No full-text available
To read the full-text of this research,
you can request a copy directly from the authors.
Micro removal of ceramic material (Al2O3) in the precision ultrasonic machining
Abstract
Ultrasonic machining process is an efficient and economical means of precision machining of ceramic materials. However, the mechanics of the process with respect to crack initiation and propagation, and stress development in the ceramic workpiece subsurface are still not well understood. This article presents experimental simulation of the process mechanics in an attempt to analyze the material removal mechanism in machining of ceramic (Al2O3). It is found that low-impact force causes only structural disintegration and particle dislocation. The high-impact force contributes to cone cracks and subsequent crater damage.
... Further, Komaraiah et al. [9] found that the surface roughness decreases with the decrease in grain size of the SiC abrasives used. Rajurkar et al. [10] studied the surface roughness obtained at different impact velocities in ultrasonic machining of Al 2 O 3 ceramic material. They concluded that low impact force causes only structural disintegration and particle dislocation. ...
... Efforts have been made by researchers and practicing engineers to avoid, prevent and minimize burr formation in machining. Techniques that have been found to be effective in tackling the problem of formation of burr are based on the following strategies [1][2][3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11][12]: Selection of suitable tool geometry, its material and size corresponding to the workpiece, Appropriate method of application of coolant and type of it, Proper selection of cutting speed, feed, etc., Proper sequencing of the cutting process, Tool path planning in a favourable way, Adopting edge preparation and maintaining appropriate in-plane exit angle, etc. ...
... Edge preparation like edge beveling to the tune of 15 0 can lead [7,10,12] to reduced entrance burr and exit burr in face milling, drilling, shaping, etc. Providing low value of in-plane exit angle also leads to less burr formation in face milling [4,[8][9][10][11][12]. Fig.1 shows the meaning of in-plane exit angle and exit edge bevel angle. ...
... Rajurkar et al. [131] performed the experimental study to find the mechanics of ultrasonic machining of alumina in terms of its material removal rate. The dynamic test indicates that the lower velocity impacts removed the material due to structural disintegration and particle dislocations whereas high velocity impacts removed the material through a network of intergranular microcracks (Fig. 24). ...
... Surface characteristics (a) Low velocity impact (b) High velocity impact[131]. ...
... The mode of ELID grinding material removal rate was studied by Kuai [24], which shows that the material removal rate increases with increasing grinding depth. Rajurkar et al. [25] carried out the experimental simulation of the process mechanics in an attempt to analyze the material removal mechanism in ceramic machining. In the present paper, the brittle material removal in grinding process is studied by utilizing a combination of theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. ...
... The above experimental results could be compared with the theoretical and simulation results in this study. Moreover, the present analytical results are consistent with the experimental results mentioned in papers [22][23][24][25], which proves the correctness and rationality of the present research method to some extent. ...
In this article, the material removal volume (MRV) of single abrasive grain in a rotational period and material removal rate (MRR) in the grinding process of brittle materials are investigated by theoretical analysis and numerical simulation. The results of numerical simulation are consistent with those of theoretical analysis, which indicates that the present numerical method is reasonable. The study focuses on the effects of wheel speed, grinding depth, apex angle of abrasive grain, and workpiece feed rate on the MRV/MRR and grinding force. It shows that the material removal is mainly in brittle mode and the ground workpiece surface is scratched out a groove with a certain width by abrasive grain. A high wheel speed is able to enhance the MRR; however, when wheel speed increases to a certain value, its effect on MRR is not distinct. The MRV and MRR are increment with the increasing grinding depth or apex angle of abrasive grain. The workpiece feed rate has a little influence on MRV/MRR and is weaker than wheel speed, grinding depth, and apex angle of abrasive grain. The grinding force versus the four parameters has a similar trend with MRV meaning that it is one of the major factors influencing material removal.
... These successful applications show that the application of ultrasonic vibration has made certain achievements in various machining fields. However, problems such as surface crack, low weld strength and low efficiency in the UWMP process are severely caused by the attenuation and fluctuation of amplitude due to the change of workpiece shape, hardness, load and ambient temperature [22,23]. Additionally, the rapidity in the CFUAC system is needed in some applications such as ultrasonic welding which welding time is usually 0.5 s-2 s [17]. ...
This work presents a novel constant frequency ultrasonicamplitude control (CFUAC) method based on fuzzy proportional-integral-derivative (FPID) and amplitude direct feedback. The frequency shift and amplitude nonlinearity of the piezoelectric transducer (PT) are measured to determine the optimal constant control frequency of 19.2 kHz. The FPID controller is designed to adapt to the nonlinear changes in different target amplitudes and loads. A direct PT amplitude feedback method is used to improve the signal’s anti-interference ability and accuracy. The 5% settling time and steady-state error of FPID can reach 92.22 ms and
at the step response under 24
. The 5% settling time and steady-state error of FPID are less than 131.44 ms and
at 10
under 150 N. The results confirmthat fast and precise control of the vibration amplitude of an ultrasonic transducer can be realized by the proposed method. The new CFUAC method lays a foundation for revealing the ultrasonic welding and metal processing (UWMP) mechanism and helps to expand the application of ultrasonic vibration in the fields of precision machining and high dynamic ultrasonicmedical equipment.
... A virtual reality interface to SPM is being developed at the University of North Carolina (the USA) to allow a more intuitive and rapid understanding of data at nanoscale. In micromanufacturing, several non-conventional machining processes are already used for micro machining of ceramics, laser beam machining, electrical discharge machining (EDM) and ultrasonic machining, but the drawbacks of these are poor surface quality, limitation to conductive materials for EDM (Rajurkar et al., 1999) and possible thermal and chemical modification. Femtosecond laser micro and nanomachining system by Tokyo Instruments (2019) has introduced material treatment in sub-micron scale with applications in photonics, optics and fuel cell material. ...
Purpose
Novel nanomaterials and nano-devices require further functional aspects that can be designed and supported using new nanomanipulation techniques allowing specific functions at the design phase. The nano-manipulator becomes a key instrument for technology bridging sub-nano to mesoscale. The integration of various operations in nano-devices requires sub-nanometer precision and highly stable manipulator. This paper aims to review various design concepts of recent nanomanipulators, their motion characteristics, basic functions, imagine and automation with control techniques for the sake of establishing new design features based on recent requirements.
Design/methodology/approach
The paper reviews various existing nanomanipulators, their motion characteristics, basic functions, imagine and automation with control techniques. This will support precision machine design methodology and robotics principles.
