedades benéficas do soro de leite e/ou seus constituintes, juntamente com a alta demanda dos consumidores por alimentos naturais, nutritivos e funcionais, o soro de leite passou a ser aplicado em bebidas funcionais, um segmento de especial relevância em virtude dos benefícios que pode trazer à saúde. Diversos estudos desenvolvidos abordam a aplicação conjunta de soro de leite e probióticos em bebidas fermentadas, bebidas lácteas achocolatadas, bebidas carbonatadas, bebidas enriquecidas ou suplementadas, além da aplicação do soro de leite em bebidas simbióticas, prebióticas e em sucos de frutas. Tratam-se de produtos que podem suplementar a alimentação, incrementando a saúde e reduzindo o risco de doenças. Além disso, a conversão do soro em um produto valioso representa um impacto econômico positivo, com preservação do meio ambiente e contribuição para o desenvolvimento da indústria.
... Additionally, casein is utilized in protein supplements and meal replacement shakes due to its high protein content and slow digestion rate and in infant formulas to provide essential amino acids and calcium, mimicking human milk [123]. Whey protein is highly soluble, making it easy to incorporate into various food products without affecting their texture [124]. It has good emulsifying properties, useful in creating stable emulsions in beverages and dressings [125], and can stabilize foams in whipped toppings and baked goods [124]. ...
... Whey protein is highly soluble, making it easy to incorporate into various food products without affecting their texture [124]. It has good emulsifying properties, useful in creating stable emulsions in beverages and dressings [125], and can stabilize foams in whipped toppings and baked goods [124]. Whey protein is widely used in protein supplements, functional foods and infant formulas for its high nutritional value, aiding in muscle growth, development and overall health [119,124,126,127]. ...
... It has good emulsifying properties, useful in creating stable emulsions in beverages and dressings [125], and can stabilize foams in whipped toppings and baked goods [124]. Whey protein is widely used in protein supplements, functional foods and infant formulas for its high nutritional value, aiding in muscle growth, development and overall health [119,124,126,127]. ...
The integration of bionanomaterials into food systems represents a significant advancement in enhancing food properties, safety and quality. This review article provides a comprehensive overview of bionanomaterials, encompassing their definition, sources, synthesis methods, properties and applications within food systems. Various synthesis methods, green synthesis, physical methods and chemical methods are reviewed in this article. Key properties of bionanomaterials relevant to food systems are detailed. Applications of these materials are vast, ranging from improved food packaging with enhanced barrier properties to antimicrobial food preservation, nutrient delivery systems for food fortification and sensors for quality monitoring. The article also addresses future perspectives and opportunities in the field. The conclusion summarizes the key findings and underscores the importance of continued research and development to fully realize the benefits of bionanomaterials in enhancing food systems.
... whey proteins have a wide range of applications in the pharmaceutical, cosmetic, biotechnology and feed industries (Pescuma et al., 2008;Smithers, 2008). lipids and other non-protein components in milk can be eliminated to increase the relative protein content, or processing can be executed by simple drying (Foegeding et al., 2002). ...
... The physicochemical parameters used to achieve protein separation can be used to classify the main processes involved in wP product fabrication. Furthermore, wP preparations have desirable technological properties, such as improving some textural characteristics, modifying the physicochemical properties of final food products (emulsifying, foaming, or water-binding properties) and reducing production costs (dissanayake & vasiljevic, 2009;Smithers, 2008). ...
... The creation of these protein formulations necessitates the use of large amounts of whey and multiple-step procedures because of the low concentration of bioactive proteins in whey (20-40 mg/l). consequently, these formulas have high production costs and pricing (Smithers, 2008;Bednarski, 2001). ...
Milk proteins play a pivotal role in human nutrition and serve as abundant reservoirs of essential amino acids and bioactive compounds. Beyond their nutritional significance, they are also crucial ingredients in the food industry due to their unique physicochemical properties, which include emulsification, foaming, viscosity, and gelation capabilities. Despite the increasing popularity of plant-based proteins, the indispensability of milk protein remains undeniable. This review highlights the significance of milk proteins, focusing on casein and whey, their chemistry, functional properties, and applications in various industries. It delves into the chemical composition and functional properties of these proteins, shedding light on their multifaceted applications and the technological advancements employed for their extraction and refinement. Animal-derived protein fractions can be modified into micro- or nanoscale delivery systems, which deliver and shield bioactive compounds, promoting specific responses at specific sites in the body. A comprehensive understanding of the unique attributes of milk proteins continues to drive their widespread integration into the food industry and beyond, reaffirming their role in fostering balanced metabolism and supporting overall human health. This review provides insights into the potential of milk proteins to drive innovations for future demands across various sectors.
... Firstly, a common and logical motivator for a firm is to prioritise 'profit maximisation'. This includes adapting to market demands and enhance production efficiency, especially evident in resource-scarce industries like dairy (Smithers, 2008). Secondly, coercive mechanisms relate to firms' adherence to formal rules and regulations. ...
... Whey is the liquid by-product from the manufacturing of dairy products, such as cheese, and has been an ongoing waste issue for cheese manufacturing throughout history (Smithers, 2008). While whey is also generated from yoghurt, this study is focused exclusively on cheese whey. ...
... To address these challenges, animal byproducts, particularly those with high protein content, such as blood, whey, and gelatin, have been explored as potential food sources (Chiroque et al., 2023;Smithers, 2008;Waraczewski et al., 2022). Pig blood (PB), often regarded as a waste product from slaughtering, contains 15-17 % hemoglobin and is rich in iron and various minerals (Penteado et al., 1979;Salvador et al., 2010;Toldrá et al., 2016). ...
... Whey, a well-known byproduct of cheese and casein production in the dairy industry, has gained recognition as a valuable source of functional proteins, peptides, lipids, vitamins, and minerals. Similar to milk production, whey production is increasing globally, making it an essential resource for the food, agriculture, and medical markets (Smithers, 2008). Gelatin, which is primarily derived from the hydrolysis of pig and cow cartilage, bones, and collagen, is a protein-based hydrocolloid with unique structural stability and nutritional properties (Waraczewski et al., 2022). ...
In this study, pig blood (PB), milk whey (MW), cow gelatin (CG), and pig gelatin (PG) were used to investigate the flavor profiles of hydrolyzed animal byproduct proteins using biomimetic sensory-based machine perception techniques and gas chromatography-olfactometry-mass spectrometry (GC-O-MS). In addition, this study aimed to explore their potential application in the food industry as a food source. In taste patterns and volatile compounds, PB hydrolyzed with pepsin exhibited the most pronounced umami taste and a glassy odor similar to green and almond. However, PB hydrolyzed with alcalase did not exhibit this distinctive characteristic. In addition, the chemometrics approaches of flavor compounds showed that taste patterns and volatile compounds were influenced by the types of substrate, regardless of the utilization of enzyme types. This study provides flavor profiles of hydrolysis by-product proteins (prototypes) that can be used as a basic database for sensomics combined with chemometrics.
... To further enhance the sustainability of this revival, the substitution of water with whey and whey permeate in the production of liquid Kurut is explored. This innovative approach not only utilizes byproducts of the dairy industry, reducing environmental waste, but also potentially enriches the nutritional profile of the drink (Smithers, 2008). Utilizing whey and it's permeate aligns with circular economy principles (Blasi et al., 2022), promoting the value-added reuse of what would otherwise be waste products in a manner that contributes to more sustainable food production practices. ...
... In this regard, whey protein excels and is the protein of choice for bodybuilders, elite athletes, and those whose health is compromised. Additionally, whey-based drinks, particularly those made from sweet whey, appear to have higher concentrations of essential and branched-chain amino acids (Devries & Phillips, 2015;Smithers, 2008). The branched-chain amino acids (BCAAs) include leucine, isoleucine, and valine, and they play crucial roles in metabolism, blood glucose homeostasis, and neural function (Joy et al., 2013). ...
This study investigates a sustainable innovation in traditional Kurut drink production, providing insights into integrating environmental and nutritional strategies into the dairy industry. The objective was to conserve drinking water, valorize dairy whey and its permeate, and enhance the nutritional properties of the final product. Kurut, sourced from a manufacturing plant in Kyrgyzstan, was processed using methods replicating factory production with various liquid mediums. Physicochemical and sensory properties of water-based Kurut were compared with samples made using acid whey, sweet whey, and their permeates. Results showed that acid whey and its permeates improved consumer preference over water-based Kurut, offering a sustainable method to reduce waste and enhance product value. Whey incorporation enriched the amino acid profile, boosting essential nutrients. Although slightly less preferred, sweet whey-based Kurut contained higher mono- and polyunsaturated fatty acids, appealing to heart-health-focused markets. This innovation reinvents a traditional drink, restoring its milk-derived nutritional value and providing a viable pathway for the dairy industry to create sustainable, nutritious, and health-oriented products. The findings demonstrate how traditional practices can integrate modern sustainability and nutritional strategies to address environmental and consumer needs.
... Although it is considered a secondary or waste product and has an unappealing taste, whey is rich in nutrients including soluble proteins (beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, and a significant portion of casein) as well as lactose, vitamins, minerals, and fat [137,138]. Whey proteins have a high biological value, exceeding that of egg white, and are a rich source of essential amino acids (branched-chain amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine, sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine, which enhance immune functions through their intracellular conversion to glutathione [138][139][140]. Providing an abundant supply of essential amino acids that stimulate organ and tissue regeneration mechanisms and help minimize immune suppression, whey is successfully used as an immunomodulator, antioxidant, anti-inflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer agent [141]. ...
... Although it is considered a secondary or waste product and has an unappealing taste, whey is rich in nutrients including soluble proteins (beta-lactoglobulin, alpha-lactalbumin, bovine serum albumin, lactoferrin, immunoglobulins, and a significant portion of casein) as well as lactose, vitamins, minerals, and fat [137,138]. Whey proteins have a high biological value, exceeding that of egg white, and are a rich source of essential amino acids (branched-chain amino acids such as leucine, isoleucine, and valine, sulfur-containing amino acids cysteine and methionine, which enhance immune functions through their intracellular conversion to glutathione [138][139][140]. Providing an abundant supply of essential amino acids that stimulate organ and tissue regeneration mechanisms and help minimize immune suppression, whey is successfully used as an immunomodulator, antioxidant, antiinflammatory, antidiabetic, and anticancer agent [141]. ...
The article reviews the literature on antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) that exhibit unique antimicrobial mechanisms, such as broad-spectrum activity, low development of antimicrobial resistance, and the ability to modulate the immune response of the host organism. Information is provided on the significant potential of AMPs in the fight against pathogens threatening human health and food safety. Enrichment of the human diet with biologically active peptides obtained using the proteolytic activity of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) is proposed as a simple, accessible, and viable alternative to antibiotics that does not have a harmful side effect. The review briefly covers the methods for obtaining AMPs and features of the LAB proteolytic system responsible for producing bioactive peptides in the environment. It has been shown that using various LAB strains makes it possible to produce high-quality whey-based beverages with different directions of antagonistic activity against opportunistic pathogens and helps optimize the gastrointestinal microbiota. It is assumed that such drinks can reduce the dose of antimicrobials in the combined therapy of various infectious diseases and be a preventive measure against contagion and the spread of antimicrobial resistance.
