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What are we talking about when we talk about entrepreneurship? The Journal of Business Venturing, 5, 15-25
Abstract
The purpose of this research was to explore the underlying meanings researchers and practitioners have about entrepreneurship and to outline some themes that characterize the major issues and concerns that constitute the debate about entrepreneurship as a field of study.The process used to identify the themes that characterize entrepreneurship took the form of a policy Delphi. This Delphi was constructed as a series of three questionnaires to elicit definitions of entrepreneurship that were then analyzed and evaluated. In the first phase, a one-page questionnaire asking for a definition of entrepreneurship was sent to leading academic researchers in entrepreneurship, to business leaders and to politicians. The first questionnaire asked individuals: What is your definition of entrepreneurship? We received 44 responses (36 from academics, 8 from business leaders and none from politicians) from the 280 individuals whom we invited to participate (a 16% response rate).In phase 2, all of the entrepreneurship definitions from the first questionnaire were typed and sent back with a second questionnaire to the 44 respondents. The second questionnaire was generated through a content analysis of the entrepreneurship definitions. Ninety attributes were identified from the entrepreneurship definitions. The second questionnaire asked participants: How important is each attribute to your definition of entrepreneurship? Participants ranked the attributes from very important to unimportant. Of the 44 participants in phase 2, 41 responded to the second questionnaire (93% response rate). The responses from the second questionnaire were then evaluated and factor analyzed. The factor analysis sought to cluster the 90 attributes into a smaller set of factors (themes). The eight-factor solution was selected. The debate about what constitutes the nature of entrepreneurship can be characterized by these eight themes.The Entrepreneur. The entrepreneur theme is the idea that entrepreneurship involves individuals with unique personality characteristics and abilities. Innovation. The innovation theme is characterized as doing something new as an idea, product, service, market, or technology in a new or established organization. Organization Creation. The organization creation theme described the behaviors involved in creating organizations. Creating Value. This theme articulated the idea that entrepreneurship creates value. Profit or Nonprofit. The profit/nonprofit theme is concerned with whether entrepreneurship involves profit-making organizations only. Growth. At issue in this theme is the importance of growth as a characteristic of entrepreneurship. Uniqueness. This theme suggested that entrepreneurship must involve uniqueness. The Owner-Manager. This theme suggested that entrepreneurship involves individuals who are owners and managers of their businesses.The third phase of the Delphi asked the 41 participants to evaluate and comment on the eight factors generated in the second phase. Of the 41 participants in phase 3, 34 responded to the third questionnaire (83% response rate). Since no one agreed-upon definition of entrepreneurship appeared to emerge from the Delphi process, the researcher undertook a cluster analysis of the responses to the third questionnaire to uncover whether any similarities in viewpoints existed among the participants. The data was cluster analyzed using both hierarchical (complete linkage and single linkage) and K-means clustering techniques. Results from these analyses revealed two distinct clusters. The majority (79%) of the participants were clustered in group 1. The focus of this group seems to be on the characteristics of entrepreneurship. Group 1 looked at what happened in the situation. This group indicated that a situation was entrepreneurial if they could answer “yes” to these questions: Is there an entrepreneur involved? Is there innovation? Is there growth? Is there uniqueness? The other group, group 2, focused on the outcomes of entrepreneurship. Group 2 saw a situation as entrepreneurial only if value was created or if someone gained.
... Within this rapidly expanding field, business growth has become a major theme. Gartner (1990) showed that 'growth' was one out of eight themes that professional users commonly associated with the entrepreneurship concept. Livesay (1995) chose 'Entrepreneurship and Growth' as the title for his two-volume collection of essential readings in the field. ...
... We have mentioned already that Gartner (1990) showed that growth was one out of eight themes that professional users commonly associated with the entrepreneurship concept. However, his study also made clear that not all would agree on that issue. ...
... The main problem with Gartner's (1988) approach is why the area of interest he delineates should be called 'entrepreneurship' rather than 'organization creation'. While pointing out an important and clearly defined arena for research, Gartner's (1988) definition in fact disregards most of the themes that users of the concept associate with entrepreneurship (Gartner 1990). There is no explicit consideration of innovation or new combinations (Schumpeter 1934, p. 66) and his approach disregards the possibility of alternative modes of exploitation for given opportunities (Shane & Venkataraman 2000, Van de Ven, Angle & Poole 1989. ...
... Entrepreneurship can be seen as a subset of industrial organization, as new firms often enter industries and disrupt the status quo. Entrepreneurial firms may use innovative business models, technologies, or marketing strategies to gain a foothold in the market and challenge established firms (Gartner, 1990). ...
... It is found that the concept of entry has a pivotal part in understanding the dynamics of industrial organization. Entrepreneurial entry into markets is a fundamental mechanism that restores equilibrium by mitigating the concentration of power among established players (Gartner, 1990). A vibrant ecosystem of entrepreneurs engaging in market entry contributes to competition, fosters innovation, and disrupts established industrial structures (Baumol, 1993). ...