Findings
The availability of a nano-precision instrument with integrated functions has proved to be extremely helpful in addressing various fundamental problems in science and engineering such as exploring, understanding, modeling and testing nano-machining process; exact construction of nano-structure arrays; and inspection of devices with complex features.
Originality/value
New functional specifications have emerged from this review to support the design and make of new advanced nanomanipulators with more features availability to support manipulation within the same reference datum needed for research and education.
... In the recent US-Japan collaboration [38], a 2D nano-machining instrument has been built and where the authors have only reported in depth sensing indentation experiments with few stability problems due to vibrations and thermal drift. A virtual reality interface to SPM is being developed at the University of North Carolina (USA) to allow a more intuitive and rapid understanding of [39] and possible thermal and chemical modification. Femtosecond laser micro and nanomachining system by Tokyo Instruments [40] has introduced material treatment in sub-micron scale with applications in photonics, optics, and fuel cell material. ...
Novel nanomaterials and nano-devices require further functional aspects that can be designed and supported using new nanomanipulation techniques allowing specific functions at the design phase. The nano-manipulator becomes a key instrument for technology bridging sub-nano to mesoscale. The integration of various operations in nano-devices requires sub-nanometer precision and highly stable manipulator. The paper reviews various design concepts of recent nanomanipulators, their motion characteristics, basic functions, imagine and automation with control techniques for the sake of establishing new design features based on recent requirements.
Design/Methodology
The paper reviews various existing nanomanipulators, their motion characteristics, basic functions, imagine and automation with control techniques. This will support precision machine design methodology and robotics principles.
Findings
The availability of a nano-precision instrument with integrated functions has proved to be extremely helpful in addressing various fundamental problems in science and engineering such as exploring, understanding, modeling and testing nano-machining process, exact construction of nano-structure arrays and inspection of devices with complex features. Originality
New functional specifications have emerged from this review to support the design and make of new advanced nanomanipulators with more features availability to support manipulation within the same reference datum needed for research and education.
... Ultrasonic burnishing should not be confused with ultrasonic machining, which is a method that works by removing material from the surface of a workpiece with abrasive fluid (Rajurkara et al., 1999). Ultrasonic burnishing is not a material removal process. ...
The demand for good surface quality and good fatigue resistance of engineering components is becoming ever greater. Mechanical surface treatments are performed to improve the surface properties and quality of cylindrical workpieces. In this article, the surfaces produced by two different surface treatment methods are evaluated in terms of their surface integrity. The processes are diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing. Both diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing are fast, simple and economical cold-working processes that provide good surface quality and hardness. This paper examines the residual stresses, the changes in the surface quality and the changes in the surface hardness of the workpieces that have been finished via diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing processes. It is extremely important to know what effect the methods have on the residual state of the material. The results demonstrate that it is possible to achieve reductions of as much as 78% to 94% in surface roughness (Ra) via the diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing processes.
... Ultrasonic burnishing should not be confused with ultrasonic machining, which is a method that works by removing material from the surface of a workpiece with abrasive fluid (Rajurkara et al., 1999). Ultrasonic burnishing is not a material removal process. ...
The demand for good surface quality and good fatigue resistance
of engineering components is becoming ever greater. Mechanical surface
treatments are performed to improve the surface properties and quality of
cylindrical workpieces. In this article, the surfaces produced by two different
surface treatment methods are evaluated in terms of their surface integrity.
The processes are diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing. Both
diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing are fast, simple and economical
cold-working processes that provide good surface quality and hardness. This
paper examines the residual stresses, the changes in the surface quality and the
changes in the surface hardness of the workpieces that have been finished via
diamond burnishing and ultrasonic burnishing processes. It is extremely
important to know what effect the methods have on the residual state of the
material. The results demonstrate that it is possible to achieve reductions of as
much as 78% to 94% in surface roughness (Ra) via the diamond burnishing and
ultrasonic burnishing processes.
... Rajurkar et al [131] performed the experimental study to find the mechanics of ultrasonic machining of alumina in terms of its material removal rate. The dynamic test indicates that the lower velocity impacts removed the material due to structural disintegration and particle dislocations whereas high velocity impacts removed the material through a network of intergranular microcracks (Fig. 24). ...
Ceramic matrix composites (CMCs) are the best suited material for various engineering application due to its superior properties. The different processing methods involved in the fabrication and machining of these CMCs is a centre for attraction to researchers and industrial society. This review article primarily focuses on the development of different processing methods and machining methods for ceramic matrix composites since last few years. Out of these fabrication methods, powder metallurgy emerged as a most promising and cost effective technique. In addition, electric discharge machining (EDM) has proved to be time saving, cost effective and capable of machining complex shapes in composites. At the end, challenges in the processing and machining of ceramic matrix composites have been identified from the literature and further benefits of microwave sintering and electric discharge machining of materials has been addressed in the paper.
... These geometrical irregularities can be termed as hole over size, conicity and out of roundness [2,4,5,18]. In USM, abrasive particles in the form of slurry, strikes over the work surface and hence the removal of material take place [3,4,[19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26][27][28][29][30][31][32][33][34]. Owing to contactless process, static USM also resulted in a lesser rate of material removal [35][36][37][38][39][40][41]. ...
Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) is a mechanical type non-traditional hybrid machining process which has been utilized potentially to machine a wide range of latest and difficult-to-machine materials, including ductile, hard and brittle, ceramics, composites, etc. In RUM, basic material removal phenomenon of ultrasonic machining and conventional diamond grinding amalgamates together and results into higher material removal rate, improved hole accuracy with superior surface finish. In the current article, several investigations carried out in the domain of RUM for enormous materials have been critically reviewed and reported. It also highlights several experimental and theoretical ensues of RUM to improve the process outcomes and it is reported that process performance can be substantially improved by making the right selection of machine, diamond tooling, material and operating parameters. In recent years, various investigators have explored umpteen ways to enhance the RUM process performance by probing the different factors that influence the quality attributes. Among various accessible modifications in RUM as employed in industries, rotary ultrasonic drilling is more strongly established as compared to other versions such as rotary ultrasonic side milling, face milling, grinding, surface texturing etc. The micro machining applications of RUM have also been discussed briefly. The final section of this paper confers about RUM developments and outlines the aspects for future research.
... processed, tool service life and work piece machining quality. Ultrasonic machining process effect comes from the separation between the tool and work piece movement, which can be named an impulse type intermittent cutting process [7]. Cutting tools: cemented carbide TP2500 cutter, angle of cutting edgeγ 0 = 5°,tool clearance ofα 0 =12°, tool cutting edge angle k r =90 °, corner radius rε=0.2, tool cutting edge inclinationλ s = 0 ° Ultrasonic vibration system: ZJS-2000 type ultrasonic generator, transducer and amplitude transformer. ...