... Por ser um produto muito perecível, é necessário a adoção das boas práticas de fabricação durante todo o processo evitando uma contaminação cruzada do produto. A ricota também apresenta uma vida curta de prateleira (Di Pierro et al., 2011;Fox et al., 2000;Smithers, 2008). A ricota fresca dura cerca de 15 a 30 dias, em boas condições de fabricação e de refrigeração (Albuquerque, 2003;Egito et al., 2007). ...
... Devido a algumas características, como pH (5,9) e alto teor de umidade (~73%), mesmo sob refrigeração, a ricota é muito susceptível à deterioração microbiológica e, portanto, apresenta uma vida de prateleira relativamente curta (1 a 3 semanas sob refrigeração a 4±1°C) (Di Pierro et al., 2011;Fox et al., 2000;Smithers, 2008). ...
O objetivo deste trabalho foi desenvolver uma ricota saborizada com adição de diferentes concentrações de pixurim (1 g; 3 g; e 5 g de pixurim). As formulações foram submetidas a análise físico-químicas (umidade, cinzas,cor instrumental, pH e acidez. As formulações (F1, F2, F3) apresentam variações significativas de umidade. Quanto às cinzas, F1 e F2 mostram redução em comparação com ao controle (F0), enquanto F3 apresenta aumento. Na análise físico-química, o pH diminui ao longo do tempo para todas as formulações, indicando acidificação. A formulação F3, com 5g de pixurim, apresenta aumento significativo no pH aos 21 dias. A acidez livre titulável mostra variações, indicando possível estabilização ou maturação do produto durante o armazenamento. Na análise de cor, F2 destaca-se com menor luminosidade, sugerindo uma influência negativa de 3g de pixurim na claridade da ricota. Os valores de a* indicam uma mudança na tonalidade de verde para vermelho, com F2 mostrando a maior tendência para vermelho. O parâmetro b* sugere uma mudança de azul para amarelo, com F2 exibindo a tonalidade mais amarela. O parâmetro h* mostra variação significativa, indicando mudanças na tonalidade geral, com F2 tendendo a uma tonalidade mais escura e F3 a uma tonalidade mais clara. Em resumo, o estudo destaca que diferentes concentrações de pixurim influenciam a composição e propriedades da ricota, fornecendo informações úteis para a indústria alimentícia e contribuindo para a compreensão dos efeitos dessas variações nos parâmetros físico-químicos e sensoriais do produto. Em resumo, o estudo destaca que diferentes concentrações de pixurim influenciam a composição e propriedades da ricota, fornecendo informações úteis para a indústria alimentícia e contribuindo para a compreensão dos efeitos dessas variações nos parâmetros físico-químicos do produto.
... on plant-derived feedstocks [27][28][29], CW is attracting renewed academic interest [12] as a possible alternative. ...
... The simulation model was created using SuperPro Designer (SPD) v. 12.03 by Intelligen [51].Three different simulations were developed, each corresponding to a section in the overall process: pretreatment (F), fermentation and downstream processing (F+D), and wastewater treatment by anaerobic digestion (WWT). The simulations were run separately. ...
Background
Production of cheese whey in the EU exceeded 55 million tons in 2022, resulting in lactose-rich effluents that pose significant environmental challenges. To address this issue, the present study investigated cheese-whey treatment via membrane filtration and the utilization of its components as fermentation feedstock. A simulation model was developed for an industrial-scale facility located in Italy’s Apulia region, designed to process 539 m³/day of untreated cheese-whey. The model integrated experimental data from ethanolic fermentation using a selected strain of Kluyveromyces marxianus in lactose-supplemented media, along with relevant published data.
Results
The simulation was divided into three different sections. The first section focused on cheese-whey pretreatment through membrane filtration, enabling the recovery of 56%w/w whey protein concentrate, process water recirculation, and lactose concentration. In the second section, the recovered lactose was directed towards fermentation and downstream anhydrous ethanol production. The third section encompassed anaerobic digestion of organic residue, sludge handling, and combined heat and power production. Moreover, three different scenarios were produced based on ethanol yield on lactose (YE/L), biomass yield on lactose, and final lactose concentration in the medium. A techno-economic assessment based on the collected data was performed as well as a sensitivity analysis focused on economic parameters, encompassing considerations on cheese-whey by assessing its economical impact as a credit for the simulated facility, dictated by a gate fee, or as a cost by considering it a raw material. The techno-economic analysis revealed different minimum ethanol selling prices across the three scenarios. The best performance was obtained in the scenario presenting a YE/L = 0.45 g/g, with a minimum selling price of 1.43 €/kg. Finally, sensitivity analysis highlighted the model’s dependence on the price or credit associated with cheese-whey handling.
Conclusions
This work highlighted the importance of policy implementation in this kind of study, demonstrating how a gate fee approach applied to cheese-whey procurement positively impacted the final minimum selling price for ethanol across all scenarios. Additionally, considerations should be made about the implementation of the simulated process as a plug-in addition in to existing processes dealing with dairy products or handling multiple biomasses to produce ethanol.
... Bu çalışma kapsamında, takviye kedi maması üretiminde kullanılan bileşenlerden biri olan peynir altı suyu, modern peynir ve kazein endüstrisinin önemli bir yan ürünü olmasının yanında, aynı zamanda fonksiyonel protein ve peptit, lipit, vitamin, mineral ve laktoz gibi çok sayıda bileşen içeren değerli bir süt ürünüdür (18,19). Hem peynir altı suyunun içerdiği besin maddelerinin ekonomiye kazandırılması hem de atık değerlendirme bakımından çevresel kirliliğin önlenmesi açısından peynir altı suyunun farklı alanlarda değerlendirilmesi oldukça önem arz etmektedir (20). ...
... Bunun yanı sıra, kükürt amino asitlerinin (metionin, sistein) de zengin ve dengeli bir kaynağıdır. Bu amino asitler, güçlü hücre içi antioksidan glutatyonun öncüleri olarak karbon metabolizmasında kritik bir rol oynarlar (18). Kemik, et endüstrisinin önemli bir yan ürünü olmakla beraber etkin bir şekilde değerlendirilememektedir. ...
Gıdalar, üretim, taşıma ve tüketim sürecinin çeşitli aşamalarında atık olarak israf edilmekte ve bunların bir kısmı geri dönüştürülebilir olmalarına rağmen çeşitli sebeplerle geri kazandırılamamaktadır. Buna ilaveten kabuk, posa, öz suyu, işlem sonrası oluşan sular, çekirdek gibi kısımlar tüketilemediği için kaçınılmaz atıklar olarak ortaya çıkmakta olup israf nedeniyle değil kullanım alanı bulunamadığı için atık olmaktadır. Bu atıkların değerlendirilip farklı amaçlarla kullanıma hazır hale getirilmeleri mümkün iken israf ediliyor olması hem ekonomik hem de çevresel ve toplumsal sorunlara yol açmaktadır. Bu çalışma ile hem israf hem de kaçınılmaz olarak oluşan gıda atıklarından sıfır atık uygulaması kapsamında takviye kuru kedi maması üretilmesi amaçlanmıştır. Bunun için ekmek, portakal kabuğu, yumurta kabuğu, kemik suyu ve peynir altı suyu atıkları ile ürüne aroma katması ve mama hamurunun reolojisine katkıda bulunması amacıyla kemik suyu bulyonu kullanılarak takviye kuru kedi maması geliştirilmiştir. Atık maddelerden hazırlanan mama hamuru, koşulların ön denemelerle optimize edilmesinden sonra mikrodalgada 180 W gücünde 2 dk 25 sn süreyle kurutulmuştur. Elde edilen kuru mamanın nem içeriği %4.36 ± 0.06 olarak tespit edilmiştir. Ayrıca, teorik olarak yapılan hesaplamalara göre takviye kuru kedi maması 100 g’da kuru ağırlıkça %10.89 protein, %9.45 yağ, %45.73 g karbonhidrat, %5.30 çözünür şeker, %1.05 laktoz ile %5.12 oranında kalsiyum içermektedir.
... By minimizing processing waste, such as curd particles or spoilage-related rejections, dairy plants can recover and utilize by-products more efficiently. For example, whey protein, a by-product of cheese production, retains higher nutritional and commercial value when derived from highquality milk (Smithers, 2008). This reduces waste generation and supports the valorization of dairy co-products, including whey, cream, and permeate, which are better utilized when sourced from milk meeting hygiene and compositional standards, thereby adding both economic and environmental value to the dairy supply chain. ...
The dairy industry is a crucial component of global food systems, providing essential nutrition and economic benefits to billions of livelihoods worldwide. Amidst growing challenges, the potential of milk quality to transform sustainability efforts in the dairy processing industry and milk production systems is increasingly evident. This review discusses and investigates milk quality as a key driver for achieving environmental efficiency, reducing waste, and enhancing processing outcomes, all while safeguarding consumer health and delivering superior nutritional value. The use of improved technologies such as precision farming, automatic milking systems, and genetic selection are explored as transformative tools to enhance milk quality and optimize resource use to uplift sustainability within the industry. The dairy industry must reduce emissions associated with milk processing, while the dairy farming sector must address emissions at the raw milk production stage. Case studies included in this article illustrate successful models integrating milk quality into sustainability frameworks, emphasizing regional adaptations. Future research must prioritize to maintain or uplift the milk quality through development of climate-resilient dairy systems, innovations in circular economy practices, and scalable solutions for low- and middle-income regions. Integrating milk quality into sustainability initiatives ensures balanced economic, environmental, and social benefits, fostering resilience in the global dairy sector.
... Ultrafiltration increases protein content, creating whey protein concentrates (WPC) and isolates (WPI) which are high-value products used in nutritional supplements and food formulations. For example, Arla Foods Ingredients uses UF to produce high-quality whey protein concentrates that retain functional properties such as solubility and emulsification (Smithers 2008). ...
... Whey is a dairy byproduct obtained after the coagulation of raw milk during the cheese manufacturing process. It consists of 94% water, 4 to 5% lactose, 0.5 to 1% proteins, and small amounts of minerals and vitamins [48]. As shown in Table 1, the raw and autoclaved whey wastewaters had an acidic pH (<5), high turbidity, and significant total solids (much greater than reported in the literature), limiting their direct use for microalgal culture. ...
The dairy industry generates substantial quantities of wastewater, primarily whey wastewater, posing environmental challenges. Current treatment methods involve physical, chemical, and biological processes, but efficient solutions are still sought. Biological treatments using microalgae are gaining attention due to their potential to remove pollutants from wastewater and generate valuable products, making them an alternative way to improve environmental sustainability. The physicochemical characterization of whey effluents reveals a high organic content, an acidic pH, and elevated nutrient levels. This study investigates the potential of Chromochloris zofingiensis (formerly known as Chlorella zofingiensis) for treating whey wastewater using three concentrations, 10%, 20%, and 50%, over a 7-day culture period. The optimal concentration of whey wastewater for biomass, nutrient removal, astaxanthin, and lipid production was found to be 10%. At this concentration, C. zofingiensis achieved a biomass of 3.86 g L⁻¹ and a removal efficiency of nutrients between 77.08% and 99.90%. Analysis of pigment production revealed decreases in chlorophyll and carotenoid production with increasing whey wastewater concentration, while lipid and astaxanthin production peaked at the 10% dilution. The chlorophyll a, chlorophyll b, total carotenoid, astaxanthin, and lipid contents were, respectively, 11.49 mg g⁻¹, 4.56 mg g⁻¹, 4.04 mg g⁻¹, 0.71 mg g⁻¹, and 30.49% in 10% whey wastewater. The fatty acid profiles indicated the predominance of saturated and unsaturated fatty acids, enhancing the biofuel potential of C. zofingiensis cultivated in whey wastewater. These findings demonstrate the dual benefit of using C. zofingiensis for sustainable whey wastewater treatment and high-value bioproduct generation, supporting the development of circular biorefinery systems.