Industrial organization and entrepreneurship can be closely associated subjects, as both require an understanding of the structure and behavior of firms within an industry. This paper aims to review the literature connecting industrial organization and entrepreneurship to develop a better understanding and propose a research agenda. It provides insights into the emergence, development, and conceptual synthesis of industrial organization and entrepreneurship-related issues for future research. The findings reveal that entrepreneurship can be correlated with industrial organization primarily through entry, innovation, and competition. This connection seeks to understand how new firms emerge and grow within existing industries and how incumbents can adapt and compete with new entrants. Entrepreneurship also plays a crucial role in facilitating market entry which can also foster increased innovation and competition. The recognition that entrepreneurship can stimulate entry, innovation, and competition underscores its critical role in shaping market dynamics. This highlights the need for interdisciplinary research, where scholars and policymakers can collaborate to gain a more holistic understanding of market dynamics and promote economic growth.
... This study classified ISE into intellectual and physical ISE. Between these two types, intellectually ISE people tend to have higher job earnings and stability; further, they are more entrepreneurial in terms of creativity, risk-taking, and innovation (Gartner, 1990;Hendry, 2004) and they have a stronger need for autonomy. In contrast, physically ISE people often work in China's informal labor economy, which means they are at the margins of the labor market and social security system. ...
... For example, writers, painters, photographers, lawyers, and other professionals have defined or potential barriers to entry. Second, intellectual ISE requires high levels of professionalism and innovation (Gartner, 1990;Hendry, 2004). Intellectual ISE includes occupations requiring high degrees of creativity and innovativeness. ...
Independent self-employment (ISE) has a crucial impact on new job creation as well as sustainable and inclusive growth. However, the findings on depression status among self-employed individuals are mixed owing to the lack of targeted classifications or the use of different classification criteria. This study investigated the association between depression and ISE, and conducted a categorical comparison of ISE. Using logit models, the study employed data from the 2018 China Labor-force Dynamics Survey (CLDS) (N = 10,758) to explore differences in depression status between individuals with ISE and those with non-ISE individuals and employees. Further, intellectual and physical ISE were distinguished. This study tested the mediating roles of job freedom and income. ISE individuals were significantly less likely to experience depression than non-ISE individuals and employees. The odds ratio (OR) of ISE with depression was 0.828 times that of non-ISE individuals and employees. The OR of intellectual ISE with depression was 0.717 times that of non-ISE individuals and employees. The regression results of depression in relation to physical ISE were not significant. A mechanism analysis showed that income (rather than work freedom) reduced the risk of depression among intellectually ISE individuals. Significantly different risk levels of depression were found between ISE individuals, and non-ISE individuals and employees in China, particularly between intellectually ISE individuals, and non-ISE individuals and employees. Moreover, the mediating role of income was identified, contradicting prior knowledge that a high degree of work freedom is what leads to high happiness and job satisfaction in self-employment.
... Similarly, entrepreneurship has been recognized as a catalyst for enhancing the quality of human social life (Keat et al., 2011);however, Neck Greene (2011) has discussed entrepreneurship as a tool to generate novel ideas in unsettling circumstances. The term "entrepreneurs" is also used to describe people who grow and expand their businesses (Kyro, 2001;Gartner, 1990); social-economic movements of people (Pastakia, 1998;Mair & Marti, 2006). Moreover, individuals imitate others to stay competitive (Wiklund, 1999), and personality traits or qualities correspondingly, such as ambition, leadership, team building, personal involvement, and commitment (Keogh & Polonsky, 1998;Prahalad, 2006). ...
The evolving landscape of globalization is bringing about inevitable changes in the development of sustainable entrepreneurship. Sustainable entrepreneurship combines entrepreneurial traits with a focus on both market success and social impact. However, in today's competitive environment, it is imperative for every entrepreneur to possess specific personality traits to enhance their competitiveness. The primary objective of this research was to investigate the influence of four significant personality traits: agreeableness, openness, extraversion, and neuroticism, on the sustainable development of entrepreneurship in small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs). The study employed a positivist research philosophy, an explanatory research design, and a quantitative survey method using a convenience sampling technique. A total of 396 entrepreneurs from the registered SMEs in the Surkhet district were identified as samples. Inferential statistics, specifically structural equation modeling, were used to analyze the data. The study revealed that personality traits such as agreeableness, openness, and extraversion had a positive influence on the development of sustainable entrepreneurship. This suggests that individuals possessing interpersonal skills, innovativeness, curiosity, situational sociability, confidence, and passion played a foundational role in promoting entrepreneurial sustainability. On the other hand, the personality trait of neuroticism demonstrated an insignificant positive impact on sustainable entrepreneurial development. This implies that neurotic individuals, prone to anxiety, stress, and emotional instability, may hinder decision-making processes and disrupt the stability of sustainable entrepreneurship. Based on these findings, the study suggests that entrepreneurs should prioritize instrumental features of personality traits like agreeableness, openness, and extraversion for sustainable entrepreneurship development, while minimizing the influence of neuroticism.
... Entrepreneurs are commonly believed to possess unique personality traits and abilities (Gartner 1990). To experience the feeling of uniqueness, individuals are ready to take risks and activate their internal psychological resources towards launching their own business. ...