According to the principle of ultrasonic vibration turning, the first step is to study different position changes of surface roughness with cutting parameters under ultrasonic vibration turning of slender shaft by the test of single factor, and determining the extreme position of surface roughness with the slender shaft changes in different cutting conditions. The second step is to study the influence of cutting parameters on the overall average surface roughness of work piece under ultrasonic vibration turning of slender shaft by orthogonal test design, and compared with the conventional turning. The experimental results show that ultrasonic vibration turning slender shaft processing can significantly improve the surface roughness. At the same time, the influence laws of cutting parameters on the surface roughness are investigated, and finding out the optimal cutting experimental parameters.
... A virtual reality interface to SPM is being developed at the University of North Carolina (USA) to allow a more intuitive and rapid understanding of data at nanoscale. In micro-manufacturing, several nonconventional machining processes are already used for micro machining of ceramics; Laser Beam Machining, Electrical Discharge Machining, Ultrasonic Machining, but the drawbacks of these are poor surface quality, limitation to conductive materials for EDM [19] and possible thermal and chemical modification [20]. Femtosecond laser micro and nanomachining system by Tokyo Instruments [21] has introduced material treatment in sub-micron scale with applications in photonics, optics, and fuel cell material. ...
The present paper discusses the design of a new numerically controlled nanomanipulator operating in a dynamic platform dedicated to various operations with an embedded AFM having an in-process inspection of nanomanifacturing e.g. scratching. Nanomanipulation techniques have gone through several phases to be used in scientific explorations not only to reveal more characteristics of nano, micro and mesoscopic phenomena but also to build functional nano-devices useful for specific applications. The nano-manipulator becomes a key instrument for technology bridging between sub-nano and mesoscale. The integration of various functions in the nano-devices requires sub-nanometer precision and highly stable manipulator with substantial pulling/pushing forces. The paper reviews also various conceptual designs of existing nanomanipulators with specific features. This includes design analysis leading to ultra-precision motion and stability with discussion of enabling technology, hence the introduction of a novel integrated and numerically controlled instrument for nano-manipulation, visualization and inspection/characterization of materials at sub-nanoscale. The samples and devices are made in-situ avoiding any transportation to a third party. The availability of a nano-precision instrument with integrated functions will be extremely helpful in addressing various fundamental problems in science and engineering such as understanding, modelling and testing nano-machining process, exact construction of nano-structure arrays and inspection of devices with complex features. In this paper we have attempted to review the nanomanipulators from the background of engineering design and define necessary condition and definitions whenever it is requested.
... Une onde longitudinale d'environ 20 kHz transmet son énergie à une matière abrasive en suspension dans un mélange d'eau ou d'huile qui est dès lors accélérée en direction de la cible [30]. Bien que l'ablation se produise par microécaillage (matériau dur, [31]) ou déformation plastique (matériau ductile), un minimum d'endommagement thermique et de contraintes semble en résulter. La chimie du matériau et les propriétés physiques n'en sont également que peu affectées. ...
Lasers delivering ultrashort pulses are innovative and very attractive tools for cutting piezoelectric PZT ceramics. Thanks to an efficient spatiotemporal confinement of the energy during the interaction, these systems reduce collateral damage and preserve the physical integrity of the material on a micrometric scale. Nevertheless, uncontrolled beam propagation associated with complex interaction mechanisms depending on the irradiated target can involve large disparities on machining quality. In the context of an industrial application, this study describes the main steps of optimization of such a process according to criteria of reproducibility, quality and speed. To this purpose, we first pointed out the influence of Gaussian beam properties and their disturbance to define the energy distribution at focal planes. Thus, the quantification of the interaction with the ablation threshold, the ablation rate, incubation and saturation helped to understand the reaction of the material macroscopically. Methodological issues coming from their calculations have been highlighted while machining shapes and processing times were anticipated. Secondly, the optimization of laser parameters was based on both qualitative and quantitative characterizations. Electronic microscopy was rather used for visual appreciations whereas stoichiometry and residual stress estimations were employed to quantify the quality of side walls. We also took benefit from piezoelectricity to develop an in situ observation method which succeeded in detecting the electrical response to the laser shock wave and mainly contributed to the understanding of visible cracks. We finally propose an optimum set of parameters for cutting PZT ensuring good repeatability of the process while minimizing machining defects such as cracking, surface recast and jagged sides. Tests with spatiotemporal beam shaping were finally presented primarily as perspectives of processing time decrease so as to promote its use for future industrialization
... Ultrasonic vibration combined with grinding machining has been regarded as one of optimal processing methods because its material removal rate has been increased to 3-5 times comparing to conventional grinding and its surface roughness value can reach Ra0.2μm. The tool will reduce wear and tear to half [6][7][8]. All that bring huge economic benefits. ...
A system of ultrasonic combined with grinding has been designed, and one novel connective method of straight screw combined with taper surface has been applied in spindle, so compact size and high revolving accuracy can be achieved. Modal analysis of ultrasonic vibration system has been implemented by FEM (Finite Element Method), and its optimal dimension has been calculated to find out optimal vibration estate. Full-bridge converter has been applied in driving circuit of ultrasonic vibrator, and auto-frequency tracking has been designed in order that ultrasonic vibration works on resonant or quasi-resonant frequency. Finally, machining experiments have been fulfilled about ultrasonic combined with grinding, and its machining effect has been distinctly improved comparing ordinary grinding machining.
... Electrical discharge machining is a wide spread and can be another alternative but it can machine only electrically conductive materials [2]. Ultrasonic machining has a great potential for applications in precision machining of ceramics, but still need to study the structure and properties of the work material [11]. How ever, the above research work was concerned with grinding process and non conventional methods, which are not economical in view of productivity and possible to use limited conditions only. ...
The present experimental study aimed to examine the selected machining parameters on Surface roughness in the machining of alumina nitride ceramic. The influence of cutting speed and feed rate were determined in end milling by using Cubic boron nitride grinding tool. The predictive surface roughness model has been developed by response surface methodology. The response surface contours with respect to input parameters are presented with the help of Design expert software. The adequacy of the model was tested by ANOVA.
... Due to their superior properties, advanced ceramics are hard to be machined with conventional machining methods [1]. Various types of advanced machining techniques such as ultrasonic machining, abrasive water jet machining, electrical discharge machining, laser machining and grinding were used to produce advanced ceramics component [2][3][4]. All above are not economical in view of productivity and can be applied in few applications only. ...