... Moreover, it contains higher concentrations of essential and sulphur-containing amino acids than egg, milk, casein, red meat, soy, corn, and wheat proteins. (Smithers, 2008;Kumar et al., 2018). In addition, whey proteins are also known to be effective as antioxidants, antibacterial agents, antihypertensive agents, antitumor agents, antiviral agents, and hypolipidemics (Rezende et al., 2014;Bilal and Altıner, 2017;Yüksel et al., 2019). ...
In this study, the fortified fermented beverages with Kombucha culture (SCOBY) and different concentrations of whey (25%, 50%, 75%) by using mulberry powder to give natural sweetness with mormix rich in bioactive components during fermentation (1st, 5th, 7th, 9th, 11th and 13th days) microbiological, physicochemical and sensory properties were planned. This effort was to develop an innovative, functional, and immune-boosting product by combining Mormix, which is rich in bioactive compounds, and nutritionally valuable whey in the production of Kombucha tea. The lowest acetic acid bacteria count (6.87 log10 cfu mL-1) was found in the control sample, and the highest (8.07 log10 cfu mL-1) was found in the sample produced with green tea+75% whey+mormix+mulberry powder (KMP3). Lactobacillus spp. and Lactococcus spp. counts were determined to be the highest in the KMP3 sample. The effect of the samples on the mold counts developed in Kombucha beverages was statistically significant (p
... Although some guidelines and restrictions were imposed in order to access this nutrient at the start of the 20th century, numerous investigations were also conducted to find this protein. Studies on the biological value of whey protein during the start of the twenty-first century demonstrated the great biological and nutritive worth of this protein (Jooyandeh, 2009;Marcelo & Rizvi, 2008;Smithers, 2008). Milk typically contains whey protein and casein, two excellent sources of protein (Walzem et al., 2002). ...
... [154,165] Whey, a major pollutant in the dairy industry, is the most suitable raw material for lactic acid production. [166] Lactic acid is known to form complexes with metal ions, providing an additional driving force for base metal leaching. [167] The presence of copper ions in an acidic environment may trigger a Fenton-like reaction at room temperature and atmospheric pressures. ...
The valorization of municipal solid waste permits to obtain sustainable functional materials. As the urban population burgeons, so does the volume of discarded waste, presenting both a challenge and an opportunity. Harnessing the materials and the latent energy within this solid waste not only addresses the issue of disposal but also contributes to the innovation of functional materials with applications in the energy, electronics, and environment sectors. In this perspective, technologies for converting, after sorting, municipal solid waste into valuable metals, chemicals, and fuels are critically analyzed. Innovative approaches to convert organic waste into functional carbon materials and to create, from plastic and electronic wastes, metal–organic frameworks for energy conversion, storage, and CO2 adsorption and conversion are proposed. Green hydrometallurgy routes that permit the recovery of precious metals avoiding noble metals’ oxidative leaching, thus avoiding their downcycling, are also highlighted. The reclaimed precious metals hold promise for use in optoelectronic devices.
... The use of diafiltration (adding water during the ultrafiltration process) can further enhance the removal of unwanted low-molecular-weight compounds. 22 The resultant whey protein is then subjected to freeze-drying in a freeze-dryer, followed by grinding to obtain a fine powder. 23 Preparation of whey protein aggregates The whey protein solution with a concentration of 50 g L −1 was hydrolyzed overnight at room temperature with a constant temperature shaker and then adjusted to pH 2.0 with 4 mol L −1 hydrochloric acid (HCl). ...
BACKGROUND
Starch retrogradation leads to undesirable changes in the texture and taste of starchy foods. The fibrous aggregates of whey protein fibrils (WPF) formed by heating under acidic conditions possess enhanced emulsification and foaming properties, but their effect on the retrogradation behavior of starch is unclear.
RESULTS
WPFs with various molecular sizes were obtained by heating at 85 °C under acidic conditions (pH 2.0) for different times (0, 0.5, 2.5, 5, 7.5, and 10 h). Their effects on the gelatinization and retrogradation of wheat starch were investigated. Particle size distribution and confocal laser scanning microscopy confirmed the formation of WPFs. Compared to native starch, WPFs reduced swelling, lowered the storage modulus (G') peak, and increased the gelatinization temperature, indicating inhibition of starch gelatinization. High molecular weight WPF (WPF5) had the strongest inhibitory effect, significantly enhancing G' during cooling after gelatinization, suggesting a stronger gel network. Moreover, all WPFs reduced retrogradation and crystallinity of starch gels over 14 days, with WPF5 showing the most significant effect, reducing retrogradation by 35.85% and relative crystallinity by 5.53%.
CONCLUSION
Whey protein fibrous aggregates, especially those with high molecular weight (WPF5), inhibit starch gelatinization and retrogradation. This study presents a novel approach to improve starch‐based food quality by reducing retrogradation and enhancing gel structure. © 2025 Society of Chemical Industry.
... The disposal of large quantities of whey poses a significant environmental challenge. It has been estimated that a small cheese factory producing 4,000 liters of whey per day (equivalent to 450 kg of cheese) would generate as much sewage as 1,900 people [8]. The high nutrient content of whey presents a threat to both cheesemakers and the ecosystem at large, highlighting the need for effective technology to trap and utilize its organic compounds. ...
Cheese whey, a significant byproduct of the dairy industry, poses a substantial environmental challenge due to its organic pollutant load and large size demands for effective and affordable valorization methods. The abundance of lactose and other organic compounds in whey contributes to its elevated Biological Oxygen Demand (BOD) and Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), further straining natural ecosystems. This study aimed to investigate the nutritional potential of whey and its conversion into value-added products: bioethanol and probiotic drinks. To achieve this, Bacillus megaterium and Bacillus subtilis strains, isolated from soil samples in Nepal, were co-cultured with Lactobacillus sp. and Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the whey broth for fermentation. Ethanol distillation was done using a rotary evaporator to maintain the viability of the fermenting organisms in the broth. Moreover, the probiotic criteria of the fermenting strains were extensively examined. Experimental observations revealed a remarkable concentration of 9.2 g/L of ethanol, resulting in an ethanol yield of 0.23 g/L (42% compared to theoretical yield). Extrapolating this rate, it is theoretically possible to produce an annual global bioethanol output of 5 million tons using whey as a sustainable and abundant resource. Furthermore, the study explores novel advancements in the distillation process, demonstrating the successful extraction of ethanol at room temperature. Additionally, the fermentation organisms employed in this research exhibit robust viability, surviving various in-vitro stress-tolerance tests, including temperature, bile salt, pH fluctuations, and gastric juice. These resilient strains also demonstrated long-term stability in fermented whey broth, making them promising candidates for the development of probiotic beverages. This dual approach enables sustainable management of organic waste and presents an opportunity to create value-added products with positive implications for the environment and human health.
... Whey also contain antioxidative ability due to peptides derived from β-lactoglobulin and α-lactalbumin (Corrochano et al.,2018) and thus inclusion of it enhance growth and antioxidant status of broiler (Afkhami et al., 2020). The global growth rate of whey generation is around 2% per annum (Smithers, 2008). A portion of cheese whey is applied to food and utilized as animal feed. ...
The study aimed to evaluate the effect of whey supplemented in mixed feed diet on growth performance, carcass quality and meat characteristics as well as hematological parameters of growing Sonali chicken. Three hundred sixty, day-old Sonali chicks were procured from government poultry development and breeding farm, Sylhet. They were randomly divided into four dietary treatments (T0 - control group; T1 - whey with drinking water; T2 -whey fermented feed and T3 - commercial feed) with three replications in each group (n=30X3) and reared for 8 weeks. Feed intake was recorded on regular basis and growth performance (g) was observed fortnightly. The result showed that oral feeding of whey reduced feed intake but increased dressing percentage (63.4%) and weight gain (424.73±2.23) than that of other groups with significance (p<0.05), lead to better FCR in T1 (2.69±0.03) group followed by T0 (2.79±0.03), T2 (2.94±0.03), T3 (2.97±0.03) respectively. Similarly, CP, CF, TA, EE and NFE content (%) of different meat cuts were varied significantly (p=0.001) with highest DM% in T2 (28.70±0.75) thigh meat, reflect better total yield of CP% in meat than other groups while hematological parameters showed no variation containing good count of RBC (2.97±0.04) and WBC (2.22±0.04) within standard range in T1 group which implied good immunity and health condition in the chickens. In general, addition of whey in water showed better FCR to quality meat yield and it can be concluded that incorporation of whey through oral administration seems better than whey fermented feed to save time and raise revenue.
... For example, MPC provides a balanced combination of protein and fat that smooths the texture without introducing off-flavors that can occur with proteins high in ash content, such as RC and SC [26][27][28]. Furthermore, the gelling capability of SC contributes to a firmer structure, which is critical for product stability over time [29]. ...
Background and Objective: This study assessed the potential of incorporating high-protein dairy ingredients into ice cream recipes in response to increasing consumer interest in high-protein foods with improved nutritional benefits. The goal was to assess the functional and compositional characteristics of protein ingredients derived from skim milk, which could play a critical role in creating low-fat ice cream that meets sensory expectations. Material and Methods: Various milk-based protein ingredients, including milk protein concentrate, rennet casein, acid casein, sodium caseinate, calcium caseinate, and micellar casein concentrate, have been analyzed for their protein content, ash content, amino acid profiles, and functional characteristics such as water-binding and viscosity-building capacities. This comprehensive assessment was conducted to assess their potential to replicate the creamy texture of traditional ice creams. Results and Conclusion: The protein content of the ingredients varied from 82.5-92.7%, with acid casein and sodium caseinate showing the highest levels. This high protein content contributed to excellent water-binding and viscosity-building characteristics, which are critical for replicating the creamy texture of ice creams. Rennet casein and sodium caseinate included higher ash contents, which could affect the ice creams' mineral content and overall flavor profile. Although milk protein concentrate, sodium caseinate, and micellar casein concentrate lacked certain essential amino acids, they included biological values of over 50%, thereby enhancing the nutritional quality of low-fat ice cream formulations. The potential of these high-protein dairy ingredients to significantly affect the development of healthier ice cream products with desirable sensory and physicochemical characteristics cannot be exaggerated. Incorporating these ingredients into low-fat ice cream offers a promising approach to creating further nutritious products.
... It is widely used in various products, including beverages, dietary supplements, and bakery and dairy products. WPC is known for its excellent emulsifying, gelling, and foaming properties, which make it a versatile ingredient for enhancing the texture and nutritional profiles of food products (Smithers, 2008). ...
... Major milk proteins, including casein (CN) and whey (W), play a central role in determining the suitability of milk for dairy processing, particularly in the production of yogurt and cheese [6]. CNs, in particular, influence the texture and stability of these products [7,8], while W proteins are valued for their functional properties and nutritional significance [9]. Beyond their technological value, milk proteins are crucial in human nutrition, providing essential amino acids and bioactive peptides that exhibit antimicrobial [10][11][12][13][14][15] and antiviral activities [16][17][18]. ...