Plain English Summary
Narcissistic workaholics achieve high business performance, unless their families become too involved. Founders wield outsized influence over new venture creation and early development. For example, past research suggests that personality traits of the founder, like narcissism, may boost new venture performance or destroy it. However, there are no consistent results regarding the impact of narcissism on performance. To understand the mechanisms shaping the relationship between narcissism and venture performance, we investigate founder’s workaholism as a possible mediator. At the same time, familial ties and relationships play important roles in many spheres of life, and we argue that family support may be beneficial to firm founders (or not), depending on the type of support and/or personal characteristics of the founder. In our study, we analyzed responses from active business founders about themselves and their businesses. We find that narcissism increases venture performance through workaholism, while family emotional support decreases the positive effect of workaholism. Thus, the main implication of our study for both researchers and practitioners is that workaholism may be a missing link between narcissism and performance. Furthermore, family support may augment the degree to which founders’ addictive desire to work positively impacts venture performance.
This study aims to conduct a systematic literature review (SLR) of the entrepreneurial traits (ETs) to synthesize the knowledge of how it is investigated in the literature. This study pursues the PRISMA method to review selected ETs research and the work of Garrard (Health sciences literature review made easy: the matrix method, Aspen Publication, Gaithersburg, 2004) is applied to construct a SLR matrix to analyze ETs literature in peer-reviewed English publication. A total of 114 articles published in 89 journals between 1992 and 2023 are gathered and evaluated. This study provides four findings. First, the ETs research has been emerged in the previous decades and quantitative method is the dominant research approach. Second, the most-well known set of traits, theories, and measurements of ETs are presented. Third, this study develops a nomological network of ETs which reflects what have been investigated. Finally, this study offers research guidelines which strengthen future research in the field of ETs. These research findings give implications for both theory and practice. In theoretical context, this study provides comprehensive viewpoint of ETs research and creates novel insights for further research, enhancing the extant theories in ETs literature, especially the trait approach to entrepreneurship and the resource-based view theory. In practice, this study facilitates the perceptions of the potential entrepreneurs, entrepreneurs, experts, and other stakeholders of the organizations regarding developing an appropriate set of traits for successful entrepreneurs, and the ways to use and improve them probably. However, the research database only consists of English articles.
This research tests the postulates of the theory of guided preparation in a sample of micro, small and medium-sized enterprises operating in a business development center in Linares, Chile. These centers are non-profit organizations administered by the Chilean Ministry of Economy’s technical cooperation service (SERCOTEC). This study explores the relationship between the services provided by business development centers and the effect perceived by entrepreneurs on the overall development of their businesses. It uses a sample of 343 companies registered in the Neoserra software database between 2018 and 2021. Using structural equation modeling, the data show how these companies are affected by the provided services. Implications are drawn for theory, policy and practice.
The contributions and shortcomings of past entrepreneurship research can be viewed within the context of six research design specifications: purpose, theoretical perspective, focus, level of analysis, time frame and methodology. The authors suggest a unifying definition of the field of entrepreneurship. The recent trend toward theory driven research that is contextual and process oriented is encouraging. It is time for entrepreneurship researchers to pursue causality more aggressively. Exploratory studies that are not theory driven should be discouraged unless the topic is highly original. Implications for practicing entrepreneurs are discussed.
Cluster analysis is a collective term covering a wide variety of techniques for delineating natural groups or clusters in data sets. This book integrates the necessary elements of data analysis, cluster analysis, and computer implementation to cover the complete sequence of steps from raw data to the finished analysis. The author develops a conceptual and philosophical basis for using cluster analysis as a tool of discovery and applies it systematically throughout the book. He provides a comprehensive discussion of variables, scales, and measures of association that establishes a sound basis for constructing an operational definition of similarity tailored to the needs of any particular operational definition of similarity tailored to the needs of any particular problem, and devotes special attention to the problems of analyzing data sets containing mixtures of nominal, ordinal, and interval variables. (Author)
This chapter surveys the psychological literature on entrepreneurs, published prior to 1982, including research on their personal characteristics and previous personal and business experiences. There is no well-defined population of entrepreneurs (due to lack of consensus on definition), so comparisons and generalizations are dangerous; however, there is some consistency in psychological characteristics. Three categories of research are discussed. (1) Psychological characteristics. A causal link between high need for achievement and small business ownership is not found; an internal locus-of-control belief does not distinguish entrepreneurs, but may identify successful ones; propensity for risk-taking may not be related to either entrepreneurship decision or success; personal values (need for achievement, independence, and effective leadership) may effectively distinguish successful entrepreneurs from the general population. (2) Effects of previous experience. Dissatisfaction with previous jobs (except pay) characterizes entrepreneurs; an unemployed person is more likely to start a business; and a large percentage of entrepreneurs had role models who were entrepreneurs. (3) Personal characteristics associated with entrepreneurs. Entrepreneurial decisions are most likely made between ages 25 and 40; entrepreneurs are better educated than the general population; and entrepreneurs are likely to remain in their home area. The research is synthesized into a tentative model of the entrepreneur. Future research subjects and methods are proposed. (TNM)
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