Advanced ceramic materials are difficult to machine by conventional methods due to the brittle nature and high hardness. The appropriate selection of cutting tool and cutting conditions may help to improve machinability by endmilling. Performance of TiAlN and TiN coated carbide tool insert in end milling of machinable glass ceramic has been investigated. Several dry cutting tests were performed to select the optimum cutting parameters for the endmilling in order to obtain better tool life. In this work, a study was carried out on the influence of cutting speed, feed rate and axial depth of cut on tool wear.The technique of design of experiments (DOE) was used for the planning and analysis of the experiments. Tool wear prediction model was developed using Response surface methodology.The results indicate that tool wear increased with increasing the cutting speed and axial depth of cut. Effect of feed rate is not much significant on selected range of cutting condition
... Laser beam machining is an alternative for ceramic machining, but surface quality of machined parts is relatively poor [5]. Ultra sonic machining process is an effective alternative for machining ceramic materials [6], however the mechanism of the process, crack initiation, stress development at subsurface are still not well understood [7]. Electrical discharge machining is applicable only electrically conductive materials [8]. ...
This research presents the performance of Aluminum nitride ceramic in end milling using using TiAlN and TiN coated carbide tool insert under dry machining. The surface roughness of the work piece and tool wear was analyzed in this. The design of experiments (DOE) approach using Response surface methodology was implemented to optimize the cutting parameters of a computer numerical control (CNC) end milling machine. The analysis of variance (ANOVA) was adapted to identify the most influential factors on the CNC end milling process. The mathematical predictive model developed for surface roughness and tool wear in terms of cutting speed, feed rate, and depth of cut. The cutting speed is found to be the most significant factor affecting the surface roughness of work piece and tool wear in end milling process.
Piezoelectric ultrasonic-assisted precision machining (PUAPM) technology is considered to be an efficient and environmentally friendly machining strategy by virtue of cutting force reduction, ductile cutting promotion, tool wear and machining noise reduction. Piezoelectric ultrasonic transducer (PUT) provides ultrasonic energy for PUAPM system, which is the core component to ensure the normal operation of the system. PUTs for PUAPM devices have emerged endlessly in recent decades and have been successfully applied in many fields, such as MEMS, biomedicine, optoelectronics, aerospace, etc. However, there is no comprehensive classification and analysis of the basic configurations, excitation principles, typical structures, performance analyses and control strategies for PUT. This work gives a critical review of research on PUT in recent years, especially the structural optimization, application expansion and ultrasonic energy stabilization in PUAPM. The influence mechanism of excitation mode, modal type, modal combination, horn structure and ceramic arrangement on the optimization of PUT structure is summarized. The improvement effect and mechanism of PUT vibration dimension, amplitude, frequency and structural characteristics on surface roughness, surface texture and cutting force are discussed. In addition, the causes of PUT amplitude fluctuation, and the influence of sensing and control methods on PUT amplitude regulation and system integration are analyzed. This review will help in understanding the current development and diversified applications of PUT and will promote the application of ultrasonic technology in more fields.
During micro-ultrasonic machining of brittle materials, lateral vibration of the tool and errors due to the placement of the workpiece leads to overcut and surface damage. Hence, this paper presents an effective method for micro-channel fabrication using a sacrificing coating on the substrate material. The myristic acid, along with PE wax, has been used as the sacrificing layer. Soda-lime glass with 110 mm × 70 mm × 2 mm dimensions has been used as the substrate material. The coating thickness (0.5 mm, 1 mm, 1.5 mm), coating type (PE wax and myristic acid), and feed rate (1 mm/min, 2 mm/min and 3 mm/min) have been considered as process parameters. Some other fixed parameters that have been taken into consideration are amplitude, frequency, and tool rotation with magnitude 1.3 µm, 20.81 kHz, and 1500 RPM, respectively. Micro-channel of 3 mm length, 1.6 mm width, and 0.3 mm depth has been fabricated on the soda-lime glass using micro-USM. Taguchi L9 orthogonal array has been used for the design of the experiment and optimization of process/machining parameters. The effect of coating material while micro-USM has been compared based on performance parameters: (i) overcut and (ii) stray cut. The machining parameters: (i) coating thickness and (ii) feed rate, showed a significant effect on surface finish. Minimum overcut was observed with 1 mm myristic acid coating and 2 mm/min feed rate, whereas a minimum stray cut was observed with 1 mm PE wax coating and 2 mm/min feed rate. Myristic acid coating was found to be more effective for overcut reduction, whereas PE wax coating had more impact on stray cut reduction. The experiment has been designed and performed to bring in limelight the effectiveness of myristic acid for enhancement of overall surface finish of the substrate material. The conclusions derived from the experiment have been in the favor of myristic acid being an effective coating material.
The surface laser polishing of engineering ceramic materials is a high-precision surface polishing technology, which overcomes the difficulty of high-precision processing due to the high hardness and high brittleness of engineering ceramic materials. This article summarizes in detail the research progress of laser polishing on the surface of engineering ceramic materials in recent years, and introduces the development status of laser polishing on the surface of engineering ceramic materials from the aspects of polishing mechanism, experiment and numerical simulation progress.
The velocity distribution in the axial direction of a conical fluidized bed is not uniform due to the expansion of cross-sectional area along the height. As such, the hydrodynamic and heat transfer characteristics of a tapered fluidized bed differ from that of the columnar fluidized bed. Various operating parameters have a significant effect on these characteristics. In this paper, the effect of bed inventory and airflow rate on the hydrodynamic and heat transfer characteristics in a columnar and conical are investigated and compared both experimentally and numerically. A Eulerian-Eulerian model is employed to investigate the hydrodynamics and heat transfer behaviour for both the types of bed. The Syamlal-O’Brien model is used as a drag model. The pressure drop across the bed is found to higher for the columnar bed. The heat transfer is also found to be better for the conical bed. Results obtained by experiments are seen to be excellent agreement with the numerical results.
The performance of solid oxide fuel cells can be improved by introducing micro-patterns on their electrolyte layer. However, because of the undesired properties of ceramic structures, the application of patterning has been limited to a few electrolyte-supported cells with thick electrolyte layers and requires expensive energy-consuming tools. Herein, we report an advanced micro-patterning technique that can be applied to the thin electrolyte of tape-cast anode-supported SOFCs. By employing soft-lithography with a UV curable electrolyte slurry, we fabricated regularly ordered micro-patterns on a thin electrolyte layer, while maximizing the interface area between the cathode and the electrolyte. Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy measurements followed by the distribution of relaxation time analysis revealed that with the increase in the triple phase boundary near the patterned interface area, the polarization resistance significantly decreases owing to the facilitated oxygen reduction reactions at the cathode, resulting in a significant improvement in the cell performance. The microstructure and morphology of the patterned cells were investigated by scanning electron microscopy and atomic force microscopy. The results confirm the feasibility of the facile micro-patterning method in engineering the surfaces of ceramic-based layered electrochemical devices with dramatically improved performance due to enhanced electrochemical reactions.