Identifying genetic regions and candidate genes that influence milk production traits is critical for understanding genetic inheritance and improving both the quality and quantity of milk in dairy cattle. Crossbred dairy cattle significantly contribute to increasing milk production and ensuring food security in the middle- and high-altitude regions of Ethiopia. However, the genetic architecture underlying their milk yield and composition traits has not yet been thoroughly investigated. This study conducted a genome-wide association study (GWAS) on 308 crossbred dairy cows from central, northeastern, and southern Ethiopia to identify genetic markers associated with key milk production traits. Using high-density SNP chip data and the fixed and random model circulating probability unification (Farm CPU) method via the Memory-efficient, Visualization-enhanced, and Parallel-accelerated R package (rMVP) (Version 1.0.7.), we analyzed traits including test-day milk yield (TDMY), total protein (TP), casein (CN), whey (W), protein percentage (P), fat percentage (F), lactose percentage (L), total solids (TS), density (D), solids-not-fat (SNF), salt (S), and freezing point (FP). This study identified 16 significant SNPs associated with these traits, including rs41661899 on Chromosome 6, which was significantly associated with both TP and W, and rs42274954 on Chromosome 12, which was significantly associated with CN. Eight SNPs, such as rs43560693, rs109098713, rs111029661, rs134499665, rs133908307, rs133627532, rs42098411, and rs110066280, were found across multiple chromosomes (8, 10, 14, 15, 19, 21, 26, and 28, respectively) and were significantly associated with milk P. Additionally, SNPs rs110844447 and rs135995768 on Chromosomes 6 and 14 were significantly associated with D and FP, respectively. Three SNPs, including rs109564259, rs135552551, and rs41620904 on Chromosomes 6, 11, and 24, were significant associations with S. Candidate genes identified near and within these SNPs include TRAM1L1, DIAPH3, PEBP4, WDR89, BCAS3, RALGAPA1, HABP2, NRG3, HPSE, PCDH7, LINC02579, TRNAS-GGA, and OR5CN1P. These findings enhance our understanding of the genetic architecture of milk-related traits in Ethiopian dairy cattle and highlight the potential for marker-assisted selection to improve milk production and composition in breeding programs.
... There are several opportunities via various technologies for repurposing whey into human food products. These include manufacturing powdered products (e.g., whey protein concentrates), other cheeses (ricotta or brown whey cheeses), fermented beverages (kombucha-style drinks or alcohol), non-fermented beverages (e.g., 'Rivella' in Switzerland), confectionaries, and several niche options (e.g., cooking stock or as a cocktail ingredient) (Dairy Australia, 2023a;Smithers, 2008). While practices such as feeding whey to livestock or using as feedstock for anaerobic digestion are well established for managing whey, they are not considered in the present study as other more, more preferable options exist-i.e., repurposing into human food products. ...
... Whey is the liquid obtained after the coagulation of milk proteins during the production of cheese or caseinates (Smithers 2008). It is composed of lactose (5%), water (93%), protein (0.85%), minerals (0.53%), and fat (0.36%) (Pescuma et al. 2010). ...
Carbohydrate and mineral content in whey permeate is similar to that of commercially available sports drinks, most of which are formulated without functional ingredients. The aim of this study was to evaluate the physicochemical stability of two formulations of isotonic beverage from whey permeate obtained by membrane separation (ultrafiltration), added with cape gooseberry fruit (Physalis peruviana L.). Physicochemical and microbiological stability, total polyphenol and carotenoid content, antioxidant activity (ABTS and DPPH) and sensory profile were evaluated during two-months of refrigerated storage at 4 °C. The results showed high physicochemical stability (pH, acidity, and total soluble solids) for the functional beverage. Important differences were observed in osmolality, which increased from 304.83 to 324.13 mOsm kg-1 for the non-hydrolyzed drink (BIUN) and from 330.1 to 350.53 mOsm kg-1 for the hydrolyzed drink (BIUH). The average content of total phenols was 9.64 and 9.72 mg-AG.100 g-1 for the BIUN and BIUH beverages, respectively. There was a reduction in the antioxidant activity of the drinks by both DPPH and ABTS analysis during storage time. Total carotenoid content decreased from 0.095 to 0.076 mg β-carotene.100 g-1 and from 0.115 to 0.076 mg β-carotene.100 g-1 for the BIUN and BIUH beverages, respectively. The sensory profile showed that both drinks had high overall quality.
... Whey is a yellow-green liquid that is left behind during the production of cheese or casein [10,11]. It can be produced from different milks such as camel [12], goat [13], sheep [14], buffalo [15], donkey [16,17] or cow [18,19]. ...
This study investigated how the type and homogenisation parameters of the feed mixture affect the efficiency of the encapsulation process and the microcapsule properties of phenol-rich grape pomace extract (GPE) during the spray drying process with goat whey protein (GW) as wall material. GPE was obtained by solid-liquid extraction of grapes with 50% ethanol. Effects of ultrasonic homogenisation parameters (UB): temperature: 30-50 °C; time: 5-30 min; stabilisation time after homogenisation: 15-45 min, and homogenisation parameters on a magnetic stirrer (MS): temperature (25-50 °C), time (10-60 min) and homogenisation speed (600-1200 rpm) were tested using response surface methodology (RSM) and Box-Behnken design. After selecting the optimal homogenisation conditions, the spray drying process parameters were optimised in the same way, namely: inlet air temperature (160-190 °C), GW fraction (0.5-3.5) and feed flow (6-10 mL/ min). The results showed that GW has a high potential as a wall material in the spray drying process, especially for the purpose of protecting polyphenolic compounds from GPE.
... As a nutritive medium, whey enhances the growth and metabolic activity of lactobacilli, facilitating the production of highly stable and well-characterized nanoparticles. Research on whey as a growth medium highlights the adoption of ecologically friendly substrates that reduce environmental damage typically caused by chemical synthesis methods [16][17][18][19]. ...
This study explores a sustainable approach for synthesizing silver nanocomposites (AgNCs) with enhanced antimicrobial and bioactivity using safe Lactobacillus strains and a whey-based medium (WBM). WBM effectively supported the growth of Lactobacillus delbrueckii and Lactobacillus acidophilus, triggering a stress response that led to AgNCs formation. The synthesized AgNCs were characterized using advanced spectroscopic and imaging techniques such as UV‒visible, Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy, transmission electron (TEM), and scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray analysis (SEM–Edx). Lb acidophilus-synthesized AgNCs in WBM (had DLS size average 817.2–974.3 ± PDI = 0.441 nm with an average of metal core size 13.32 ± 3.55 nm) exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against a broad spectrum of pathogens, including bacteria such as Escherichia coli (16.47 ± 2.19 nm), Bacillus cereus (15.31 ± 0.43 nm), Clostridium perfringens (25.95 ± 0.03 mm), Enterococcus faecalis (32.34 ± 0.07 mm), Listeria monocytogenes (23.33 ± 0.05 mm), methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRSA) (13.20 ± 1.76 mm), and filamentous fungi such as Aspergillus brasiliensis (33.46 ± 0.01 mm). In addition, Lb acidophilus-synthesized AgNCs in WBM exhibit remarkable free radical scavenging abilities, suggesting their potential as bioavailable antioxidants. These findings highlight the dual functionality of these biogenic AgNCs, making them promising candidates for applications in both medicine and nutrition.
Graphical Abstract
... Food industry byproducts such as corn steep liquor (CSL) and whey permeate (WP) can be used as fermentation substrates because they are sources of nitrogen and carbon (Nascimento and Martins 2006), which can be metabolized by propionic bacteria (Ahmadi et al. 2017;Ngome et al. 2021). The nutrient richness of these byproducts means they have high pollutant potential when improperly discarded; WP contains lactose and higher levels of calcium, phosphorus and lactic acid (Antone et al. 2023;Smithers 2008), and CSL contains high content of carbohydrates, proteins, minerals (phosphorus, magnesium, calcium and sulfur) and vitamins niacine, pantothenic acid and riboflavin (Chiani et al. 2010). ...
Propionic acid (PA) is industrially produced using raw materials derived from petroleum. In search of more sustainable processes, this work investigated the production of propionic acid (PA) by fermentation using whey permeate (WP) and corn steep water (CSL), with the strain Propionibacterium freudenreichii subsp ATCC 6207. Two strategies of fermentation were compared: one in batch and the other fed batch, carried out in a 5 L bioreactor at 30 °C, with pH control. Furthermore, in fed-batch fermentation, lactose concentration was controlled. The study revealed that batch fermentation was more efficient in producing propionic acid (PA). After 72 h, the concentration reached 13.10 g L−1, with a yield of 0.335 g g−1 and productivity of 0.182 g L−1 h−1. The research addressed the PA purification by ion exchange chromatography, using cryogels functionalized with taurine (Tau-cryogel). Tests at different pH (4 to 7) showed greater PA adsorption on the cryogel at pH 4 (256.13 mg g−1), with recovery of 59.7% and lower adsorption of acetic acid (29.34 mg g−1), indicating promising selectivity in purification. This study shows the feasibility of using byproducts such as WP and CSL in the production of PA and the potential of applying ion exchange cryogels in its purification.
... (Fox 1989, Permyakov ve Berliner 2000, Yalçın 2006 (Metin 2005). Süt Ig"lerinin temel fonksiyonu, bağışıklık sistemini desteklemek olduğundan, immunoglobülinler insanların enfeksiyonlara karşı direncini arttırmakta ve bağırsak sağlığını iyileştirmektedir (Cross ve Gill 2000, Marshall 2004, Smithers 2008. ...
In this study, storage related changes in physico-chemical and sensory properties of non-fat fermented milk drinks that contain soy protein isolate (SPI), pea protein isolate (BPI), wheat gluten (BG) and rice protein (PP) were investigated.
Vegetable protein additives at a level of 0,5% were added to the reconstituted skim milk (10,7% DM) and then this mixture was heat treated for 10 minutes at 90°C. Milks, used in production of yoghurt were inoculated with 3% yoghurt starter culture and incubated at 42±1°C until pH reached 4,6. The yoghurts were stored at 4±1°C for 12 hours and the fermented milk drinks were prepared by diluting the yoghurts (2:1 yoghurt/water). On the 1., 7., 14. and 21. days of storage physico-chemical analysis such as pH, titratable acidity, syneresis, viscosity, dry matter, ash, color (L, a, b values), protein and amino acid contents and sensory properties such as texture, flavor, color, flavor intensity, flavor and overall acceptability were determined.
Addition of vegetable protein additives to non-fat fermented milk drinks have affected pH, titratable acidity%, syneresis, viscosity, dry matter, ash, color (L, a, b values), protein and amino acid contents (p<0,01). During storage, viscosity values of non-fat fermented milk drinks showed an increase. Vegetable protein additives have increased amino acid levels of non-fat fermented milk drinks. The highest rate of essential amino acids was found in SPI-added drinks with major amino acids being lysine, leucine, isoleucine, methionine and threonine. Fermented milk drinks with BPI have a preferred taste than the others. In general vegetable protein additives were found to be effective on sensorial attributes (p<0,01).
In conclusion, the use of vegetable protein additivites in non-fat fermented milk drink formulations was shown to improve the physico-chemical and sensory properties, as well as increase the nutritional value, and therefore, could be an alternative for the development of functional dairy products.
... Whey protein concentrates (WPC) and isolates (WPI) can be obtained from whey by combining different filtration strategies (Smithers 2008). Nanofiltration (pore size between 0.1 and 1 nm) helps bring the overall mineral content down, while ultrafiltration (~ 0.5 µm pore size) allows to retain between 35 and 80% of whey proteins, depending on the volume concentration factor applied (Kelly 2019). ...