Hard and fragile materials for example ceramics, glass and quartz crystals are getting extra consideration in modern years owing to their higher characteristics for example high strength, high hardness, chemical durability and low density. Ultrasonic machining is an abrasive based advanced machining with non-chemical, non-electrical and non-thermal process that is particularly suitable for those brittle and hard materials. The USM process principle, mechanism of material removal, varieties of USM set up, tool development of USM process, improvement and production of 3d profile by USM process and various research issues are studied and summarized in this chapter. It also highlights the effects of different parameters of USM process on performance and development of USM process.
By applying high-frequency vibration, ultrasonic vibration cutting (UVC) could realize micro-cutting and high-speed impact combined machining to the cutting process. UVC is an effective measure to improve surface quality as well as cutting efficiency. Based on the research status domestic and abroad, this paper intends to summarize the research regarding UVC cutting mechanism, device development, tool design, application in difficult-to-machine materials and ultrasonic combined machining technology. Recent/current development trend of UVC is also presented: systematic research on cutting mechanism, practical and efficient UVC system development, micro-ultrasonic combined machining-technology.
In ultrasonic machining (USM), a mirror-like surface cannot be readily obtained on hard and brittle materials owing to easily generated microcracks. This drawback greatly limits the utilisation of USM as a finish machining technology. Therefore, minimizing the crack size or even eliminating the cracks is necessary to improve surface quality. In this study, fine abrasive particles are first applied to minimize the crack size during USM. Material removal efficiency and surface quality are then evaluated. However, crack formation during this process is unavoidable, and microcracks left on the machined surface cannot be completely removed by merely decreasing the particle size. In addition, minimizing the particle size is not beneficial to maintaining a desired machining rate. Therefore, a new method to repair the cracks by laser irradiation is proposed. The USM machined surfaces of glass plates are irradiated by a carbon dioxide laser at a wavelength of 10.6 μm to repair the cracks because glass has a high absorption coefficient at this wavelength. The temperature field generated during this process is evaluated using the finite element method. Simulation and experimental results demonstrate that the scanning speed of the laser beam has a considerable effect on the temperature increase, thereby influencing the repair result accordingly. Finally, a smoothed surface without cracks is obtained under a scanning speed of 300 mm/min and 5 W power. The combination of micro-USM and laser irradiation exhibits great potential for fabricating various micro-shapes and structures on hard and brittle materials, such as glass with high efficiency, high form precision and high surface quality.
The advancement in the manufacturing sector has the increasing demand for micro products in various fields. Due to unique mechanical properties, glass has wide applications in the fabrication of micro products. Micromachining of glass without any structural damage is a crucial task. Ultrasonic machining is a non-conventional machining process used for machining hard and brittle materials. This work mainly focuses on the drilling of an array of square micro holes on glass slides using ultrasonic machining. A mild steel tool having an array of 72 (8×9) square micro rod (260µm × 260µm × 800µm) has been fabricated using wire-EDM. The fabricated micro-rods has been used as tool to drill an array of square micro-holes on a glass slide using ultrasonic machining. This paper also focuses the effect of progressive tool wear on the quality of the drilled holes.
A Plasma display panel (PDP) is a type of flat panel display (FPD) utilizing the light emission that is produced by a discharge of gas. In this paper, a new type of PDP barrier ribs manufacturing process assisted by micro tooling technology was described and evaluated. The master pattern was made using the silicon wafer dicing process and then is transferred to a silicone rubber mold. Finally, the PDP barrier ribs were formed with the mold. This simple process is able to produce the high quality barrier ribs at a low cost.
There are a lot of developments in the micro manufacturing methods for the production of the three-dimensional miniaturized products made up of different advanced materials. Ultrasonic micro machining is an essential technique for the fabrication of micro parts on the hard, brittle and non-conductive materials like glass, ceramics and silicon with high aspect ratio. Ultrasonic micro machining is the mechanical type non conventional micro machining process. Material removal mechanism of USMM is similar to macro ultrasonic machining process. Adequate surface finish with stiff tolerances and dimensions can be achieved by ultrasonic micro machining (USMM) on hard and brittle materials. During the last decades, a number of researchers have explored experimentally and theoretically this ultrasonic micro machining (USMM) process technique with different materials. Recent development on ultrasonic micro machining (USMM) process has been highlighted and discussed in details with different types of ultrasonic micro machining (USMM) set up and material removal mechanism. Design and developments of micro-tools for USMM process have also been discussed. Influences of different process parameters on various responses of USMM have been discussed here.
Thanks to the favourable combination of outstanding mechanical, thermal and chemical properties, engineering ceramics find widespread applications in the modern industry. Nevertheless, their extensive use is still hindered by the implementation of a labour and cost intensive manufacturing chain. Electro, chemical and physical shaping techniques, like electrical discharge machining, additive manufacturing and laser beam machining, have recently been investigated to offer efficient alternatives. This work provides a comprehensive overview of the current technological trends and main perspectives on electro, chemical and physical shaping of engineering ceramics with a focus on experimental works. The literature data trace back to the 80s.
As hardness of the work-surface working in the train axle has a direct relationship to train axle's life-time, a surface strengthening technology is necessary to strengthen the hardness of the work-surface. In this study, ultrasonic surface strengthening (USS) method was proposed, and its fundamental characteristics were investigated experimentally. Concretely, the influence of many principal parameters, namely workpiece rotational speed n, feed rate f and extrusion amonut P of the tool, on the train axle with material 30CrMoA were investigated. The experiment results show that (1) surface roughness decreases significantly after USS, and lowest surface roughness can be obtained under the condition of rotational speed n=610 r/min, feed rate f=0.2mm/r and extrusion amount P=130μm; (3) hardness after USS bigger than that of before USS up to 24%, under the condition of rotational speed n=610 r/min, feed rate f=0.2mm/r and extrusion amount P=180μm; (4) the residual stress value can be adjusted after USS, the value of residual stress in the work-surface can reach -950Mpa after USS and the depth of the residual compressive stress layer can reach nearly 2mm. This study confirmes that the unltrasonic strengthening technology is a highly effective processing method for improving the surface quality of train axle.
Longitudinal-bending complex vibration can be realized by opening chute on the amplitude amplifier pole. Different longitudinal and bending amplitudes can be obtained under different angles and the number of the chutes. Based on the theory of two-dimensional ultrasonic cutting, the effects of the two dimensional amplitude on the cutting characteristics were analyzed experimentally in the paper. Research results show that the amplitudes of longitudinal and bending vibration have a great effect on cutting force and machining quality in two-dimensional ultrasonic vibration cutting of hard and brittle materials. When keeping constant longitudinal amplitude and increasing bending amplitude in a certain extent, the cutting force could be reduced and the machining quality of workpiece could be improved effectively. The research provides relevant basis for designing two-dimensional longitudinal bending vibration cutting system
Core drilling with diamond tool is an efficient method for machining of holes in engineering ceramics. A comparative study on core drilling of silicon carbide and alumina engineering ceramics with mono-layer brazed diamond tool was carried out. Two surfactant (anionic type 1631 and nonionic type OP10) water solutions were used as coolant in core drilling. The effect of the coolant's type and concentration on drilling torque and drilling efficiency were also investigated. The morphologies of machined surface of ceramics and the wear of diamond grits were examined. According to the results, the anionic surfactant 1631 water solution produces a lower drilling torque and higher drilling efficiency than that of nonionic OP10. Both silicon carbide and alumina demonstrate a ductile regime of material removal under the lower maximum undeformed chip thickness (0.08 mm). The wear of brazed diamond grits for drilling of silicon carbide is much severer than that of alumina.
Nanomachining of brittle materials is required in a wide range of applications. This paper reports on the feasibility studies of vibration-assisted nano-impact machining by loose abrasives (VANILA), a novel nanomachining process for target-specific nanomachining of hard and brittle materials. A mathematical model based on Hertzian fracture mechanics theory has been developed to evaluate the feasibility of material removal in the VANILA process, where hard abrasive grains impact the brittle workpiece surface. Experimental investigations are conducted using a commercially available atomic force microscope (AFM), to validate the feasibility of the proposed process. Several nanocavities with circular shape, having depths ranging from 6 to 64 nm and diameters ranging from 78 to 276 nm, are successfully machined. Patterns of nanocavities are machined to confirm the repeatability and controllability of the process. Observation of tool tips using a scanning electron microscope (SEM) reveals that the tool wear in the VANILA process is lesser than that observed in indentation process. [DOI: 10.1115/1.4007714]
Rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) is widely used for machining virous kinds of hard-brittle materials. This article aims to study ultrasonic machining surface quality of zirconia ceramic, low-carbonsteel boltwith self-developed rotary ultrasonic machine. The surface roughness could be detected and observed by Taylor Hobson surface roughness instrument and Keyence microscope.The experimental resultsshow that the surface quality achieved by rotary ultrasonic machining is better than bytraditional mechanical machining. Rotary ultrasonic machininghas advantages for machining hard-brittle materials.
Rotary ultrasonic machining is a hybrid machining process that combines diamond grinding and ultrasonic machining. The mathematical predictive material removal rate models have been developed in rotary ultrasonic machining with a constant pressure. However, there is no report on mathematical predictive cutting force model in rotary ultrasonic drilling at a constant feedrate presently. Since cutting force can not only reflect the processing state, but also affect the machined surface quality, it is necessary to develop a mathematical model for predicting cutting force which can forecast the machining results. This paper presents a mathematical model to predict the cutting force in rotary ultrasonic machining. On the basis of this model, the relations between cutting force and controllable machining parameters are researched by numerical computation method. This paper also researches the influences of spindle speed and feedrate on cutting force by experiments. The results observed through the experiments agree well with the relations generated from the mathematical model, which verify the developed model.
The impact of cutter against the materials can be regarded as the rigid ball with certain energy oblique impact against the semi infinite space in the ultrasonic vibration cutting process. The cutter and materials three-dimensional surface stress state was theoretically deduced from building the dynamic shock model in Hertz contact state. Ultrasonic vibration cutting in the tiny cutting depth can be regarded as the contact extrusion process of blunt pressure head oblique impact on materials, the material indentation and crack development trend was given based on the surface stress analysis and test results of rigid ball oblique impact on the glass. The indentation and crack development of spherical pressure head oblique impact on the brittle materials was analyzed, material failure in the back edge with deeper crack is controlled by tensile stress, the tensile stress values depend on the friction coefficient and the normal pressure, material failure crack caused by shear stress on both sides exist on the material surface. Ultrasonic vibration can reduce normal pressure and crack to come into being. Cutting fluid lubricating can reduce the friction coefficient to control with only shallow crack produced in the cutting process.
Ultrasonic vibration-assisted machining (UVAM) is an effective and promising technology for processing hard and brittle materials, it has been explored in many experimental and theoretical investigations. In this paper, a study on the erosion performance of monocrystalline silicon with UVAM is presented and discussed. In the erosion experiments, monocrystalline silicon wafers were eroded by the abrasive water jet machine assisted with an ultrasonic vibration system. A contrast experiment was carried out firstly to study the influence of the ultrasonic vibration, and then an orthogonal experiment investigation was carried out to understand the effect of process variables (the abrasive particle diameter, jet impact angle, standoff distance, abrasive mass flow rate and ultrasonic vibration power) on the depth of erosion and material removal rate (MRR). The experimental results revealed that ultrasonic vibration-assisted abrasive water jet erosion (UVA-AWJE) can obviously improve the depth of the erosion and MRR compared with those in traditional AWJE and the variation trends of the effect of the abrasive particle diameter, jet impact angle, standoff distance and abrasive mass flow rate on the erosion performance in UVA-AWJE are very similar to those effect in the traditional AWJ machining.
This experimental research work attempted to use End milling on Machinable Glass Ceramic (MGC) using micro grain solid carbide end mill under dry conditions. The predictive Surface Roughness model has been developed in terms of Spindle speed, Feed rate and axial depth of cut by Response Surface Methodology (RSM). The influence of each milling parameter analyzed and results showed that axial depth of cut was the most dominant variable. The adequacy of the model has been verified by ANOVA.
This paper presents the prediction of a statistically analyzed model for the surface roughness,R_a of end-milled Machinable glass ceramic (MGC). Response Surface Methodology (RSM) is used to construct the models based on 3-factorial Box-Behnken Design (BBD). It is found that cutting speed is the most significant factor contributing to the surface roughness value followed by the depth of cut and feed rate. The surface roughness value decreases for higher cutting speed along with lower feed and depth of cut. Additionally, the process optimization has also been done in terms of material removal rate (MRR) to the model’s response. Ideal combinations of machining parameters are then suggested for common goal to achieve lower surface roughness value and higher MRR.