Whey is a byproduct of dairy industries, the aqueous portion which separates from cheese during the coagulation of milk. It represents approximately 85–95% of milk’s volume and retains much of its nutrients, including functional proteins and peptides, lipids, lactose, minerals, and vitamins. Due to its composition, mainly proteins and lactose, it can be considered a raw material for value-added products. Whey-derived products are often used to supplement food, as they have shown several physiological effects on the body. Whey protein hydrolysates are reported to have different activities, including antihypertensive, antioxidant, antithrombotic, opioid, antimicrobial, cytomodulatory, and immuno-modulatory. On the other hand, galactooligosaccharides obtained from lactose can be used as prebiotic for beneficial microorganisms for the human gastrointestinal tract. All these compounds can be obtained through physicochemical, microbial, or enzymatic treatments. Particularly, enzymatic processes have the advantage of being highly selective, more stable than chemical transformations, and less polluting, making that the global enzyme market grow at accelerated rates. The sources and different products associated with the most used enzymes are particularly highlighted in this review. Moreover, we discuss metagenomics as a tool to identify novel proteolytic enzymes, from both cultivable and uncultivable microorganisms, which are expected to have new interesting activities. Finally enzymes for the transformation of whey sugar are reviewed. In this sense, carbozymes with ß-galactosidase activity are capable of lactose hydrolysis, to obtain free monomers, and transgalactosylation for prebiotics production.
Key points
• Whey can be used to obtain value-added products efficiently through enzymatic treatments
• Proteases transform whey proteins into biopeptides with physiological activities
• Lactose can be transformed into prebiotic compounds using ß-galactosidases
... Whey proteins make up less than 1% of the dry matter in whey (Beucler et al., 2005) The characteristics of cheese whey pose a threat to the environment. It has a significant impact due to its high levels of biochemical oxygen demand (BOD) and chemical oxygen demand (COD), surpassing 35,000 and 60,000 parts per million (ppm) respectively (Smithers, 2008). ...
This study conducted in the year 2022 aimed to the evaluation of probiotic potential of yeast Pichia kudriavzevii Y01 obtained from traditionally prepared fermented milk and develop a probiotic functional whey beverage using this lactose-fermenting yeast by employing response surface methodology (RSM). The probiotic properties of Pichia kudriavzevii Y01, including bile tolerance, acid tolerance, temperature tolerance, autoaggregation, and bacterial cell hydrophobicity, were assessed to determine its suitability for probiotic applications. Yeast strain exhibited remarkable acid, bile and temperature tolerance and showed good auto-adhering potentiality with a value index of greater than 85%. Additionally, the study focused on the development of a probiotic whey beverage enriched with ginger extract to enhance its sensory appeal. Response surface methodology was usedto optimize the fermentation conditions, ensuring a well-balanced flavour profile that meets consumer expectations. Significant correlation models were established with the coefficient of correlation (R 2) greater than 0.9. The study revealed that Pichia kudriavzevii Y01 exhibited excellent probiotic potential, making it an ideal candidate for delivering probiotic benefits. Furthermore, the developed probiotic whey beverage, enriched with ginger extract, was sensorially acceptable and met the consumers preferences.
... Whey is a by-product from cheese, paneer, chhana and casein industry and has nutritional importance as human food. Regulations for preventing disposal of untreated whey and recognition of the value of whey components encouraged researchers to make use of whey in food articles (Smithers, 2008). Cheese whey constitutes 45-50 per cent of total milk solids, 70 per cent of milk sugar (lactose), 20 per cent of milk proteins and 70-90 per cent of milk minerals and most importantly, almost all the water soluble vitamins originally present in milk (Horton, 1995). ...
Whey is the major by-product obtained during the manufacture of cheese, casein, paneer and chhana. Fresh samples of Cheddar cheese whey (rennet whey) and paneer whey (acid whey) from a commercial dairy plantwere analyzed for gross composition, physical properties and chemical characteristics. The total solids, fat, total protein and lactose content were higher in Cheddar cheese whey (6.82, 0.73, 1.10 and 4.9 %, respectively) than in paneer whey (6.36, 0.58, 0.53 and 4.6 %, respectively). However, the ash (0.45 %) content of paneer whey was higher than Cheddar cheese whey (0.42 %).The average values of specific gravity, viscosity, surface tension, refractive index and electrical conductivity of Cheddar cheese whey were found to be 1.025 at 20 °C, 1.27 cp, 49.77 dynes/cm, 1.3427 and 4.21 ms respectively, while, that for paneer whey were 1.020 at 20 °C, 1.17 cp, 50.24 dynes/cm, 1.3430 and 4.31 msrespectively.The mean values of pH and titratable acidity of Cheddar cheese whey were found to be 6.7 and 0.12 per cent lactic acid, whereas, that of paneer whey were found to be 5.8 and 0.15 per cent lactic acid respectively. The mean acid degree value of Cheddar cheese and paneer whey were found to be 6.35 and 6.08 milliequivalents of alkali per 100 g of fat, respectively. The study shows that Cheddar cheese whey and paneer whey differed in their composition, physical properties and chemical characteristics.
This review comprehensively explores natural polymer-based materials, focusing on their characteristics, applications, and innovations across different sectors, including medicine, the environment, energy, textiles, and construction. With increasing concern about resource depletion and pollution, biomaterials offer a sustainable alternative to fossil-derived products. The review highlights polysaccharide-based and protein-based biomaterials, as well as others, such as polyisoprene, rosin, and hyaluronic acid. Emphasis is laid on their compositions and attractive characteristics, including biocompatibility, biodegradability, and functional versatility. Moreover, the review deeply discusses the ability of natural polymers to form hydrogels, aerogels, films, nanocomposites, etc., enhanced by additives for innovative applications. Future development trends of biomaterials in biomedicine, sustainable materials, environmental biotechnology, and advanced manufacturing are also explored. Their growing potential in these sectors is driven by research advances in emerging technologies such as 3D bioprinting, nanotechnology, and hybrid material innovation, which are proven to enhance the performance, functionality, and scalability of biopolymers. The review suggests several strategies, including improvement in processing techniques and material engineering to overcome limitations associated with biomaterials, thereby reinforcing their suitability and role in a circular and sustainable economy.
Owing to the high nutritional and functional properties of whey proteins and their potential to enhance various food characteristics, sweet whey—derived from the production of soft cheese—was incorporated into several food products, including angel cake, biscuits, yoghurt, ice cream, and meat burgers, at concentrations of 10%, 30%, and 35%. A range of functional properties was assessed, including solubility, fat-binding capacity, emulsification, viscosity, foaming, and gelation. The findings revealed that increasing whey concentration led to a notable improvement in textural consistency, with the highest consistency observed at the 35% inclusion level. Additionally, the fat absorption capacity of the products improved, enhancing their fat-binding ability—most prominently in angel cake and burger samples - thereby contributing significantly to their functional quality. The emulsification capacity and stability were also markedly influenced by whey concentration, while gel-forming properties improved across all fortified products. The sensory evaluation highlighted favourable attributes, with the fortified cake demonstrating superior texture, flavour, aroma, and overall consistency compared to the control. Biscuits and yoghurt fortified with whey exhibited enhanced aroma and taste, while in ice cream, whey addition contributed to improved whiteness. In the case of burgers, the inclusion of whey enhanced both texture and juiciness, improving overall acceptability. Sensory analysis across all products (angel cake, biscuits, yoghurt, ice cream, and meat burgers) showed no statistically significant differences at the 0.05 level.
The aim of this study was to compare selected physicochemical properties and sensory attributes of ricotta cheeses supplied by different producers and purchased from retail outlets in Poland. The experiment was performed on 40 fresh, unripened ricotta cheeses purchased from hypermarkets in the city of Olsztyn, Poland. The cheeses were supplied by four producers. To preserve the producers’ anonymity, the cheeses were divided into four experimental groups marked with the letters A, B, C, and D. Each group consisted of 10 cheeses supplied by the same producer. Immediately after purchase, the cheeses were transported to a laboratory for quantitative and qualitative analyses to determine their moisture contents, active and titratable acidity, shear force, color parameters (L*, a*, b*), chroma (C*), hue angles (h°), whiteness indexes (WIs), yellowness indexes (YIs), and sensory quality. The analyses revealed that the cheeses supplied by producers C and D were characterized by the highest moisture contents and the lowest titratable acidity and shear force values. The ricottas supplied by producer A were characterized by the highest values for lightness on the surface, whereas the group B cheeses were characterized by the highest contribution of redness and yellowness, as well as the highest color saturation (chroma). The contributions of redness and yellowness, chroma, and YI values were highest at the cross-sections of the group B cheeses. The cheeses supplied by producer D were characterized by visible spaces between grains, cracks, and a brittle, crumbly consistency, and they received the lowest scores for appearance at the cross-section for structure and consistency.
Background
Whey protein concentrate (WPC) undergoes microfiltration (MF) to produce whey protein isolate (WPI), generating a lower value MF retentate as a co‐product. Higher‐than‐expected protein retention in the retentate, attributed to protein aggregation, has been shown to limit WPI yield. Strategies to reverse or reduce aggregation would be expected to increase protein transmission during MF.
Aim(s)
This study investigated the effects of pre‐treating WPC with 5 mM trisodium citrate (TSC), a calcium‐binding salt and high‐pressure homogenisation (HPH) at 650 bar, both individually and in combination, on protein transmission during MF.
Methods
A WPC solution (2.4% protein) was pre‐treated with TSC, HPH, TSC followed by HPH (TSC + HPH), or HPH followed by TSC (HPH + TSC). Microfiltration was performed using a 1000 kDa polyethersulfone membrane. Processing time, component partitioning and chemical composition in feed, retentate and permeate were analysed. Protein profiles were assessed using SDS‐PAGE and RP‐HPLC, in addition to whey protein denaturation. Data were obtained from three independent trials, with all analyses conducted in triplicate.
Major findings
Treatment significantly reduced processing time and increased protein permeation ( P < 0.05). Processing time decreased by 6.4–11.0%, with TSC and HPH having the strongest effects. Compared with the control, protein retention in MF retentate from pre‐treated samples decreased by 7.5–11.5%, with HPH + TSC showing the greatest effect, while permeate protein content increased by 5.45–9.64% ( P < 0.05). SDS‐PAGE confirmed lower levels of protein aggregation, particularly in HPH + TSC, coinciding with the lowest sedimented protein level (43.4%). Trisodium citrate pre‐treated samples showed significantly lower ( P < 0.05) calcium and magnesium levels, providing evidence that cations are involved in mediating protein aggregation.
Scientific and industrial implications
The results indicate that WPC treatment can modify protein permeation, improving the yield of WPI while also generating an MF retentate further enriched in polar lipids, supporting more sustainable dairy processing.
Se caracterizaron fisicoquímica y microbiológicamente 25 muestras de suero de leche colectadas de diferentes queserías ubicadas en el estado de Chihuahua. Con tal propósito se determinaron los valores de pH, fosfatasa alcalina, materia seca, ceniza, grasa, proteína, densidad, acidez titulable, lactosa, calcio, cuenta total de bacterias mesofílicas aerobias, coliformes, mohos y levaduras. Los resultados indicaron que 56% de las queserías no pasteurizan la leche que se utiliza en la fabricación de queso. Se encontraron diferencias en el contenido de grasa y densidad, mayor en los sueros provenientes de quesos pasteurizados. No se encontraron diferencias en el contenido de coliformes, bacterias mesofílicas aerobias, mohos y levaduras entre los sueros pasteurizados y sin pasteurizar. Lo anterior sugiere que existen variaciones en el proceso de elaboración de queso tipo Chihuahua, en la calidad de la materia prima y en la manipulación del suero en las diversas queserías.