The ultrasonic vibrators are introduced into the chemical-mechanical polishing devices, and in this polishing system, the ultrasonic vibrators generate ultrasonic traveling wave and keep coaxial with the polished silicon wafer rotating at given speed so as to compare the texture of the polished silicon wafers. And the experiments on the chemical-mechanical polishing with assisted ultrasonic vibration are accomplished in order to investigate the effect of the ultrasonic vibration on the chemical-mechanical polishing. Via comparing the roughness average of the two silicon wafers polished with assisted ultrasonic vibration and without assisted vibration, it is found that the morphology of the silicon wafer polished with assisted vibration is superior to that without assisted vibration, that is, this series of experiments indicate that the ultrasonic vibration is beneficial to the chemical-mechanical polishing. Aiming at understanding the contribution of the ultrasonic vibration to chemical-mechanical polishing in detail, the model of the chemical-mechanical polishing with the assisted ultrasonic vibration is built up, which establishes the relationship of the removal rate and the polishing variables such as the rotary speed of silicon wafers, the amplitude and the frequency of vibrators, the particle density of polishing slurry and the characteristics of polishing pad etc. This model not only could be used to explain the experimental results but also to illuminate the roles played by the polishing variables.
Copyright © 2014 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Ultrasonic machining is used for machining hard and brittle materials: semiconductors, glass, quartz, ceramics, silicon, germanium, ferrites etc. Titanium and its alloys are alternative for many engineering applications due to their superior properties such as chemical inertness, high tenacity, high specific strength, excellent corrosion resistance and oxidation resistance. In the present investigation, the effect of energy input rate on the surface topography has been evaluated, under controlled experimental conditions. It has been found that the mode of material removal may change from brittle fracture to ductile failure under extremely small energy input conditions. Moreover, a mixed mode with varied proportion of brittle fracture and plastic deformation could be obtained through systematic variation of the input parameters. In comparison to an electrical energy based method such as WEDM, the titanium components processed by USM does not exhibit any appreciable surface damage in the form of recast material, heat affected zone or residual stresses.
Ultrasonic machining is one of the most extensively used non-traditional machining processes for the machining of non-conductive, brittle materials such as carbides, glasses and bio-ceramics. The present paper includes the investigation into surface roughness of machined of hexagonal holes and material removal rate during ultrasonic machining of zirconia bio-ceramics. The response surface methodology was employed for developing empirical models. Abrasive grit size, abrasive slurry concentration, power rating and tool feed rate have been considered as controlling parameters of ultrasonic machining process. Multi-objective optimisation has been carried out for minimising surface roughness of hole surface and maximising material removal rate during hexagonal profile generation by USM. However, for searching out the best optimal solution, genetic algorithm (GA) is used. Unlike traditional optimisation techniques, GA is strong and performs well in multi objective optimisation problems. Using genetic algorithm, maximum MRR of 0.2365 g/min and minimum surface roughness of 0.58 µm were obtained at the optimal parametric combination such as abrasive grit size of 57 µm, abrasive slurry concentration of 42 g/l, power rating of 492 W and tool feed rate of 0.88 mm/min.
Ultrasonic machining (USM) is a mechanical material removal process used to erode holes and cavities in hard or brittle workpieces by using shaped tools, high-frequency mechanical motion, and an abrasive slurry. The fundamental principles of stationary ultrasonic machining, the material removal mechanisms involved, proposed models for estimation of machining rate, the effect of operating parameters on material removal rate, tool wear rate, and workpiece surface finish, research work reported on rotary mode USM, hybrid USM, process capabilities of USM have been extensively reviewed in this article. The limitations of USM, gaps observed from the literature review, and the directions for future research have also been presented. Overall, this article presents a comprehensive review of USM process for advancement of the process through fundamental insights into the process.
Thrombi, e.g. blood clots, in circulatory system pose acute health risk, globally. This research investigated roles of biodegradable starch slurry in advancing biomass machining efficiency. Hard clots (fibrin-rich) prepared from rabbit blood were exposed in vitro concomitantly to ultrasound (1 MHz) and starch slurry. Starch slurry particles (diameter ∼250 nm) yielded a 200% increase in material removal (sonothrombolysis) efficiency. Mechanistic participation of starch, a non-Newtonian material, at the interface of biomass-ultrasonic radiation is discussed. Overall in subtractive biomanufacturing, the role of biodegradable slurry is critical for enhancing material removal efficiency.
Ultrasonic burnishing is a relatively new method used for finishing workpieces to produce good surface quality. Ultrasonic burnishing does not involve material removal from the surface of the workpiece. However, the method has a significant deforming effect on the material, especially close to the surface, which is why it is vital to know the effect of the method to residual stresses in the material. This study looks at the residual stresses produced in two 34CrNiMo6-M tempering steel qualities of different hardness. The magnitude of stresses is examined using the hole drilling method. The hardness and surface quality of the finished workpiece are measured. The results show that the ultrasonic burnishing not only treats material on the surface efficiently but also deforms the material deeper, producing compressive residual stresses in the workpiece. The hardness increases after finishing and surface quality improves significantly. The roundness of the workpiece is improved and dimensional changes are mino
An approach to modeling the material removal rate (MRR) during rotary ultrasonic machining (RUM) of ceramics is proposed and applied to predicting the MRR for the case of magnesia stabilized zirconia. The model, a first attempt at predicting the MRR in RUM, is based on the assumption that brittle fracture is the primary mechanism of material removal. To justify this assumption, a model parameter (which models the ratio of the fractured volume to the indented volume of a single diamond particle) is shown to be invariant for most machining conditions. The model is mechanistic in the sense that this parameter can be observed experimentally from a few experiments for a particular material and then used in prediction of MRR over a wide range of process parameters. This is demonstrated for magnesia stabilized zirconia, where very good predications are obtained using an estimate of this single parameter. On the basis of this model, relations between the material removal rate and the controlla...
Experimental investigation of the dynamic aspects of micropiercing of very hard and brittle ceramic materials by electromagnetic microwaves. It is shown that the piercing process for a wafer of sintered aluminium oxide is based on an explosive spout-out of melted material, forced by the pressure of vapour originating at the center of the dielectrically heated portion of the wafer.
This chapter covers the application of lasers to the shaping of materials. Two approaches are described: laser-assisted machining (LAM), in which the laser heats material as it is sheared by a single-point cutting tool with the objective of improving its machinability; and laser machining (LM), in which the laser heats and vaporizes material. The former is applied to metallic materials, while the latter is applied to nitrides and carbides. Current interest in these approaches is prompted by the development of high-power CO2 and Nd-YAG infrared lasers with sufficient ruggedness, reliability, and simplicity of operation for use as directed-energy heat sources in manufacturing facilities.