Antidepresanlar: İlaç Yeniden Konumlandırma (Drug Repurposing ) Çalışmaları Ege KÜÇÜK Farmakometabolomiks Araştırmalarında Güncel Gelişmeler Tuğrul Çağrı AKMAN Probiyotikler ve Halk Sağlığı Açısından Önemi Ömer Faruk DEHRİ Rukiye SEVİNÇ ÖZAKAR Emrah ÖZAKAR Kadınların Farklı Fizyolojik Dönemlerinde Probiyotik Kullanımı Bayram ALPARSLAN Nanopartikül Toksisitesine Güncel Bir Bakış İbrahim ÖZÇELİK Zeliha Duygu ÖZDAL Kübra Gizem YILDIZTEKİN Diyabetik Ayak Ülserinde Güncel Tedavi Yaklaşımları ve İlaç Uygulamaları. Meltem VURAL Emrah ÖZAKAR Rukiye SEVİNÇ ÖZAKAR Okratoksinin Antikanser Aktivitesinin Araştırılması İrem Sena KÜÇÜK Neşe Başak TÜRKMEN Koenzim Q10’Un Etki Mekanizması ve Hastalıklarla İlişkisi İsmail YUMŞAK Elif TOKU Özlem ALPTEKIN Peynir Altı Suyundan Whey Protein Üretimi ve Uygulama Alanlarının Araştırılması Ayşe Selenga BULUT Biyopolimer Kitosanın Oksidatif Strese ve Apoptoza Etkisi Figen ÇİÇEK Sinem BÜYÜKNACAR Halk Arasında Grip Tedavisinde Kullanılan Bitkiler Süleyman Burak BAYINDIR Seçil KARAHÜSEYİN
Fat plays a key role in the manufacturing of processed meat products with desired quality characteristics. However, due to the recent concern over the negative health implications of high fat meat products, by various health organizations (WHO/FAO/NHLBI); consumers are very much conscious about their nutrition and health and choose low fat meat products as these are perceived at least by many to be “better for you” than traditional counterparts that contain higher levels of animal fat. Reduction of fat in processed meat products is extremely challenging and poses difficulties in terms of appearance, flavour and texture besides health-conscious consumers continue to look for ways to improve nutritional habits without sacrificing psychological satisfaction. For this reason, a number of substances (such as carbohydrate, protein and lipid based) with high water binding capacity, able to promote the texture, mouth feel and form gels have been examined for their ability to replace fat and are called fat replacers. Fat replacers are substances which structurally may be considered fats, proteins or carbohydrates, that is, designed to replace all or part of the fat in a product, with minimum impact on the organoleptic quality of the food product, yielding fewer calories than fat. This chapter is aimed to summarize the recent approaches for the development of low-fat/reduced-fat processed meat products.
Food industry has partially replaced animal proteins with plant‐derived alternatives, and effects of combining these two types on properties of food systems need to be elucidated. This study fabricated and characterised emulsion gels of mixed whey and pea protein, varying protein mass ratios from 100:0 to 0:100 and oil volumes from 30% to 45%, induced by transglutaminase cross‐linking. An increase in pea protein led to larger particle size and reduced surface charge in the solutions. Emulsion droplet size ranged from 0.60 to 15.17 μm, increasing with higher levels of pea protein and oil. Mixed protein gels exhibited significantly greater hardness compared to gels with individual proteins. Water‐holding capacity of pure whey protein emulsion gels exceeded 90%, while the value remained above 80% when pea protein was less than 50%. Partially replacing whey protein with pea protein may have potential applications in food products such as salad dressings and cheese.
In the emerging green economy, many of the systems and management techniques that allow for attaining high standards of food security, energy savings, and water purity have a special place of importance set aside for them. With an emphasis on the naturalistic methods of problem solving in particular. Compared to traditional wastewater treatment facilities, constructed wetlands (CWs) offer a more cost-effective, dependable, and environmentally friendly treatment solution. This study used a two-stage experimental setup with a lab-scale, hybrid constructed wetland model that had vertical flow followed by horizontal flow. The first stage vertical flow hybrid constructed wetland reactor had a surface area of 1963.49 cm 2 , while the second stage horizontal flow hybrid constructed wetland reactor had a surface area of 2025 cm 2 .The study of performance evaluationdone for four different ratios of dairy and municipal wastewaters in the two stage hybrid constructed wetland reactor.The removal efficiency was improved, when dairy wastewater proportion decreases and municipal wastewater proportion increases. It may be the Canna Indica and Calibanus Hookeries plant which was used and also colddrink plastic bottle chips (CDPBC) used as the substrate media in our study these more suitable for the municipal wastewater and nutrient carried by plant roots, improved the quality of treated water.
The aim of this research was to determine the optimal conditions for the process of the microencapsulation of phenol-rich grape pomace extract (GPE) using spray drying and goat whey protein (GW) as a coating. The encapsulation was carried out with the aim of protecting the original bioactive components extracted from grape pomace to ensure their stability and protection from external agents, as well as antioxidant activity, during the conversion of the liquid extract into powder and during storage. Using the response surface methodology, an inlet air temperature of 173.5 °C, a GW ratio of 2.5 and a flow rate of 7 mL/min were determined as optimum process parameters. Under these conditions, a high yield (85.2%) and encapsulation efficiency (95.5%) were achieved with a satisfactorily low moisture content in the product (<5%). The amount of coating had the greatest influence on the MC properties. GW showed a more pronounced stabilising effect on the phenolic compounds in GPE during a longer storage period compared to anthocyanins. The results obtained indicate the potential of GW as a coating and are an example of the possible upcycling of GPE and GW, which can lead to a high-quality product that can be a functional ingredient.
Plastic is a widely available material in every aspect of life, and its long‐term usage is an important threat to the environment. An enormous quantity of plastic waste has been discharged into the environment throughout the world, resulting in global white pollution. The weathering of accumulated plastic waste in the environment, which can further break down into small fragments like microplastics and nanoplastics, will harm the ecosystem and humans. Therefore, the production and disposal of plastics need to be considered. Bioplastics are increasingly being used as an alternative to conventional plastics; their primary purpose is to solve pollution‐related problems with plastics. Bioplastics (BPs) are an adequate substitute for traditional plastics since they have less carbon footprint and are readily biodegradable, but not all bioplastics can degrade entirely in the natural environment. Due to less environmental impact, bioplastics are defined as polymers produced by using renewable feedstocks or by microorganisms. BP has a wide range of applications in the medical, automotive, and food packaging industries, and it has the potential impact on effect of development of low‐carbon environment. The standards bioplastics must meet to be called compostable or biodegradable are determined by certified worldwide standard processes. The primary purpose of this review is to focus on bioplastics as an alternative tool to plastic—its types, structure, characteristics, degradation behavior, standard techniques, feedstock used for the production of bioplastic, process for its development, and limitation of bioplastics.
The commercial developments in dairy functional foods and ingredients were discussed. The functional foods provide the consumer with an identified health benefit over and above basic nutritional value. The functional food market was valued at US$50 billion in 2002 and a growth of 7% pa through 2005 was expected. With the knowledge advancement in human physiology and nutrition the market for these products would grow.
This paper deals with the most recent developments of cross flow microfiltration (CFMF), some of them just patented, in the dairy industry. Combination of the use of uniform transmembrane hydraulic pressure concept (UTP) with its different ways of carrying out microfiltrate recirculation, longitudinal porosity gradient and of new ceramic membrane materials allows nowadays to get a differential separation of each category of milk particles. Pretreatment by CFMF of incoming milk is used for the production of low heated fluid milks having a flavor similar to that of raw milk and a shelf life 3 to 5 times longer than that of classical products. Results observed in the retention by the MF membrane of pathogenc bacterial species allow it to be said that the hygienic safety of cheeses made from raw MF milk is, at least, equal or even higher than that of cheeses made from pasteurized milk. Numerous other applications of CFMF are under development such as removal of residual fat from whey or the clarification and the removal of bacteria from cheese brine but the most promising are undoubtedly the differential separation of micellar casein and of small milk fat globules. With the products obtained on both sides of the MF membrane, dairy technology will have the possibility not only to improve yield and quality of many dairy products but also to create a diversified range of new textures.
Putative anti-cancer activity of whey proteins has been investigated in an animal model to evaluate their potential role in disease prevention, and to contribute to a basis for their inclusion as ingredients in functional foods. Animal feeding trials have compared the efficacy of dietary whey proteins in retarding chemically induced colon cancer in a rat model of the disease. Dairy proteins, in particular whey protein, were found to be efficacious in retardation of colon cancer in young rats compared with other dietary proteins (meat, soy). The influence of dietary whey protein on development of colon cancer in mature rats has also been examined. Results similar to those with younger animals have been demonstrated, a finding that suggests age does not significantly alter the outcome. Efficacy of whey protein fractions has also been assessed. Preliminary results suggest that diets supplemented with lactoferrin or with β-lactoglobulin enhance protection against the development of putative tumor precursors (aberrant crypts) in the hind gut wall. The mechanism behind the apparent anti-cancer activity of dietary whey proteins in these studies may be related to their sulfur amino acid content, for which there is a high requirement in the rat, and hypothesised role in protecting DNA in methylated form. In a parallel study, a number of potential functional foods containing whey protein (flavored milk, pasta, ice cream, dessert pudding, muesli, and savory dip) have been developed in preparation for human clinical trials. The foods containing whey protein were generally highly acceptable in taste trials. These products are expected to be suitable as delivery vehicles for dietary whey protein in studies aimed at substantiating the human health benefits of this protein source.
Cheddar-cheese-type whey protein concentrates were studied for their compositional and thermal attributes. The samples were prepared from three milk systems, namely, skim milk, whole milk, and skim milk enriched with buttermilk. The concentrates from skim milk were lower in all fat components and higher in proteins, except for the membrane-associated protein. The buttermilk-enriched samples had the most membrane-associated components. The concentrates from whole milk and buttermilk-enriched, skim milk were similar in protein composition, except for membrane-associated protein. The whole milk samples had the highest concentrations of total and free fat components. Lactose content and mineral composition were similar for the three types of concentrates.Thermal properties and denaturation kinetics were examined by differential scanning calorimetry. The samples exhibited a single broad endothermic peak with the denaturation temperature near 76°C and the enthalpy ranging from 1.86 to 2.16 cal/g. The concentrates from skim milk had higher denaturation enthalpy, whereas the concentrates from buttermilk-enriched, skim milk had slightly higher thermal stability. The overall denaturation process for whey proteins followed the reaction order n = 1.5 with an activation energy ranging from 217 to 251 kJ/mol. The thermal properties were observed to be related to a number of compositional factors. The denaturation enthalpy was positively correlated with β-lactoglobulin and protein content, and negatively correlated with bound fat, membrane protein, and membrane-associated lipid components. The denaturation temperature correlated positively with phospholipid content, and the onset denaturation temperature correlated positively with iron content.
Rather than using lengthy clinical studies, in vitro digestion of milk proteins by human neonatal gastric juice at pH values representing those in early neonatal life was investigated. Human milk proteins resisting digestion were immunoglobulins, secretory IgA, αS1-casein, secretory component, osteopontin and MUC-1. Bovine milk proteins resisting digestion at pH 4.0 were immunoglobulins, BSA, caseins, lactadherin, osteopontin, EPV20 and proteose peptone component 3 (PP3). Some proteins were rapidly digested e.g. CGMP. In vitro digestion provides rapid information regarding the susceptibility of proteins to gastric proteases and is a convenient alternative to clinical studies.
Bifidobacterium breve R070 (BB R070) and Bifidobacterium longum R023 (BL R023) were encapsulated as freeze-dried or fresh cultures in water-insoluble food-grade microcapsules produced by emulsion and/or spray-drying, using milk fat and/or denatured whey proteins as immobilization material. The encapsulation yield differed significantly according to the method and the strain used. Dispersion of fresh cells in heat-treated whey protein suspension followed by spray-drying was the least destructive immobilization technique tested, with a survival rate of 25.7±0.1% and 1.4±0.2% for BB R070 and BL R023, respectively. Viable counts of BB R070 cells entrapped in whey protein microcapsules using this method were significantly higher than those of free cells after 28 days in yoghurt stored at 4°C (+2.6 log cycles), and after sequential exposure to simulated gastric and intestinal juices (+2.7 log cycles). In contrast, no protective effect of encapsulation was observed with BL R023. Immobilization of probiotic cultures in whey protein-based microcapsules can increase cell survival when subjected to extreme conditions, making this approach potentially useful for delivery of viable bacteria to the gastrointestinal tract of humans via dairy fermented products. However, technological properties of the strains, and particularly heat resistance, should be taken into consideration for spray-dry encapsulation of sensitive microorganisms.
This paper deals with the most recent developments of cross flow microfiltration (CFMF), some of them just patented, in the dairy industry. Combination of the use of uniform trans- membrane hydraulic pressure concept (UTP) with its different ways of carrying out microfiltrate recirculation, longitudinal porosity gradient and of new ceramic membrane materials allows nowa- days to get a differential separation of each category of milk particles. Pretreatment by CFMF of incoming milk is used for the production of low heated fluid milks having a flavor similar to that of raw milk and a shelf life 3 to 5 times longer than that of classical products. Results observed in the retention by the MF membrane of pathogenic bacterial species allow it to be said that the hygienic safety of cheeses made from raw MF milk is, at least, equal or even higher than that of cheeses made from pasteurized milk. Numerous other applications of CFMF are under development such as removal of residual fat from whey or the clarification and the removal of bacteria from cheese brine but the most promising are undoubtedly the differential separation of micellar casein and of small milk fat globules. With the products obtained on both sides of the MF membrane, dairy technology will have the possibility not only to improve yield and quality of many dairy products but also to create a diversified range of new textures. microfiltration / membrane / liquid milk / native casein / brine / whey / cheese
It would be difficult to imagine a more appropriate means of marking the Jubilee of the Dairy Research Laboratory, Division of Food Processing, CSIRO, than a publication on whey and lactose processing. The genesis of the Laboratory in 1939 was when the Australian dairy industry was very largely based on the supply of cream from farms to numerous butter factories, the skim milk being fed to pigs. By the mid-1940s, when Geof frey Loftus-Hills was appointed in charge ofthe fledgling Dairy Research Section, the main objective of the Section-the full utilization of the con stituents of milk for human food-had been firmly established. Over the next two decades progress towards this objective was exemplified by the scientific and technological contributions made in specialized milk powders for use in recombining and in the manufacture of casein and cheese. Meanwhile farming practices changed from cream production to the supply of refrigerated whole milk to the factories. By the late 1960s the increasing production of cheese and casein had re sulted in almost 2 million tonnes of whey per annum. This represented not only a waste disposal problem, but also under-utilization of over 100000 t of milk solids. The Laboratory had now grown to a staff of around 70, so it was possible to allocate some resources to this extra challenge.
The health conditions of the women and its relation to nutritional ingredients are discussed. Heart disease in women and the effect of beta-carotene, alpha-carotene, grape polyphenols and lycopene intake in food products on cardiovascular disease are also discussed. Other diseases such as cancer, menopause, osteoporosis and pregnancy and the influence of nutrients on these diseases are also presented.
Proteins are recovered and purified from a variety of sources for their nutritional and functional properties such as proteins from oilseeds, human foods, and animal feeds. Beef Products, Inc., Dakota Dunes, S.D., has developed a unique process to concentrate lean meat from fatty trim in a sanitary and cost-effective way. The company designed and manufactured much of the equipment it needed and offers some for sale to others. As the final product was unlike any other ingredient, the company went through exhaustive testing to demonstrate its safety and effectiveness.
Whey may be defined, broadly, as the serum or watery part of milk remaining after separation of the curd that results from the coagulation of milk by acid or proteolytic enzymes. Its composition will vary substantially, depending on the variety of cheese produced or the method of casein manufacture employed. On average, whey contains about 65 g kg-1 of solids, comprising about 50 g lactose, 6 g protein, 6 g ash, 2 g non-protein nitrogen and 0.5 g fat. The protein fraction contains about 50 per cent β-lactoglobulin, 25 per cent a-lactalbumin and 25 per cent other protein fractions including immunoglobulins. There are wide variations in composition depending on milk supply, and the process involved in production of the whey. Wheys can be conveniently classed into groups:
Sweet wheys: titratable acidity 0.10-0.20 per cent pH typically 5.8-6.6. Medium acid wheys: titratable acidity 020-0.40 per cent, pH typically 5.0-5.8.
Acid wheys: titratable acidity greater than 0.40 per cent, pH>5.0.
Metabolic health is now one of the critical challenges for improving human diets. Even when all of the essential nutrients are consumed at adequate levels, people around the world are being recognised with imbalances in macronutrient intakes that lead to severe problems in metabolic regulation. The health problems that are due to imbalances in metabolism include atherosclerosis, obesity, hypertension, type 2 diabetes and osteoporosis. The scientific challenges posed by the need to understand the interactions among diet and metabolic regulation are much greater than previously thought. Over generations, human diets that traditionally maintained populations in good metabolic health were arrived at through trial and error. Scientific knowledge was neither driven nor gained by this process - knowledge was only anecdotal. Now, scientific research must address the problem of guiding individuals to choosing optimal overall diets that not only provide all of the essential nutrients but also deliver all of the macronutrients in an optimal system, such that metabolism itself is balanced. Just as mammalian milk was instrumental in guiding nutrition research to the essential nutrients and in delivering them in adequate quantities, milk is proving to be a knowledge reservoir for understanding diet and metabolic health as well. Comparative compositional, genomic and metabolomic tools are accelerating our capabilities in understanding just how milks of various mammals guide infants to optimal growth, development and metabolism. Dairy productenriched diets are also apparently capable of delivering to humans of all ages many of the recognised benefits that milk provides to infants for optimal growth and metabolism.
The commercialisation of Whey Growth Factor Extract has taken more than a decade since the initial research commenced. MG Nutritionals has acquired the rights to the intellectual property generated from the consortium of research parties and has developed a sustainable manufacturing process that produces a high quality product. MG Nutritionals is now focused on developing a market by creating demand for the product through credible science and protecting and maintaining current and future intellectual property.
Bovine whey is a rich source of proteins with different physical and physiological activity. In our hands, Cheddar cheese whey has been used as a novel source material for development of a candidate human therapeutic - whey growth factor extract (WGFE). The technology for this product has incorporated all aspects of the drug development pipeline, including pre-clinical testing, pharmaceutical grade manufacture and human clinical trials. The WGFE technology represents a different approach to the use of minor dairy ingredients that may potentially return large benefits to both end user and the dairy industry.
Understanding the whey material and processing could result in a myriad of functional properties which can be manufactured, such as acid stability, gelation, film formation, aeration, and emulsification. Tailoring these functional properties to fond applications gives the food technologist a range of whey proteins to meet specific product specifications. This article reviews the manufacture of whey proteins and discusses the various functional properties of whey products in a wide range of food applications.
The global functional food and nutriceutical market is currently worth about US$50 billion and is growing at some 8% annually. This huge and rapidly growing market, driven by consumer demands for health-promoting foods, is creating an almost insatiable desire on the part of food manufacturers for new and novel ingredients with which to formulate these foods. Dairy constituents, notably the proteins and peptides, provide the food technologist with a rich selection of potential ingredients for functional foods. Dairy proteins and peptides are truly multi-functional components, providing desirable features such as physical functional traits, nutritional qualities and an increasing array of substantiated bioactivities. Their promise is clear. The challenge for science and technology is to isolate these ingredients in a cost-effective manner while maintaining their inherent functional and nutritional traits. Continuous simulated moving bed chromatography has been developed for the isolation of a number of milk and whey-derived protein and peptide ingredients for use in the functional food, sports nutrition and health foods markets. The technology has been successfully adapted for the manufacture of ingredients enriched in lactoferrin, glycomacropeptide and ß-lactoglobulin. The technology has several advantages over conventional chromatography, including efficiency, productivity and flexibility. Ultra-high pressure processing is being investigated as a potential tool in the functional modulation of dairy constituents, such as proteins, but also as a means to facilitate isolation of specific protein species without the need for heat or chemical treatment. We report here recent developments in the application of continuous chromatographic separation technology and ultra-high pressure processing to the manufacture of dairy protein and peptide ingredients for the foods of the new millennium.
The Australian dairy industry produced 3.3 million tonnes of whey in 2002/03, yet converted only half of this into saleable products, with the remainder disposed, risking environmental problems rather than maximising returns (Dairy Australia 2003). Arising from Australia's continuing problems with whey disposal, research was commenced into whey processing with the objective to develop an integrated lactose process that minimised waste, reduced costs and maximised by-product utilisation, while producing a commercially viable and high-value product. The basis of the new process was the use of ion exclusion chromatography to separate and purify lactose, increase yields and reduce the effluent problems usually associated with traditional processes. The chromatographic separation was optimised to maximise yield and throughput, then integrated with the unit operations upstream and downstream to further maximise yield and throughput. Further work was done to evaluate the by-products of each operation, developing procedures for their reuse within the process to yield high-value by-products, including pharmaceutical-grade lactose, purified water, soluble whey minerals and high calcium supplements. The end result is a fully integrated food process that achieves zero discharge by waste minimisation and by maximising the profits from whey.
Reducing the lactose content or removing it completely from milk and other dairy products can expand availability of valuable dairy nutrients world-wide. The traditional approach to conversion of lactose by its hydrolysis to the constituent monosaccharides has been practiced industrially for almost 20 years. In Finland, the HYLA line of dairy products containing hydrolysed lactose comprises almost 100 different products. The patented Chromatographic process for removal of lactose from milk offers new opportunities for marketing of lactose-free milk and dairy products with sensory properties indistinguishable from those of the comparable traditional products. The process is described and the marketing success of the new Valio lactose-free products is documented.
A study was performed on the commercialization of a new dairy process. The patented process produced a highly purified lactose at a yield of 90% from whey permeate. It was shown that the process also recovered a surplus of potable water from whey with 23% in excess of operational needs.
This paper reviews the sources and treatment or disposal of wastewaters from the processing of milk and milk products. Waste products from dairy farming are not considered. The dairy industry is a major enterprise in many countries, occupying a significant place in the food supply and, in some countries, playing an important role as an earner of export income. Refs.