In ultrasonic grinding the abrasive gradually loses its effectiveness, and must be replaced after a given period of use (T). The rate of material removal (Q in mm3 /min) is related to the time of use of the abrasive charge (τ) as follows: Qτm = constant, which resembles the Taylor tool life (T) equation for a single point tool VTn = constant, where V is the cutting speed and m and n are constants. Economic analyses for the optimum abrasive use time, optimum size of abrasive change, and best choice of abrasive may be made following the technique commonly used for single point cutting tools. In these analyses the volume rate of material removal (Q) plays the same role as cutting speed (V) does in conventional machining. This paper first discusses the wear of the abrasive in ultrasonic grinding and then considers the aforementioned economic problems.
This paper presents a dynamic analysis of the ultrasonic machining process based on impact mechanics. Equations representing the dynamic contact force and stresses caused by the impinging of abrasive grits on the work, are obtained by solving the three-dimensional equations of motion. The factors affecting the material removal rate have been studies. It is found that the theoretical estimates obtained from the dynamic model are in good agreement with the experimental results.
This paper presents a critical review and evaluation of knowledge of the grinding mechanisms for ceramic materials and their influence on the finished surface and mechanical properties. Two main research approaches are identified: a machining approach and an indentation fracture mechanics approach. The machining approach has typically involved measurement of the grinding forces and specific energy coupled with microscopic observations of the surface morphology and grinding detritus. Any proposed mechanisms of abrasive-workpiece interaction must be consistent with the magnitude of the specific energy and its dependence on the grinding conditions. The indentation fracture mechanics approach assumes that the damage produced by grinding can be modeled by the idealized flow system produced by a sharp indentor. Indentation of a ceramic body is considered to involve elastic/plastic deformation with two principal crack systems propagating from the indentation site; lateral cracks which lead to material removal and radial/median cracks which cause strength degradation. Each of these approaches provides insight into grinding behavior and strength degradation, but each has its shortcomings.
A bonded-interface sectioning technique is used to examine subsurface damage modes and to identify mechanisms of material removal in repeated single-point scratching of alumina as a function of grain size, load, and number of passes. In the fine grain alumina, the lateral and median crack system is observed, together with intergranular microcracks and intragrain twin/slip bands distributed within the plastic zone. The distributed form of damage, namely twin/slip bands and intergranular microcracks, are also observed in the coarse grain alumina; but no evidence is found for well-defined median and lateral cracks in this material. The mechanism of material removal in alumina is identified as grain dislodgement resulting from grain boundary microcracking, irrespective of the grain size. Extension of lateral cracks is found to contribute to the material removal process only in the fine grain alumina scratched under a large load and after several passes. A model for the microfracture-controlled material removal process is proposed that relates the volume of material removed to the applied load and material properties including grain size, elastic modulus, hardness, and short-crack toughness. Removal rate is shown to be proportional to grain sizeI
1/2 and to loadP
2. The model and the experimental results obtained in scratching are used to describe the action of an individual abrasive grit in grinding and other abrasive machining processes.
We have found that nanometer diameter holes and slots can be cut in thin sheets of amorphous alumina using an intense electron beam. The holes, formed by a nonthermal process, are uniform in diameter, are surrounded by metallic aluminum, and can penetrate a 100‐nm sheet in a few seconds. The amorphous alumina sheets are formed by anodization of electropolished high purity aluminum. The electron beam cutting seems very similar to the process reported in the metal β‐aluminas. Since uniform, stable, and easily handled sheets of amorphous alumina can be fabricated and electron beam cut, this process is now practical for nanolithography as well as many other applications.
AbstractAs a thermal machining process, Electro-Discharge Machining (EDM) provides a means of machining ceramic materials, irrespective of their hardness and strength, provided that their electrical conductivity values are of the order of 0.01 S/cm (100 Ω*cm), as is sometimes the case with engineering ceramics.EDM achieves high removal rates as compared with traditional techniques for the machining of these materials. The lack of correlation between the cutting rate, the surface roughness and the physical material parameters confirms that the removal mechanisms for machining conductive ceramics differ from those involved in metal machining. In order to ensure process stability, the grain structure evinced by the ceramic must be as fine and homogeneous as possible. The complex workpiece geometries and high accuracy to shape and size attainable with electro-discharge machining particularly favour its use in toolmaking.
When bombarded with 1 MeV N+ ions, the surface of anodically grown alumina films is smoothened. This polishing effect was studied as a function of the ion bombardment fluence and of the substrate temperature in the range 80–650 K. The techniques used to characterize the surface roughness were Rutherford backscattering spectrometry, scanning electron microscopy and small-angle X-ray diffusion. It is suggested that atomic and/or electronic sputtering is responsible for the smoothing effect which was observed.
Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook
- T J Drozda
- C Wick
Drozda TJ, Wick C. Tool and Manufacturing Engineers Handbook, Fourth edition, vol.
In: Handbook of High Speed Machining Technology
- Sm Copley
- Laser
Copley SM. Laser applications. In: Handbook of High Speed Machining Technology. New York, NY: Chapman and Hall, 1985. pp. 1771–5.
Ultrasonic Machining of Intractable Materials. London: Iliffe Books Ltd. 1966. Fig. 10. Effect of the impact velocity on surface area
- Ai Markov
Markov AI. Ultrasonic Machining of Intractable Materials. London: Iliffe Books Ltd. 1966. Fig. 10. Effect of the impact velocity on surface area.
Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.15 m/sec. (ϫ 350.) Fig. 7. Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.5 m/sec. (ϫ 650.) Fig. 8. Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.9 m/sec. (ϫ1200.) Fig. 9. Surface characteristics from an impact velocity of 2
- Fig
Fig. 6. Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.15 m/sec. (ϫ 350.) Fig. 7. Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.5 m/sec. (ϫ 650.) Fig. 8. Surface characteristics under an impact velocity of 1.9 m/sec. (ϫ1200.) Fig. 9. Surface characteristics from an impact velocity of 2.05 m/sec. (ϫ 750.) References
A dynamic model for material removal in ultrasonic machining
- Wang Zy Rajurkar
- Kp
Wang ZY, Rajurkar KP. A dynamic model for material removal in ultrasonic machining. ASME, AMD-Vol. 208/MD-Vol.59, Machin-ing of Advanced Materials, 1995. pp. 115–125.
A dynamic model for material removal in ultrasonic machining
- Z Y Wang
- K P Rajurkar