Bioactivities of peptides encrypted in major milk proteins are latent until released and activated by enzymatic proteolysis, e.g. during gastrointestinal digestion or food processing. Activated peptides are potential modulators of various regulatory processes in the living system: Opioid peptides are opioid receptor ligands which can modulate absorption processes in the intestinal tract, angiotensin-l-converting enzyme (ACE)-inhibitory peptides exert an hypotensive effect, immunomodulatory casein peptides stimulate the activities of cells of the immune system, antimicrobial peptides kill sensitive micro-organisms, antithrombotic peptides inhibit aggregation of platelets, mineral binding peptides may function as carriers for different minerals, especially calcium, and several cytomodulatory peptides inhibit cancer cell growth. The multifunctionality of various peptides involves quite different bioactivities. Bioactive peptides can interact with target sites at the luminal side of the intestinal tract, or they could reach any potential site of action in the system to elicit physiological effects. Food-derived bioactive peptides are claimed to be health enhancing components for 'functional foods' that are used to reduce the risk of disease or to enhance a certain physiological function.
With the rapid advances in membrane separation and demineralization technologies, whey has become an imporant raw material for production of various industrial ingredients. Manufacturing of whey protein concentrates, demineralized whey products, lactose and other whey-based materials for food and non-food uses requires large quantities of whey. Manufacturers of whey-based industrial ingredients may utilize whey from several neighbouring cheese manufacturing plants, as processing of smaller amounts of whey is uneconomical.
In whey cheese manufacture, whey, plain or added with milk, is heated by direct fire, bubbling steam or alternatively in jacketed vats. In some cases, salts or organic acids are previously added. At 80-85 °C, the first particles of curd form; at 85-95 °C, the curd may be cooked for a few minutes to reduce moisture content and/or to obtain the desirable level of browning. After drainage at room temperature during molding for ca. 4 h, whey cheese is stored at ca. 4 °C. The typical mass yield is 6%, but addition of milk, calcium salts and preliminary concentration of protein (by condensation or ultrafiltration techniques) may increase yield considerably. Some types of whey cheeses are supposed to be consumed within a short time upon manufacture (e.g., Ricotta, Requeijão and Manouri), whereas others bear a longer shelf life (e.g., Gjetost, Mysost and Myzithra). Whey cheeses are significantly different from one another in terms of chemical composition, which is mainly due to variations in the source and type of whey, as well as to the processing practices followed. Moisture content and pH of whey cheeses are usually high and favor microorganism growth (molds, yeasts, lactic acid bacteria and Enterobacteriaceae account for the dominant microflora in these cheeses). Adequate packaging of whey cheeses should be provided, and legislation should be prepared to fix standard characteristics of each type of whey cheese, and hence protect typical products from adulteration and fakes. Marketing efforts should also be aimed at increasing whey cheese consumption, either directly or incorporated in desserts, snack dips and pasta-type dishes.
This paper reviews our current knowledge of the structure and function of the iron-binding protein lactoferrin. In particular, it attempts to relate the various proposed physiological functions of lactoferrin to its most characteristic biochemical properties, i.e. its ability to bind iron and its highly basic nature. The extent to which various physiological functions can be considered as definitely established is critically reviewed, and suggestions for future research are proposed.Key words: lactoferrin, iron, nutrition, immunology, infection, inflammation.Cet article fait une revue de nos connaissances actuelles concernant la structure et la fonction de la lactoferrine, une protéine liant le fer. Il tente spécialement d'établir une relation entre les divers rôles physiologiques de la lactoferrine qui ont été proposés et ses propriétés biochimiques les plus caractéristiques, soit sa capacité de lier le fer et son caractère très basique. Nous discutons à quel point les divers rôles physiologiques peuvent être considérés comme établis définitivement. Des suggestions pour de futurs recherches sont faites.Mots clés : lactoferrine, fer, nutrition, immunologie, infection, inflammation.[Traduit par la Rédaction]
Several factors affecting thermal stability of the proteins present in whey were studied over 2.5 to 6.5 pH range using differential scanning calorimetry and heat-induced precipitation. Heating whey at 95°C for 5 min above pH 3.8 to 3.9 produced extensive protein coagulation. When the same heat treatment was applied below pH 3.7, protein precipitation was prevented; however, protein denaturation still occurred in various whey protein fractions. The highest denaturation temperature for an acid whey protein concentrate prepared by ultrafiltration was 88°C at pH 3.5, while for an isolated β-lactoglobulin preparation the highest denaturation temperature, obtained also at pH 3.5, was 81.9°C. Presence of milk sugars (lactose, glucose, and galactose) appeared to increase the resistance of β-lactoglobulin to thermal denaturation. Heat stability of α-lactalbumin was lower at pH 3.5 than in the pH 6.5 to 4.5 range; at all pH denaturation temperatures of α-lactalbumin (61.5 to 58.6°C) were lower than those for β-lactoglobulin or two serum albumin preparations. Sample of serum albumin containing 1.0 to 1.3 mol of fatty acids/mol of albumin showed substantially higher denaturation temperatures than an essentially fatty acid free preparation. Thermal behavior of an ultrafiltration whey protein concentrate appears to be controlled by the dominating β-lactoglobulin fraction.
Procedures are outlined for development of model food systems for evaluation of functionality of whey protein concentrates as an alternative to traditional functionality testing in simple systems. A stepwise approach is suggested, starting with published food formulations and applying experimental design to the development process.The approach is illustrated for two model systems, a coffee whitener and a whipped topping. Results indicate factors that must be considered in model development. In the coffee whitener, protein type must be considered, and the same model may not be applicable to different types of proteins. Data illustrate the need for evaluation of the food system by multiple testing procedures.
Seasonal changes in the β-lactoglobulin, α-lactalbumin, casein, and glycomacropeptide content of dried whey protein concentrate, manufactured in southeastern Australia, have been measured over consecutive milking seasons by both HPLC and by PAGE under denaturing conditions. Seasonal changes generally included a reduction in the α-lactalbumin content of whey protein concentrate manufactured during the final three months of lactation, concomitant with a rise in the level of β-lactoglobulin. These changes contrasted with an increase in the casein content of whey protein concentrate prepared during the first 4 mo of lactation. Seasonal variation in the relative proportions of the major protein constituents of whey protein concentrate has important implications for the dairy industry, particularly in the preparation of “tailor-made” whey protein concentrates with specified applications, and in specialized processes such as whey protein fractionation.
The influence of permeation flux J and wall shear stress τ w, on performances of the nanofiltration of concentrated sweet whey at volume reduction ratio 2, 18°C and using organic membranes was studied. It was concluded that sweet whey nanofiltration could be optimised through the parameter J/τ w, since J and τ w act together in a competing mechanism of convection/erosion at the membrane surface, that governs membrane fouling and selectivity. Hence, the overall fouling was strongly dependent on the ratio J/τ w, with a critical J/τ w value of approximately 6.0. When J/τ w < 6.0, the total membrane fouling was relatively low and almost independent on operating conditions. For higher ratios of J/τ w, there was a spectacular increase in fouling and a very strong dependence between the fouling index and J/τ w. Simultaneously, selectivity was altered under these conditions, with higher retention of monovalent ions and lower retention of lactose. Finally, optimal hydrodynamic conditions were defined in the range 3-6. Under these conditions, longer operating times, lower chemical oxygen demand in permeate and higher demineralization could be expected at lower processing costs.
Summary 1ndustrial process for production of puriiied proteins from whey Aggregative properties of «-lactalbumin under moderate heat treatment at low pH were used to develop a proceSS, with potential indus trial scale-up, for separating main protein components of whey. This process includes the following steps : - clarification of the whey by a combination of a calcium ions addition and of heat treatment which destabilize the phospholipoproteins - UF concentration of the clarified whey ; - polymerisation at low pH of o-lactalbumin and its separation after thermal gelification.
Whey protein ingredients are used for a variety of functional applications in the food industry. Each application requires one or several functional properties such as gelation, thermal stability, foam formation or emulsification. Whey protein ingredients can be designed for enhanced functional properties by altering the protein and non-protein composition, and/or modifying the proteins. Modifications of whey proteins based on enzymatic hydrolysis or heat-induced polymerization have a broad potential for designing functionality for specific applications. The effects of these modifications are demonstrated by discussing how they alter gelation and interfacial properties.
Bovine milk and colostrum contain growth factors such as insulin-like growth factor IGF-I, IGF-II, transforming growth factor TGF-β1, TGF-β2, epidermal growth factor EGF, basic fibroblast growth factor bFGF and platelet-derived growth factor PDGF. A number of methodologies for the extraction of milk growth factors from milk, colostrum or whey have been developed. Cation-exchange chromatography has been widely used because of the basic nature of the growth factors. Also, microfiltration has been used for the concentration of some growth factors from colostrum, while ultrafiltration was successful only in separating IGF-I from IGF-II in whey. Growth factor extracts from milk, colostrum or whey have been used as therapeutic preparations for wound healing and in the treatment of inflammatory gut disorders. More recent applications are related to bone tissue regeneration and treatment of inflammatory skin diseases such as psoriasis.
An efficient process has been developed for extraction of growth factors, antimicrobial agents, and minor whey proteins from bovine cheese whey. The whey-derived extract stimulates growth of mesodermal cell lines in culture but inhibits proliferation of epithelial-derived cells. Known growth factors characterised in the material do not account for its complete biological activity in cultured fibroblasts, suggesting the presence of unidentified cell mitogens. The protein extract is being investigated for use in prevention and repair of gastrointestinal injury and surface wounds. In preclinical studies with experimental animal models, the protein extract has been shown to reduce damage in the small bowel and oral mucosa associated with ablative cytotoxic drug regimens, as well as to promote healing of incisional and excisional surface wounds. Human trials of the whey extract incorporating novel protein delivery systems are now under way to assess its safety and efficacy. If successful, the whey-based extract will offer a valuable source of natural cell mitogens with widespread clinical application in preventing tissue damage and stimulating wound repair. Drug Dev. Res. 46:286–291, 1999. © 1999 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
The gelation properties of whey protein concentrates (WPC) produced by ultra-filtration of cheese whey that had been exposed to differing heat treatments during processing were correlated with their physical and chemical properties. Gel strengths were measured at pH 6.5 and 8.0. At pH 6.5 the three most important factors in the prediction of gel strength were calcium content, protein hydrophobicity as measured by heptane binding and milk heat treatment. Protein hydrophobicity was positively correlated with gel strength while calcium content and milk heat treatment showed a negative correlation with gel strength. The best three-variable model for gel strength at pH 6.5 had a correlation coefficient of 0.89 and a probability of 0.0234. The variables that were significantly correlated to pH 8.0 gel strength were soluble β-lactoglobulin content, free sulfhydryl groups, protein solubility and pasteurization of the ultra-filtration retentate. All of the variables except heat treatment were positively correlated with gel strength. The content of soluble β-lactoglobulin explained over 95% of the variability in WPC gel strength at pH 8.0. None of the variables important to gel strength at pH 6.5 was significantly related to pH 8.0 gel strength.
Aggregation of 10% whey protein solution was in- duced by addition of calcium salt, acidification, or prote- olysis at 45°C. Effects of the preaggregation on thermal properties of whey proteins were examined by differen- tial scanning calorimetry. The different types of aggre- gates had three common effects: 1) one endothermic peak, representing denaturation of whey protein aggre- gates, instead of two endothermic peaks representing α- lactalbumin and β-lactoglobulin in the control; 2) a narrower range (∼10°C) of denaturation temperature than the control (∼20°C); and 3) significantly greater enthalpy values (∼4 J/g) than the control (